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Chapter 1-Identification of Different Types of Wear ....................... 1 Introduction .......................................................... 1 Terminology/Key Words ........................................ 1 Terms from ASTM G 40: Terminology Relating to Wear and Erosion .......... 1 Terms from ASTM D 4175: Standard Terminology Relating to Petroleum, Petroleum Products, and Lubricants ................................... 2 Terms from Other Sources ............................................ 3 Why Identify Wear Mode ............................................... 3 Categories of Wear .................................................... 4 Abrasive Wear ...................................................... 4 Nonabrasive Wear .................................................. 5 Galling .......................................................... 6 Oxidative W ear ................................................... 6 Fretting W ear .................................................... 6 Rolling Wear .............................................. 7 Impact Wear ..................................................... 7 Other Forms of Wear ............................................... 8 Machining Wear ............................................... 8 Human Joint Deterioration ........................................ 8 Erosion ........................................................ 9 Slurry .......................................... 9 Solid Particle ................................................... 9 Cavitation ........................................ 10 Droplet .................. ...... .......... ................ ...... 10 Impingement ................ ............................... 10 Gas ................ ............................................ 10 Atom ic/M olecular .............................. .................... 11 Spark ........................................................ 11 Laser A blation ............................. .. ...................... 11 Types of Friction ........................ ........................ 12 Sliding ........................................ 12 Rolling ........................................ .............. .. 12 Solids Contacted by a Fluid ........................................... 12 Static Friction/Blocking ......................................... 12 Types of Lubrication .................................................. 13 Solid Film .................. ....................................... 13 Thin Film ........................................................ ..13 Liq u id .................. .......................................... 13 Gas ............................................................... 14 G rease ............ .................................... ............ 14 Chapter Summary ........................................ 14 Important Concepts ................... ................................. 15 Resources for More Information .......................................... 15 Chapter 2-Alternatives to Testing: Modeling and Simulation ................ 16 Introduction ................ ............................. ........... 16 Expert Systems ................... ..................................... 16 Com puter Sim ulations ............................. ... ................ 17 Finite Element Modeling ............................................... 17 Friction Models .................................... .................... 18 W ear M odels ........................................................ 19 Adhesive W ear ..................................................... 19 Erosion Models .................. .................. ................ 19 Solid Particle Erosion ............................................. 19 Slurry Erosion ................................................... 20 Liquid Erosion ................................................... 20 Cavitation .......................... .. .......................... 21 Fretting M odels ...................................................... 21 Surface Fatigue Models .............................................. 22 What to Do About Modeling: Summary .................................. 22 Important Concepts ................................................ 22 Resources for More Information ........................ .................. 22 Chapter 3-Methodology/Test Selection ................................. 24 General Methodology ............................................... 24 Establish the Purpose ............................................ 24 Establish the Objective ........................................... 24 Define the Wear System ..................... ..................... 24 Reporting the Data ................. ... ...................... 25 Elements of a Valid Wear Test ....................................... 26 Material Documentation ......................................... 26 Statistical Significance ............... ............................. 26 Surface Condition .................................................. 27 Role of Time and Distance ........................................ 28 Test Environment ............................................... 28 Wear and Friction Measurements ...................................... 28 Reporting Wear Losses ................... ........................ 29 Test Selection .............. ....... .............................. 30 Procedure.................... ............. 30 Simulation ................. ..................................... 30 Test Protocol .................................................... 30 Chapter Summary .................. .............................. 30 Important Concepts ............................................... 31 Resources for More Information ....................................... 32 Chapter 4--Abrasive Wear Testing ....................................... 33 Introduction ................. ................................... 33 Gouging Abrasion ................... .............................. 33 Low-Stress Abrasion ................ ...... ..... ..... .............. 33 ASTM G 65 ............... ...... ............................... 33 ASTM G 174 ................... .................................... 35 ASTM G 132 ......................... ......................... 36 ASTM G 171 .................................................. 36 ASTM D 1242 ........................................... 37 ASTM D 4060(Taber) ................. .............. ............... 37 Nonstandard Tests ........................................ 38 Summary ......................... ......................... ......... 39 High-Stress Abrasion ................ ............................. . 39 Polishing ................ ............... ........................ 40 Product Abrasivity ........................................... 41 Standard Tests ....................... . . .... ..... .................. 41 Magnetic Media ....................... . .. .................... 41 Photographic Paper/Film, Plastics, Paints ............................. 42 Ball Cratering Test .................................................... 42 Chapter Summary ..................... ...... ........................... 43 Important Concepts ..................................... .............. 43 Resources for More Information ......................................... 43 Chapter 5-Adhesive Wear Testing ....................................... 45 Introduction ............................... .............. 45 Galling: ASTM G 98 ................ ............................... 45 Pin-on-Disk: ASTM G 99 ................................................ 45 Reciprocating Ball-on-Plane: ASTM G 133 ............................... 46 Block-on-Ring: ASTM G 77 .............................................. 47 Scuffing/Scoring ........................................ ............... 48 Oxidative Wear .............................................. 49 I II Ii ,. 0 Chapter Summary .................................................... 50 Important Concepts ................................................... 50 Resources for More Information ......................................... 50 Chapter 6-Plastic/Elastomer Wear ....................................... 51 Introduction ........................................ 51 Abrasion Tests ....................................................... 53 Taber Abraser ......................................... . .......... . 53 Falling Sand ...................................................... 53 Dry-Sand Rubber Wheel: ASTM G 65 ................................... 53 Loop Abrasion Test: ASTM G 174 .................................... 54 Scratch Test: ASTM G 171 ........................................... 55 Rubber Abrasion ................................................... 55 Sliding Wear of Plastics/Elastomers .................................... 56 Plastic-to-Metal ...... ......... ......... ........... 56 Pin-on-Rotating Disk .............. ......... ............ . 57 Plastic-to-Plastic ........................................ 57 Plastic-to-Ceramic/Cermet ........................................ 58 Break-In ........................................ 58 Specific W ear Rate ..................................................... 58 PV Lim it .............................................................. 58 Erosion of Plastics .................................................... 59 ASTM Tests ........................................................ 59 Nonstandard Tests .................................................. 60 Chapter Summary .................................................... 60 Important Concepts ................................................... 60 Resources for More Information .......................................... 60 Chapter 7-Lubricated Wear Tests ....................................... 62 Introduction ........................................ 62 Types of Lubricants That Can Be Encountered .............................. 62 Lubricating Oils .................................................... 62 Lubricating Greases ................................................. 63 Solid Film Lubricants ................................................. 63 ASTM Lubricated Wear Tests ............................................ 66 Block-on-Ring: ASTM G 77 .......................................... 66 Reciprocating Test: ASTM G 133 ...................................... 66 Pin-on-Disk: ASTM G 99 ............................................. 67 Four-Ball Test: ASTM D 4172 ......................................... 67 Friction and Wear of Greases with the SRV Tester: ASTM D 5707 ............ 67 BOCLE: Ball-on-Cylinder: ASTM D 5001 ................................ 67 Load-Carrying Capability Tests ........................................... 68 Pin and Vee Block: ASTM D 2670 ...................................... 68 ASTM D 5183 Four-Ball Friction Test .............................. 68 ASTM D 2981 Block-on-Ring Test for Solid Lubricants ...................... 68 A Lubricated Fretting Test ............................................. 68 Testing Gears with the FZG Rig ............... ................ ....... . 69 Rolling Element Tests ................... .............. . 69 Chapter Summary .......................... .......................... 70 Important Concepts ................................................... 70 Resources for More Information ..................................... 70 Chapter 8--Fretting Tests .............................................. 71 Introduction .................................................. 71 Mechanisms of Fretting Corrosion and Wear .......................... . 71 Fretting Tests .................................................... 72 Ball-on-Plane ................... .......................... ..... 73 Standard Tests: Fretting Fatigue ................................ 74 Electrical Contact Tests .............................................. 74 Hip Implant Couples ................................................ 75 Grease ........................................ 76 Chapter Summary .................................................... 76 Important Concepts .................................................. 76 Resources for More Information ....................................... 76 Chapter 9--Rolling Wear, Impact Wear, and Surface Fatigue Testing .......... 78 Introduction .......................... ............................. 78 Surface Fatigue of Coatings and Surface Treatments ....................... 78 Surface Fatigue in Rolling Element Bearings ........................ ..... 79 Surface Fatigue of Rails, Tracks, and Wheels ......... .................. ... 81 Surface Fatigue of Gears .............................................. 81 Impact Wear and Surface Fatigue ....................................... 82 Rolling Element Wear Tests .......................................... 83 Gear Fatigue Tests ................................................... 84 Rolling Surface Fatigue Tests .......................................... 84 Impact Wear Tests ............................................... 85 Chapter Summary ........................................ 85 Important Concepts .................................................. 85 Resources for More Information ........................................ 85 Chapter 10-Erosion Testing .......................................... 86 Introduction ........................................ 86 Solid Particle Erosion Tests ............................................ 86 Falling Sand Test . .............................................. 86 Gas Jet Erosion Test . ............................................ 86 Slurry Erosion Tests ........................................ 87 Wet-Sand/Rubber Wheel and the Carbide Abrasion Test .................. 88 Propeller Tests .................................................... 89 Ball Cratering Test ........................................ 89 Slurry Pot ........................................ 89 Orifice Enlargement ............................................... 90 Erosion/Corrosion .................................................... 90 Droplet/Impingement Erosion .......................................... 90 Cavitation ................................... ....................... 91 Cavitation Testing with an Ultrasonic Horn ............................. 91 Submerged Water Jet Cavitation Test ......... .............. 92 Chapter Summary ........................................ 93 Important Concepts .................................................. 93 Resources for More Information ........................................ 93 Chapter 11-Types of Friction and Friction Testing ......................... 95 Origin of Friction .............. ......... .............................. 95 Importance of Friction ................................................ 96 Types of Friction and Important Facts ................................. 96 Friction Databases .................................................... 98 Factors That Affect Friction ............................................. 98 Sliding Friction Tests ........................................ 100 Friction Measurement and Recording Protocol ............................. 102 Reporting Friction Data ............................................... 103 Solid-on-Solid Friction Tests ............................................. 104 Footwear Tests .................................. ................... 104 Frictionometer .................................................... 104 Pavement/Tire Tests ................................... ... ......... 104 ASTM G 143: Capstan Friction .............. ..... ............... ..... 104 Solid-on-Solid Plus Third Body Tests ...................................... 105 Thrust Washer Test ................................................. 105 Block-on-Ring Test ................................................. 106 Pin-on-Disk ................. ..................................... 106 Reciprocating Block-on-Plane ....................................... 107 Rolling Friction ....................................................... 107 Bearing Friction Tester ............................................. 107 Spin-Down Friction Testing .............. ....................... 108 Friction of Ball Bearings at Low Temperature ........................... 108 Ball Bearing Friction at Room Temperature ............................. 108 Solid-on-Solid Plus a Fluid/Lube Friction .................. ................ 109 ASTM D 5183: Four-Ball Friction Test .................................. 109 ASTM D 3233: Falex Pin-and-Vee Block Test ............................ 109 ASTM D 6425: Reciprocating Lubricated Friction and Wear (SRV Machine) ... 109 ASTM G 133: Procedure B Reciprocating Ball-on-Plane and Lube Test ....... 110 Chapter Summary ........................ ....... .............. 110 Important Concepts ................................................... 110 Resources for More Information ..................................... 110 Chapter 12-Micro-, Nano-, and Biotribotests ............................. 112 Introduction .................... .................... 112 Surface Analysis Tools ................................................ 112 Optical Microscopy ................. ........................... 113 Profilometry ........................................... 113 Indentation Testing .................................................. 115 Scanning Electron Microscopy ....................................... 115 Scanning Probe Microscopy ........................................... 116 Scratch Testing .................... ................. ............... 117 Biotribology Tests ..................................................... 118 Chapter Summary ................... .......... ............... 118 Important Concepts ................................................... 118 Resources for More Information ......................................... 119 Chapter 13-Test Confidence and Correlation with Service .................. 120 Introduction ............................. ...................... 120 Test Confidence ..................................................... 120 Test Selection .............. . ................... ................ 120 Correlation Case Histories ......................................... 122 Friction .............................. ........................ 123 Abrasion ................................................... 123 Nonabrasive W ear ................................................. 124 Wear of Plastics ........................................... 124 Slurry Abrasivity ................................. .................. 124 Fretting Corrosion ............................................... 125 Polishing Wear ................................................ 126 Solid Particle Erosion .......................................... 126 Lubricated W ear Testing ................... ........................ 127 Erosion/Corrosion .................................................. 128 Chapter Summary ............................. ................. 128 Important Concepts ............. .................................... 128 Resources for More Information ..................................... 129