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SECTION I-SPECIFIC INFORMATION .....................................1 Chapter 1 - Benchm arking .................................................... .................................... 3 Differentiating by Energy Source ......................................... Energy Use Intensity....................................... ..............4 Lim itations of EUI ................................................................4 Calculating EUI........................................... ..................4 M ixed EUI..................................... ............................5 Production EUI ........................... ................................5 Energy End Use Distribution........................ ...... ......................6 Energy Cost as a Percent of Total Operating Cost..........................................6 Limitations of Using Benchmark Data ..................................... Chapter 2-Analyzing Energy Use Graphs .................................. .................... Intuitive Inform ation ............................................................9 Com parative Inform ation .............................................................. 10 W eather Dependence ........................ .................................13 Load Factor Effect on Energy Cost ............................. ........................14 Business Volume (Production Rates) ..............................................................16 Savings Opportunities ........................ ..................................19 Chapter 3-Energy Saving Opportunities by Business Type ................................21 Apartment Buildings / Multi-Family / Dormitories......................... ...21 Churches / W orship ... . ........... .................................... ....................24 D ata C enters .............................................................................. ........................ 26 Education-Colleges and Universities.....................................28 Education--Schools K-12 ...................................................................31 Food Sales- Grocery Stores .............................................................................. 34 Health Care-Hospital ...................................... .................36 Health Care-Non Hospital ..........................................38 Laundries-Commercial ...................................... ................41 Libraries / M useum s ....................................... ...................42 Lodging / Hotels / Motels .................................................44 Office Buildings .......................................................47 Food Service .............................................. . ...............50 Retail/Sales ............................................................53 W arehouses.....................................................56 B o ile rs ....................................................................................... ........................ 5 8 C h illers ......................................... ...................................................................58 H ig h R ise ........................................................................................................ 59 Pools ... .................................................................... ...................... 59 Ice Rinks.................................... .... ...........61 Chapter 4-Manufacturing .................... ...................................63 Process Analysis ................................................................63 Example Manufacturing Process Flow Chart................................ ....65 Desire for Energy Use to Follow Production Rates ....................................65 Primary Energy Use Sources .......................................................65 Production Scheduling ............................................................... 66 Maintenance ............................ ...............................66 C o n trols..................................................................................... ....................... 66 Some Common ECMs for Manufacturing ..................... .....67 Chapter 5-ECM Descriptions.............................................73 ECM Descriptions- Envelope..................................................... ....................... 73 ECM Descriptions-Lighting ...... ..................................75 ECM Descriptions-HVAC .....................................77 ECM Descriptions-Swimming Pools ...................... ......93 ECM Descriptions-Heat Recovery .................... .........95 ECM Descriptions-Thermal Storage (TES)................................. ....99 ECM Descriptions-Electrical .................... .............102 ECM Descriptions-Other ............................. ......... .............103 Chapter 6-Utility Rate Components ............................................. .......105 E lectric....................................................... 105 G as ...................................................................... 109 Chapter 7-Automatic Control Strategies............................................. 111 Cost/Benefit Ratio for Control System ECMs...... ................ 111 Control System Application Notes ............................... .............. 113 Lighting Control Strategies-Basic............................. 113 HVAC Control Strategies-Basic ................................ .....................114 Lighting Control Strategies-Advanced..............................127 HVAC Control Strategies-Advanced .................... .......127 Other Control Sequences................................. .....................134 Other Ways to Leverage DDC Controls ..................... .....135 Chapter 8-Building Operations and Maintenance .............................................137 Facility Repair costs ............................................................. 137 M aintenance Value ............................................................137 Poor Indoor Comfort and Indoor Air Quality Costs................... 137 Productivity Value........................................................138 M aintenance Energy Benefits ..................................................................... 139 Chapter 9- Quantifying Savings............................. .....................153 Establishing the HVAC Load Profile ...................... ......154 Load-Following Air and Water Flows vs. Constant Flow (VFD Benefit)...159 VAV System Fan Savings Reduction for Maintaining D ow nstream Pressure ...............................................................................165 Supply Air Reset vs. Reheat - Constant Volume ..................................... 166 Supply Air Reset with VAV vs. Increased Fan Energy................... 167 Condenser Water Reset vs. Constant Temperature ..................176 Chilled Water Reset for Variable Pumping vs. Increased Pump Energy ...181 Water-Side Economizer vs. Chiller Cooling ........................................... 184 Higher Efficiency Lighting vs. Existing Lighting ................................... 193 Higher Efficiency Motors vs. Existing Motors ..............................................196 Higher Efficiency Chiller vs. Existing Chiller ............................................... 200 Higher Efficiency Boiler vs. Existing Boiler ..................................................201 Hot Water Reset From Outside Air vs. Constant Temperature .................204 Reduce Air System Friction Losses - Constant Volume .............................208 Com puter M odeling ............................................................210 Measurement and Verification (M&V) ..................... .....212 Chapter 10-Sustaining Savings....................... ..... ...................215 Tendency for initial savings to deteriorate ............................................ 215 Maintaining initial savings ........................... .........215 Checklist for service access and operations..............................................216 SECTION II-GENERAL INFORMATION ................... .........219 Chapter 11-Mechanical Systems.............................. . .. ....................221 Relative Efficiency of Air Conditioning Systems...............................221 Glossary of Basic HVAC System Types................... .........221 Water-Cooled vs. Air Cooled ...................................... ......... ...224 Thermal Energy Transport Notes.............................. ...................224 Chillers .......................................................225 Part Load Chilled Water System Performance.................. .............228 Cooling Towers and Evaporative Fluid Coolers............................ ....232 Dry Coolers ............................................................ 234 Electronic Expansion Valves .................... .......................234 Air and Water System Resistance........................ ................. 235 Fan/Pump Motor Work Equation ............................... .....................236 Fan and Pump Efficiencies, and Belt Drive Efficiencies .............................237 Fan and Pump Throttling M ethods ......................... ........................238 Thermal Break-Even Concept for Buildings.......................... ......239 Air-Side Econom izer ........................................................240 Computer Room Air Conditioning (Data Center) ....................................244 Cooling Energy Balance for Heat Producing Equipment .........................246 Humidifiers ................................................ .............246 Kitchen Grease Hoods (Type 2)......................... ........249 Heat Pumps ..............................................................250 Refrigeration Cycle.............................. ................ ............253 Evaporative Cooling ......................................... .................255 Spot Cooling...................................................262 VAV Reheat Penalty ............................................. ..................263 G lycol vs. Efficiency ............................................. .................263 Cost of Ventilation ................................ ..... ............. 267 Simultaneous Heating and Cooling....................... .....................268 Chapter 12-Motors and Electrical Information .................... ....269 Motor Efficiencies .........................................................269 Voltage Im balance ...........................................................270 Sources of Electric M otor Losses............................................ .......................273 Power Factor Correction Capacity Quick Reference Chart.............274 Chapter 13-Combustion Equipment and Systems ..............................................277 Cost of Steam ......................................... .......................277 Range of Combustion Efficiency ................................... .....................277 Combustion Efficiency Nomograph ...................... ......278 Boiler Heating Output When Only Heating Surface Area is Known ....................... .....279 Boiler Standby Heat Loss (Boiler Skin Loss) at Full Load ..........................279 Estimated Losses from Boiler Short Cycling ........................................ 280 Dampers and Boiler Isolation Valves. ....................... ................ ........281 Estimated Savings of Steam System Improvement .....................................284 Chapter 14-Compressed Air ......................................289 Estimated Savings of Compressed Air Improvements ...............................289 Chapter 15- Fan and Pum p Drives ..................................................................... 293 Fan Drive Efficiency Comparison Diagram ........................ 293 Cog Belts Instead of Standard V-Belts ............. ....... ....................294 Variable Speed Drive Considerations.......................................................... 294 Chapter 16-Lighting ...................... ......................297 L igh tin g term s............................................................................................... 298 D im m in g ..............................................................................................................298 Light Colored Surfaces ..................................................... .........299 General Lighting Inform ation ............................................................. ... 300 Typical Recommended Lighting Levels ........................ ....................... 302 Occupancy Sensor Energy Savings.................. .... ........304 Chapter 17-Envelope Information ............................................................305 BLC Heat Loss Method.................................. .......................305 R-Value Reduction from Stud Walls ..................................................306 Glazing Properties.....................................................307 Infiltration............................... .. .......... 310 Chapter 18-Water and Domestic Water Heating................... .....311 Water Consumption for Water-Cooled Equipment................... 311 Blowdown vs. Cycles of Concentration ..................... ....311 Plumbing Water Points of Use................................. .....................312 Domestic W ater Heaters ........................................................312 Domestic Water Heater Stand By Losses ..........................313 Chapter 19-Weather Data ....................... .................315 Degree Days ..................................................................315 Bin W eather Data ..............................................................316 Weather by Days and Times .........................................................317 Chapter 20-Pollution and Greenhouse Gases ..................... ....321 Emission Conversion Factors by Region .................... .....321 Greenhouse Gas Relationship to Energy Use.............. .......................321 Emissions from Burning Fossil Fuels. ...................... .....324 Pollution-conversion to Equivalent Number of Automobiles .....................325 Other Environmental Considerations ............. ...... .....................326 Chapter 21-Formulas and Conversions ............................ .......................327 Common Energy Equations ..................................327 O ther U seful Form ulas .............................................................. 337 Energy Conversion Factors ..................................... ......................339 APPENDIX............... .................................................. 341 Glossary of Term s....... ................. ...................................................... 341 Conflicting ECMs and 'Watch Outs' .................................... .......................345 Types of Energy Audits .............................................348