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Mike Skaug and
Nicole
Marshall Team Research
Project Food/Cooking I. Native
Everyone has to eat. Today
our nearest meal may be as close as the
refrigerator or a nearby restaurant. In
a few minutes a tasty meal with ingredients from around the world can
be
enjoyed. More than two centuries ago at
the time of the Anza colonization expedition, getting one’s food was an
arduous
task that could be dangerous and yield little more than a bland repast. Before
the Europeans arrived, hunting
and gathering sites, trails and villages, burial grounds, work sites,
and
sacred areas. As proto-agriculturalists,
they were the first environmental manager. Native
people used burning to shape the landscape and they
were also
familiar with other, more standard horticultural practices which
included
weeding, pruning, irrigating, sowing, selective harvesting, and tilling
(Hardwick,
2003:109). Prior
to the arrival of
the Spanish in
A central part of all native Californian diets was plants. Most of the Californian environment supported
a diverse population of edible plants. The
acorn was paramount among the edible plant foods. It
has been estimated that between 25% and
45% of the vegetable diet for native Californians consisted of acorns
(Bean and
Shipek 1978: 552). The acorns would have
been ground and then leached with water in order to remove the
unhealthy tanic
acid from the meat of the acorn. The
ground acorns would either have been leached in an open-work twinned
basket or
in a depression formed in the sand. Water
poured over the ground acorns would soak through out
of the basket
or into the sand (Sparkman 1908: 194). Acorns
were desired to such an extent that pine trees were
sometimes
felled in order to capture the acorns stored in the bark by woodpeckers
(Sparkman 1908: 194). Also important in
the native diet were various plant seeds, such as grasses, manzanita,
sunflower, sage, chia, wild rose and pine nuts. These
seeds were collected, ground into a meal and then
cooked in various
combinations into a mush (Bean and Shipek 1978: 552).
Greens were also collected and eaten either
raw or cooked. Thistle, lamb’s quarters,
miner’s lettuce and white sage were several of the eaten greens. Bulbs, roots and fruit were also eaten,
though probably to a lesser extent. Thimbleberries,
wild grape, elderberry, wild strawberry
and yucca buds
are example of the fruits eaten and when bulbs were dug in the spring
and summer,
they were eaten fresh (Bean and Shipek 1978: 552).
The second major component of the native diet was hunted
animal food. Again, the types and
quantity of hunted animals eaten depended on the local environment of
the
people. For example, native groups
living along the Pacific coast were sustained in large part by the
species
living in the sea. They hunted sea
mammals, fish, crustaceans and mollusks, namely the abalone. Inland native groups hunted animals such as
deer, rabbit, jackrabbit, woodrat, mice, ground squirrel, antelope,
quail,
ducks and other birds. Despite the
numerous hunted animals, the flesh of predators was not eaten (Bean and
Shipek
1978: 552). Philip Sparkman notes the
different approach to hunting large predators, such as bears, “They
were
occasionally killed, but their flesh was never eaten. …A stone was
erected
whenever a bear or mountain lion was killed” (Sparkman 1908: 199). (NPS
Editor’s
note – Spanish explorer Vizcaino writes in a letter dated May 23, 1603,
to the King of Spain, of California
Indians eating bear
flesh. Other modern day anthropologists also cite examples of bears
being
consumed). Various tools were employed in the hunt.
The bow was common, often being shoulder
height and firing a fire-hardened arrow, tipped with a stone point. The stone points were fashioned from
obsidian, which was obtained in the north and east and traded for in
other
parts of
Food preparation was often simple by European
standards. Basic utensils were available
and they were usually made with local materials, although trade often
provided
some special materials. Different foods
required different preparation and utensils. After
acorns were collected, they were cracked on a
slightly concave
stone with a hand stone called a metate (Bean and Shipek 1978:
553). Only a few groups in southern The
Spanish arrival in II. Enter the Spanish
In 1769 ships brought food supplies
from initial
settlement in
Life in a California Presidio was
fairly basic. Similar to today, chores
were the initial thing to get done. The
first assignment of the day for older children was to fetch water from
a close
stream or family well. To catch the
water they often used a ceramic jar or bucket. At
some point latter, buckets started to be made out of
leather or
wood. These lighter materials made
carrying the water much easier. Another
important chore of the day was gathering wood. Wood
had to be brought to the kitchens for cooking.
Food was usually prepared by women,
or wives, at the Presidios’ and was eaten at home.
They used a variety of techniques such as smoking,
baking, frying, roasting, steaming, boiling, and stewing.
Food preparation took a comparatively long
time. Even the simple task of baking
today, took hours at the Presidios’. They
commonly used the European techniques of drying food.
Pork was a problem because it couldn’t be
dried, so they marinated it with adobo (Williams,
2000, 4[1,1]: 6). They often drank goats
milk, and cows milk was skimmed as cream, or churned into butter or
sour cream. They would also make cottage cheese.
(Campa,
1979:277-281) Corn kernels, a common
food, were crushed to make dough or boiled in lime water to soften them
and
then patted out by hand and cooked on a “comal” to make tortillas. Single soldiers came together in groups to
prepare their own meals, and a few unmarried noblemen who could afford
it, hired
skilled cooks. Men usually ate first off
table clothes on tables, sitting on wooden benches or stools. Their wives and children ate after they were
finished. They normally followed the Moorish custom and ate on mats,
blankets,
or straight off the floor. (Williams, 2000,4[1,1]: 9)
In the middle of 18th
century, most Spaniards used fingers for eating. For
soup they would use bread to soak up the
liquid (Williams, 2000,4[1,1]: 6). Most
liquid food or drink was served in ceramic bowls, not cups. However, for those who could afford it,
drinks were sometimes served in glass tumblers. Wooden
and gourd containers were also used when ceramics
were
unavailable. Eventually, food started to be served in earthenware,
tin-glazed maiolica from Peubla. (Williams,
2000,4[1,1]: 8-9)
For breakfast, the Spaniards mostly
drank liquid nourishment, like soup. A common breakfast was atole
“a thick, gruel-like, drinks made
from boiled corn and sugar that was sometimes flavored with cinnamon,
chocolate,
and vanilla”. Another liquid dish was pinole
(ground, seasoned corn) and warm milk. Pozole, a second alternative, made of
meat, corn, and vegtables was prepared by boiling. For those that could afford it, hot chocolate
was made with water or milk, which originated in
In
There were no formal markets, but
goods were exchanged frequently between households, and between Indians
and
settlers. Much of this trade took place
on Sundays. After 1790, more and more
Native Americans started supplying labor in exchange for consumer goods. With the increase of indigenous people
working with the trades, they soon became a common feature of the
presidios’. (Williams,
2000,4[1,2]: 12-13)
For the Elite, breakfast was more
formal, especially since the18th century developed an
increasing
focus on etiquette. Chocolate was served
in bed in the morning. Each meal was set
with plates, cups, knives, etc. All
dishes were brought to the table and displayed simultaneously. Any item in a common container had to be
transferred to the individual’s plate before being consumed. The table was cleared by servants and
everything was cleaned out of sight of the diners. Wine
bottles were kept cold by being placed in
large ceramic or metal bowls, filled with water. They
used single pattern dining equipment, in
comparison to the mix-matched sets used previously, and elaborate
silverware
that were made of bone or ivory. They
viewed eating with fingers as a sign of lack of refinement. They ate more elaborate meat dishes, usually
made from dried meat, and used many more seasoning such as onion,
chiles, and
tomatoes. (Williams, 2000,4[1,1]: 9)
During Lent, work did not change
dramatically, but breakfast was eaten at
While life at the Presidios’ was
usually good, they also had their share of illegal activity. Smuggling played a significant role in the
Native American’s economy during the early 19th century. One of the first products involved was mezcal. This drink was an
old tradition among the rural gentry of
The butchering of the animals always
took place at a specific butchering site, usually called a mantanza
(Williams, 2000,4[1,1]: 17). The animals
were normally slaughtered in the
morning, not mid-afternoon, to keep them from spoiling quicker due to
the
sun. The family was usually responsible
for doing more of the work themselves. Large
animals were slaughtered with sledge hammers or
heavy mallets and
smaller animals had their throats cut. All
the animals had to be gutted and hung to dry. The
parts of the body that didn’t have meat
were thrown away at the butchering site. Next,
the remaining part of the carcass was taken to the
residential
area for additional cutting. Little of
the animal was ever wasted. Most of the meat was cut into strips,
salted, and
dried for keeping. (Williams, 2000,4[1,3]: Appendix)
In 1776, Fr. Pedro Font with the
Anza Expedition planted crops such as lettuce, artichokes, and other
vegetables
from
In September 1786, two ships under
the command of Jean Francois de La Perouse by king Louis XVI went to
explore
the lands, investigate trade options, and report the on the advances of
other
European powers. Gardener, Mr.
Collingnon was sent to collect plants and introduce other useful plants. He gave the natives some Chilean potatoes and
enriched the gardens with different grains that had been transported
from
In 1792-1793 Captain George Vancover
visited the Mission San Buenavenura and saw many fruit trees full of
peaches,
oranges, and grapes, etc. He was
surprised to see that the crops looked as good as those in the home
lands. Unfortunately,
very little remains
today from the orchards,
gardens, and vineyards of the missions. Original
horticultural planting around the missions are
now on the
endangered list and have become “living artifacts”. (Hardwick, 2003:112) Following the arrival of the Spanish in Foods imported
to Food Vegetables:
corn,
beans, chick peas, lentils, rice, peanuts, and onions Spices:
chile,
cloves, sugar cones, sugar, cinnamon, pepper, saffron, nutmeg, cumin,
oregano, lavender,
sesame, garlic, salt, and dried mustard Meat/Animal
Products:
chicken, grease, lard, meat, fish, shrimp, ham, oyster
Other
Food
Prodcuts:
biscuits, mescal, wheat flour, chocolate, candy, wine, brandy, olive
oil, nuts,
almonds, pinole, fruit juices, dried fruits (raisons, dates, figs),
chewing gum,
pasta, cheese, vinegar, cider, syrup, coffee, dried fruit, roasted seeds Kitchen
Equipment Grinding Tools: Mullers, hand mills Preparation/Serving Tools: Ladles, spoons, table clothes, forks, chocolate stirrers, sausage stuffer Pottery: Bowls and pans, skillets, pots, jars, cups, plates, bowls, large jars, griddle, soup plate, sups, pitchers, kettle Cutting Tools: Knives, table knives Other: Sieves, gourd cups, cruet, rack, cup, flask, glassware, bottle Acknowledgments
The research
presented here
was conducted as part of
college-level course at
Resources Brown, Thomas. 1988 Gardens of the Campa, Arthur L. 1973 Hispanic Culture in the
Southwest. Hardwick, Michael R. Hendry, W. George and Margaret P. Kelly
1992 An Approach to Southwestern Agricultural
History through Adobe Brick Analysis. In Spanish Borderlands Sourcebooks. Vol.15 Edited by Leo R. Barker and Julia Costello, pp41-48. Garland Publishing Inc.,
Bean, Lowell John
and
1978 Handbook
of North American Indians, Vol. 8 Lucien, Carr. 1895 The Food of Certain American Indians and Their Methods of Preparing it. Charles Hamilton Printer, Worcester. Katzew, Ilona. 1996 New World Orders: Casta
Painting and Colonial Larios, Rodolfo
1999 The
Food and Wine of Monroy, Douglas. 1990 Thrown among Strangers: The
Making of Mexican Culture in Frontier Packman, Ana Bégué de. 1938 Early Sparkman, Philip Stedman
1908 The
Culture of the Luiseño Indians. in American Archaeology and Ethnology. Vol.8, No.4, pp 187-234 Ballena Press, Ramona. Tac, Pablo 1835 Las Misiones Españolas en Los Estados Unidos. Translated by Jose de Onis
Webb, Edith Buckland. 1952 Indian Life at the old Missions. Wayside Press, Las Angeles. Williams, Jack S. 2000 Los Presidos: Guardians of
Alta California’s |