Appendix C. Source and Accuracy Statements

Data Source and Accuracy Statements

Chapter 1 Extent, Condition, and Performance

TABLE 1-1.System Mileage Within the United States

Highway

The Highway Performance Monitoring System (HPMS) is the source of road mileage data and is considered reliable.(See box 1-1 for detailed information about the HPMS.)The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) of the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT) collects and reviews state-reported HPMS data for completeness, consistency, and adherence to specifications.  Some inaccuracy may arise from variations across states in their adherence to federal guidelines in the Traffic Monitoring Guide and the Highway Performance Monitoring System Field Manual for the Continuing Analytical and Statistical Database.

Beginning with the 1997 issue of Highway Statistics, FHWA instituted a new method for creating mileage-based tables derived from the HPMS.Previously, adjustments to tables developed from sample data were made using area-wide mileage information provided by states.These adjustments are now being made using universe totals from the HPMS dataset.  In addition, FHWA has discontinued the process of spreading rounding and other differences across table cells.  Thus, users may note minor differences in table-to-table totals.FHWA considers mileage totals from table HM-20, “Public Road Length, Miles by Functional System” to be the controlling totals should a single value be required.

Reliability may be diminished for comparisons with pre-1980 data, which were collected via different methods and special national studies.For instance, pre-1980 mileage data included some nonpublic roadways (95,000 miles in 1979) while post-1980 data reports only public road mileage (roads or streets governed and maintained by a public authority and open to public travel).

Class I Rail

These data are from Railroad Facts, published annually by the Association of American Railroads (AAR).  AAR data are based on 100-percent reporting by Class I railroads to the Surface Transportation Board (STB) via Schedule 700 of the R1 Annual Report.The STB defines Class I railroads as having operating revenues at or above a threshold indexed to a base of $250 million (1991) and adjusted annually in concert with changes in the Railroad Freight Rate Index published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.In 1998, the threshold for Class I railroads was $259.4 million.  Declassification from Class I status occurs when a railroad falls below the applicable threshold for three consecutive years.Although Class I railroads represent only 2 percent of railroads in the country, they account for over 70 percent of the industry’s mileage.

To obtain railway mileage, AAR subtracts trackage rights from miles of rail traveled on line 57 in the Schedule 700 report.Historical reliability may vary due to changes in the railroad industry, including bankruptcies, mergers, and declassification by the STB.Small data errors may also exist because of because of independent rounding of this series by AAR.  

Box 1-1. Highway Performance Monitoring System

Sampling Frame Construction

The Highway Performance Monitoring System (HPMS) sample is a stratified simple random sample of highway links (small sections of roadway) selected from state inventory files.  The 1997 sample consists of about 120,000 samples.Each state maintains an independent inventory of highway road links for those roads that the state is responsible for (in some cases this can be a low percentage of total road miles within the state).Lower jurisdictions (MPO’s, counties, cities, national parks, Indian reservations, etc.) may also maintain inventories of highway links under their jurisdiction.The HPMS sample was originally selected in 1978 based on guidelines provided by the FHWA for sampling highway systems excluding those roads functionally classified as local.The sampling frame for the state systems were the state inventories.The estimates represent the highway systems of each state.The HPMS sample was designed as a fixed sample to minimize data collection costs but adjustments to maintain representativeness are carried out periodically.The HPMS also consists of universe reporting (a complete census) for the Interstate and the National Highway System, and tabular summary reporting of limited information.A small number of data items (about 30) are reported for the complete universe.The universe information contains no sampling error.There are 4 tables reported as part of the summary.

Stratification

The HPMS sample (and universe) is stratified by state, type of area (rural, urban, and individual urbanized areas), highway functional classification, and traffic (annual average daily traffic (AADT) volume groups).Complete information is provided in the HPMS Field Manual.

Weighting

The HPMS sample expansion factors are the ratio of universe mileage to sample mileage in each strata.

Data Collection

Data are collected independently by the 50 states, metropolitan planning organizations (MPOs), and lower jurisdictions.Many of the geometric data items rarely change, such as number of lanes.Others change frequently, such as traffic.  Typically, the states maintain data inventories that are the repositories of a wide variety of data items.The HPMS data items are extracted from these inventories.For example, each State has a traffic volume counting program.    Typically, equipment is installed or placed on the roads to measure traffic.The counts are then converted to annual average daily traffic (AADT) and stored in the state databases.  AADT is one of the sample and universe items extracted from the inventories and reported to the HPMS.   The FHWA provides guidelines for data collection in the HPMS Field Manual, which the states follow to varying extents depending on issues such as staff, resources, state perspective, uses of the data, state/MPO/local needs for data, etc.Traffic data collection, for example, is an expensive and dangerous undertaking, particularly in high volume urban areas.

State departments of transportation report HPMS data annually to the FHWA.There are about 80 data items reported for the sample component.  The reporting deadline is June 15.  Except for special cases where major problems occur, data items are reported for each sample.There is no provision for nonresponse since a number is available for each section in the state inventories; however, states do leave items blank to indicate that no data collection has taken place for a specific item (e.g., if no system to measure pavement has been implemented in the state, the pavement condition item may be left blank.)The HPMS has gone through a major restructuring effort, and major data item reductions, modifications, and other changes will begin to be implemented with the 1999 data reported by June 15, 2000.

Sampling Error

The sample size is estimated based on traffic volume (AADT) within each stratum.Traffic volume is the most variable data item.Sampling error can be estimated directly based on the sample design for each stratum and aggregated by stratified random sample methods to total values.This exercise was done originally in 1980 for some of the most variable data items including vehicle-miles traveled.It has not been repeated since due to the work involved and the limited impact of sampling error as compared to nonsampling error.

Nonsampling Error

This is a major item of concern for the HPMS.For some of the most variable and important data items, such as AADT, guidelines for measurement and data collection have been produced.States have the option of using the guidelines or using their own procedures.Many data items are difficult and costly to collect and are reported as estimates not based on direct measurement.The data are collected and reported by many entities and individuals within the responsible organizations.Most do a reasonably good job, but staff turnover, cost, equipment issues, etc., can create difficulties identifying data problems.As mentioned before, a response is usually provided for each link as included in state inventories.Measurement errors are unknown, but the difficulty of collecting some of the data items is well known.For highway links not the responsibility of states, metropolitan planning organizations and lower jurisdictions using a wide variety of methods may collect the data.This a major area of concern and efforts are underway within States to standardize data collection.   The major effort with the HPMS is to insure the collection and reporting of reliable annual data.The FHWA field offices in each state conduct annual verification of the data reported.Computer software is provided to build the database and conduct logic edits prior to submittal.The reported data are subjected to intense editing and comparison with previous reporting and a written annual report is provided to each state to document problems found and encourage correction.Data resubmittal is requested in cases where major problems are found.The process involves many people and substantial resources, but it provides extensive quality assurance.  Complete information on data items, edits, processing, expansion, sample design, definitions, data reporting, etc., is included in the HPMS Field Manual.

Amtrak

These statistics originate from the Statistical Appendix to Amtrak’s Annual Report. Amtrak estimates track mileage based on point-to-point city timetables that railroad companies provide for engineers.The figures are estimates, but are considered reliable.

Transit

These figures are based on information in the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration (FTA), National Transit Database.Section 15 of the Federal Transit Act requires federally funded transit agencies to provide detailed financial and operating data, including vehicle inventories and directly operated mileage.Transit operators that do not report to FTA are those that do not receive federal funding, typically private, small, and rural operators.The data are generally considered accurate because FTA reviews and validates information submitted by individual transit agencies.Reliability may vary because some transit agencies cannot obtain accurate information or may misinterpret certain data definitions.

Navigable Channels

These statistics originate from a mid-1950s U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) estimate that there were approximately 25,000 miles of commercially important navigable channels in the United States. That number has been adjusted from time to time, for example, by addition of the 234-mile Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway in the early 1980s. The 25,000 plus mile number has been universally quoted for decades, but has definitional and methodological uncertainties.  USACE is currently developing a rigorous, Global InformationSystem (GIS)-based approach to facilitate tabulation of the lengths of shallow and deep-draft commercially navigable waterways in the United States; this calculation will be available in several years.

Oil Pipeline

The data are from Transportation in America, published by the Eno Transportation Foundation, Inc. (Eno).  The numbers reprinted here for 1960, 1965, 1970, and 1975 are Eno estimates from the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Energy Data Report issues labeled “Crude-oil and Refined Products Mileage in the United States.”Eno estimated the 1980 number based on the assumption that refinement of old, less profitable, and smaller lines exceeded in mileage the construction of new, larger, and more profitable lines.  Post-1985 data were calculated using a base figure reported in a 1982 USDOT study entitled Liquid Pipeline Director and then combined with data from the Association of Oil Pipe Lines and the Oil Pipeline Research Institute.  Lack of additional information raises definitional and methodological uncertainties for the data’s reliability.  Moreover, the three different information sources introduce data discontinuities, making time comparisons unreliable.

Gas Pipeline

These statistics originate from annual editions of Gas Facts, published by the American Gas Association (AGA).The data reported by the AGA are based on gas utilities participation and reporting to the Uniform Statistical Report.Utilities reporting represented 98 percent of gas utility industry sales while the remaining 2 percent was estimated for nonreporting companies based on recent historical experience.Varying percentages of nonreporters from year to year introduce minor reliability problems for time-series comparisons.

TABLE 1-3. Number of U.S. Airports

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Office of Airport Safety and Standards Administrator’s Fact Book (annual issues) furnished the data shown in this table and includes airports certified for air carrier operations with aircraft that seat 30 or more passengers.These airports include civil and joint civil-military use airports, heliports, STOLports (short takeoff and landing), and seaplane facilities.The FAA obtained this data via physical inspections and mail solicitations of all federally regulated landing facilities.Since this is a census of all U.S. airports, reliability should be high. Data, however, may be subject to reporting errors typical of administrative recordkeeping.

TABLE 1-4. Public Road and Street Mileage in the United States by Type of Surface

TABLE 1-5. U.S. Public Road and Street Mileage by Functional System

TABLE 1-6. Estimated U.S. Roadway Lane-Miles by Functional Class

The Highway Performance Monitoring System (HPMS) is the source of road mileage data and is considered reliable.(See box 1-1 for detailed information about the HPMS.)The U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration collects and reviews state-reported HPMS data for completeness, consistency, and adherence to specifications.Some inaccuracy may arise from variations across states in their adherence to federal guidelines in the Traffic Monitoring Guide and the Highway Performance Monitoring System Field Manual for the Continuing Analytical and Statistical Database.

Beginning with the 1997 issue of Highway Statistics, FHWA instituted a new method for creating mileage-based tables derived from the HPMS.Previously, adjustments to tables developed from sample data were made using area-wide mileage information provided by states.These adjustments are now being made using universe totals from the HPMS dataset.In addition, FHWA has discontinued the process of spreading rounding and other differences across table cells.Thus, users may note minor differences in table-to-table totals.FHWA considers mileage totals from table HM-20, “Public Road Length, Miles by Functional System” to be the controlling totals should a single value be required.

Lane-miles are calculated by multiplying the centerline length by the number of through lanes.Because the HPMS requires that the number of lanes be reported for all principal arterials, other National Highway System (NHS) roads, and all standard samples, lane length can be computed for the Interstate, other principal arterials, and the NHS on a 100-percent basis.For minor arterials, rural major collectors, and urban collectors, lane length is calculated based on standard sample sections using the reported number of through lanes, length of section, and an expansion factor.FHWA uses the expanded sample to check that the centerline length of a state’s functional system matches the universe functional system length.  If the centerline length and functional system length do not match, FHWA may ask a state to make adjustments.

Reliability may be diminished for comparisons with pre-1980 data, which were collected via different methods and special national studies.For instance, pre-1980 mileage data included some nonpublic roadways (95,000 miles in 1979) while post-1980 data reports only public road mileage (roads or streets governed and maintained by a public authority and open to public travel).

TABLE 1-7. Number of Stations Served by Amtrak and Rail Transit, Fiscal Year

These numbers originate from Amtrak’s Statistical Appendix to Amtrak’s Annual Report and the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration’s National Transit Database.

Amtrak maintains a computer database with a record of every station, locomotive, and car it operates.Those records include for each vehicle the year built, its service status (operating or not on a daily basis), and location.These data should be considered very reliable.

TABLE 1-8. U.S. Oil and Gas Pipeline Mileage

Oil Pipeline

The data are from Transportation in America, published by the Eno Transportation Foundation, Inc. (Eno).  The numbers reprinted here for 1960, 1965, 1970, and 1975 are Eno estimates from the U.S. Department of Energy’s Energy Data Report issues labeled “Crude-oil and Refined Products Mileage in the United States.”Eno estimated the 1980 number based on the assumption that refinement of old, less profitable, and smaller lines exceeded in mileage the construction of new, larger, and more-profitable lines.  Figures from 1985 and later years are calculated from a base figure that Eno obtained from the 1982 U.S. Department of Transportationstudy Liquid Pipeline Director and then incorporated that figure with data from the Association of Oil Pipe Lines and the Oil Pipeline Research Institute.Lack of additional information raises definitional and methodological uncertainties for the data’s reliability.Moreover, the three different information sources introduce data discontinuities making time comparisons less reliable.

Gas Pipeline

These statistics originate from annual editions of Gas Facts published by the American Gas Association (AGA).The data reported by AGA are based on gas utilities participation and reporting to the Uniform Statistical Report.  Utilities reporting in 1991 represented 98 percent of total gas utility industry sales while the remaining 2 percent was estimated for the nonreporting companies based on recent historical experience.Varying percentages of nonreporters from year to year introduce minor reliability problems for time-series comparisons.

TABLE 1-2.Number of Air Carriers, Railroads, Interstate Motor Carriers, Marine Operators, and Pipeline Operators

Air Carriers

The data are from the Air Carrier Financial Statistics Quarterly, published by the Office of Airline Information of the U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics (BTS). The Alphabetical List of Air Carriers by Carrier Group at the beginning of each fourth quarter edition is used to determine the number of major air carriers and other air carriers in operation at the end of each calendar year.The publication draws its data from the T-100 and T-100(f) databases maintained by BTS.These databases include data obtained from a 100-percent census of BTS Form 41 schedule submissions by large certificated air carriers, which are carriers that hold a certificate issued under section 401 of the Federal Aviation Act of 1958 and that (1) operate aircraft designed to have a maximum passenger seating capacity of more than 60 seats or a maximum payload capacity of more than 18,000 pounds or (2) that conduct international operations.Carriers are grouped as major, national, large regional, or medium regional based on their annual operating revenues.The thresholds were last adjusted July 1, 1999 and the threshold for major air carriers is currently $1 billion.The table combines the number of national, large regional, and medium regional air carriers into the other air carrier category.

Railroads

The Association of American Railroads (AAR)’s Railroad Ten-Year Trends series is the source for the number of railroads.The number of Class I railroads is based on 100-percent reporting by Class I railroads to the Surface Transportation Board (STB) via Schedule 700 of the R1 Annual Report.The STB defines Class I railroads as having operating revenues at or above a threshold indexed to a base of $250 million (1991) and adjusted annually in concert with changes in the Railroad Freight Rate Index published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.In 1998, the threshold for Class I railroads was $259.4 million.Declassification from Class I status occurs when a railroad falls below the applicable threshold for three consecutive years.Although Class I railroads represent only 2 percent of railroads in the country, they account for over 70 percent of the industry’s mileage.

The Association of American Railroads determines the number of non-Class I railroads through an annual survey sent to every U.S. freight railroad.  By following up with nonrespondents, the AAR obtains essentially a census of railroads.Use of the current survey instrument began in 1986.

Interstate Motor Carriers

The Motor Carrier Management Information System (MCMIS), maintained by the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, contains information on the safety of all commercial interstate motor carriers and hazardous material (HM) shippers subject to the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Regulations and the Hazardous Materials Regulations. All carriers operating in interstate or foreign commerce within 90 days of beginning operations must submit a Form MCS 150, Motor Carrier Identification Report.Carriers may use the form to update their information.  The Motor Carrier Safety Improvement Act of 1999 requires that reports be periodically updated, but not more than once every two years.MCMIS is updated on a weekly basis, and periodic archives are not made.  Historical data are only available from summary information previously prepared, including tables and reports.  MCMIS began operations in 1980, but data prior to 1990 are not available.Data since 1990 are available on a fiscal year basis (October through September).MCMIS data are from a 100-percent census.

Marine Vessel Operators

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) provides the data for marine vessel operatorsthrough the Waterborne Transportation Lines of the United States.  Data are collected by the USACE’s Navigation Data Center (NDC) by various means, including the U.S. Coast Guard’s registry, maritime service directories, and waterway sector publications.  However, an annual survey of companies that operate inland waterway vessels is the principle source of data.  More than 3,000 surveys are sent to these companies and response rates are typically above 90 percent.  However, a USACE official did report that less than 10 percent of the total number of companies operating inland water vessels either did not receive or respond to the annual survey.

Pipeline Operators

The Office of Pipeline Safety (OPS) in the U.S. Department of Transportation’s Research and Special Programs Administration collects annual report data from natural gas transmission and distribution operators as required by 49 CFR 191.17 and 191.11, respectively.Annual data must be submitted by March 15 of the following calendar year.No annual report is required for hazardous liquid pipeline operators.However, information is available through the pipeline safety program.Since 1986, the program has been funded by fees assessed to each OPS-regulated pipeline operator based on per-mile of hazardous pipeline operated.Data for each operator and each mile of pipeline are stored in the OPS user-fee database, which is revised annually as updated fees are assessed.

Totals for pipeline operators in this table will differ from those in other tables due to differences in the regulatory authority of USDOT and the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC).FERC regulates only interstate pipelines, whereas DOT regulates both interstate and intrastate pipelines, except for rural gathering lines and some offshore pipelines, which fall under jurisdiction of the U.S. Coast Guard or the U.S. Department of the Interior’s Minerals Management Service.An OPS official stated that FERC regulates about two-thirds the amount of pipeline mileage that USDOT regulates.

TABLE 1-9. Number of U.S. Aircraft, Vehicles, Vessels, and Other Conveyances

TABLE 1-11. Active Air Carrier and General Aviation Fleet by Type of Aircraft

Air Carrier, Certificated, All Services

Data are from the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), FAA Statistical Handbook of Aviation.U.S. air carrier fleet data are based on reports collected by FAA field offices from carriers.The reports include information on the number of aircraft by type used in air carrier service.The FAA points out that this information is not an inventory of the aircraft owned by air carriers, but represents the aircraft reported to the FAA as being used in air carrier fleet service.The reported aircraft are all aircraft carrying passengers or cargo for compensation or hire under 14 CFR 121 and 14 CFR 135.

General Aviation

The 1960-1980 figures originated from the FAA Statistical Handbook of Aviation.Later data are from FAA annual issues of the General Aviation and Air Taxi Activity (GAATA) Survey report, table 3.1.The FAA collects both aircraft registration data and voluntary information about aircraft operation, equipment, and location.Before 1978, the FAA mandated owners to annually register their aircraft for the Aircraft Registration Master File.This was a complete enumeration of operating aircraft.Registrants were also asked to voluntarily report information on hours flow, avionics equipment, base location, and use.The FAA changed their data collection methodology in 1978.  The annual registration requirement became triennial and the General Aviation Activity and Avionics Survey was initiated to sample aircraft operation and equipment data.

The General Aviation Activity and Avionics Survey was renamed the General Aviation and Air Taxi Activity Survey in 1993 to reflect the fact that the survey includes air taxi aircraft.This survey is conducted annually and encompasses a stratified, systematic design from a random start to generate a sample of all general aviation aircraft in the United States.It is based on the FAA registry as the sampling frame.FAA established three stratification design variables in the survey:  1) the average annual hours flown per aircraft by aircraft type, 2) the aircraft manufacturer/model characteristics, and 3) the state of aircraft registration.

Data Reliability

Because of the change in 1978, the reliability of comparisons over time will be affected.The FAA asserted that the change to a triennial registration deteriorated the Aircraft Registration Master File in two ways.First, the resulting lag in registration updates caused the number of undeliverable questionnaires to steadily increase over the three-year period.  Second, inactive aircraft would remain in the registry, inflating the general aviation fleet count.In addition, a new regulation added two categories of aircraft to the general aviation fleet.However, FAA concluded that these changes resulted in no more than a five-percent error in the fleet population estimate.

The reliability of the GAATA survey can be impacted by two factors:sampling and nonsampling error.A measure, called the standard error, is used to indicate the magnitude of sampling error.Standard errors can be converted for comparability by dividing the standard error value by the estimate (derived from sample survey results) and multiplying it by 100.This quantity, referred to as the percent standard error, totaled seven-tenths of a percent in 1997 for the general aviation fleet.A large standard error relative to an estimate indicates lack of precision and, inversely, a small standard error indicates precision.

Nonsampling errors could include problems such as nonresponse, respondent’s inability or unwillingness to provide correct information, differences in interpretation of questions, and data-entry mistakes.Readers should note that non­response bias might be a component of reliability errors in the data from 1980 to 1990.The FAA conducted telephone surveys of nonrespondents in 1977, 1978, and 1979 and found no significant differences or inconsistencies in respondents’ and nonrespondents’ replies.The FAA discontinued the telephone survey of nonrespondents in 1980 to save costs.Nonresponse surveys were resumed in 1990, and the FAA found notable differences and thus adjusted its fleet estimates.The 1991 through 1996 data have been revised to reflect nonresponse bias.  In 1997, a sample of 29,954 aircraft was identified and surveyed from an approximate population of 251,571 registered general aviation aircraft.Just over 65 percent of the sample responded to the survey.

Highway, Total (registered vehicles)

The 1960 to 1980 figures are from the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) document, Highway Statistics, Summary to 1985, table MV-201 and related tables.  Data quality and consistency will be less reliable for these years because of a diversity of registration practices from state to state.Users should recognize that motor vehicle statistical information is not necessarily comparable across all states or within a state from year to year.For instance, the FHWA reported that separate data on single-unit trucks and combinations was unobtainable from all states in 1990.

After 1980, the FHWA began to use the Highway Performance Monitoring System (HPMS) database, which improved data reliability.FHWA reviews state-reported HPMS data for completeness, consistency, and adherence to these specifications.Some inaccuracy may arise from variations across states in their adherence to federal guidelines in the Highway Performance Monitoring System Field Manual for the Continuing Analytical and Statistical Database.

If choosing to compare state data, the FHWA recommends that users carefully select a set of peer states that have characteristics similar to the specific comparison. Improperly selected peer states are likely to yield invalid data comparisons.Characteristics that a user needs to consider in determining compatibility of a peer state include similarities and differences in urban/rural areas, population densities, degrees of urbanization, climate, geography, state laws and practices that influence data definitions, administrative controls of public road systems, state economies, traffic volumes, and degrees of centralization of state functions.The FHWA has developed a set of variables that users may use to determine appropriate peer states.

Other 2-Axle 4-Tire Vehicle (truck)

 Sources for these figures included FHWA’s Highway Statistics, Summary to 1995 (table VM-201A) and annual issues of Highway Statistics (table VM-1).FHWA compiles these figures from the U.S. Bureau of the Census’ Truck Inventory and Use Survey (TIUS).Since 1963, Census has conducted the TIUS every five years with the last survey completed in 1997.The Census Bureau changed the name of the survey to the Vehicle Inventory and Use Survey (VIUS) in 1997.The VIUS collects data and the physical and operational characteristics of the nation’s truck population.In 1997, 131,000 trucks were surveyed from an estimated universe of over 75 million trucks.Chronological reliability may be diminished due to sampling design changes in 1977, 1982, and 1992.  In 1977, the sampling universe was first stratified by the number of trucks in a state:large (> 1.5 million trucks), medium (700,000 to 1.5 million), and small (< 700,000); and then by two truck sizes.

Stratification in 1982 was then based on body type rather than vehicle weight.  In 1992 and 1997, the sampling universe was first subdivided geographically and then into five strata:  1) pickups, 2) vans, 3) single-unit light, 4) single-unit heavy, and 5) truck tractor.Cases were then selected randomly within each stratum.

Census delivered a mail-out/mail-back survey to the owner identified in the vehicle registration records.   Data collection is staggered as state records become available. Owners report data only for the vehicles selected. In the 1992 survey, a method was employed to also collect data on new truck purchases in the latter half of the year to estimate the fleet for the calendar year.This adjustment in the sampling frame had not been done in previous surveys and may diminish chronological reliability.The sample for 1997 was some 22,500 vehicles smaller than for 1992.  The 1997 VIUS had two sampling stages.  For the first stage, the Census Bureau surveyed about 131,000 trucks registered as of July 1, 1997.The second stage sampled a total of 3,000 truck owners with state mailing addresses different from the state of truck registration.

The accuracy and reliability of the VIUS survey depends jointly on sampling variability and nonsampling errors.Standard errors arising from sampling variability can be converted for comparability by dividing the standard error value by the estimate and multiplying it by 100.This quantity, referred to as the percent standard error, totaled two-tenths of a percent in 1992 and 1997 for the VIUS sample.A large standard error relative to an estimate indicates lack of precision and, inversely, a small standard error indicates precision.The 1992 TIUS achieved over 90.2 percent reporting and the 1997 response rate equaled 84.5 percent, thus reliability may have decreased in the most recent survey.

Transit

The American Public Transit Association (APTA) provided these data, which are based on the Federal Transit Administration (FTA), National Transit Database.These data are generally accurate because the FTA reviews and validates information submitted by individual transit agencies.Reliability may vary because some transit agencies cannot obtain accurate information or may misinterpret data.APTA conservatively adjusts FTA data to include transit operators that do not report to the database (private, very small, and rural operators).

Railroad (all categories)

The data are from Railroad Facts, published annually by the Association of American Railroads (AAR).  AAR data are based on 100-percent reporting by Class I railroads to the Surface Transportation Board (STB) via Schedule 700 of the R1 Annual Report.Thus, data estimates are considered very reliable.  The STB defines Class I railroads as having operating revenues at or above a threshold indexed to a base of $250 million (1991) and adjusted annually in concert with changes in the Railroad Freight Rate Index published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.In 1998, the adjusted threshold for Class I railroads was $259.4 million.Declassification from Class I status occurs when a railroad falls below the applicable threshold for three consecutive years.Although Class I railroads represent only 2 percent of railroads in the country, they account for over 70 percent of the industry’s mileage.

AAR determines the number of non-Class I railroads through an annual, comprehensive survey sent to every U.S. freight railroad.By following up with nonrespondents, the AAR obtains essentially a 100 percent census of all railroads.Use of the current survey instrument began in 1986.

Amtrak

Amtrak maintains a computer database with a record of every locomotive and car it operates.For each vehicle, those records include the year built, service status (operating or not operating on a daily basis), and location.This data should be considered very reliable.

Water Transportation

The source for Inland Nonself-Propelled Vessels, Self-Propelled Vessels, and flag passenger and cargo vessels is the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), Waterborne Transportation Lines of the United States, annual issues. Data are collected by the USACE’s Navigation Data Center (NDC) by various means, including the U.S. Coast Guard’s registry, maritime service directories, and waterway sector publications.  However, an annual survey of companies that operate inland waterway vessels is the principle source of data.  More than 3,000 surveys are sent to these companies, and response rates are typically above 90 percent.  However, a USACE official did report that less than 10 percent of the total number of companies operating inland vessels either did not receive or respond to the annual survey.

Oceangoing Steam Motor Ships

Merchant Fleets of the World, published annually by the U.S. Department of Transportation, Maritime Administration (MARAD), is the source of these data. MARAD, which classifies vessels as merchant based on size and type, compiles these figures from a data service provided by Lloyd’s Maritime Information Service (LMIS).The parent company, Lloyd’s Register (LR), collects data from 200 offices worldwide, from data transfers and agreements with other classification societies, from questionnaires to ship owners and ship builders, from feedback from government agencies, and from input from port agents.  According to an LR official, consistent data-gathering methods have been maintained for more than 30 years.The same official did caution that there are sometimes inconsistencies in groupings of ship types over time.For example, propelled tank barges are now included in the tanker ship-type grouping.

Recreational Boats

Boating Statistics, published annually by the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG), is the source.The USCG derives these figures from state and other jurisdictional reporting of the actual count of valid boat numbers issued.In accordance with federal requirements, all 55 U.S. states and territories require motor-powered vessels to be numbered.  However, over half the states do not require nonpowered vessels to be numbered.Accuracy can also be diminished by noncompliance of boat owners with numbering and registration laws.In 1996, the USCG estimated that approximately eight million recreational boats are not numbered and, thus, are excluded from the reported number of recreational vessels.The USCG did not provide estimates for the number of boats without numbering in their 1997 and 1998 reports.Some jurisdictions fail to report by publication deadlines, and the USCG provided estimates based on the previous year’s estimate.

TABLE 1-10. Sales or Deliveries of New Aircraft, Vehicles, Vessels, and Other Conveyances

Civilian Aircraft

The Aerospace Industries Association (AIA) provided this data in their annual issues Aerospace Facts and Figures, “Civil Aircraft Shipments.”AIA collects their data from aircraft company reports, the General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA), and the U.S. Department of Commerce’s (DOC) International Trade Administration. DOC data provide total number of shipments and exports, and the difference computed by AIA equals domestic shipments.DOC collects shipments data separately for individual factories or establishments and not at the company level.A potential limitation of this approach is when a factory producing aircraft for shipment also makes aircraft parts.If the establishment has 80 percent of its production in aircraft and 20 percent in parts, all of the output is attributed to aircraft shipments.

Transport

The Aerospace Industries Association (AIA) is the source of these data.  AIA obtains quarterly data from Boeing Corp., now the sole U.S. manufacturer of transport aircraft, and publicly available financial disclosure information filed with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) via Form 10-k.SEC requires a publicly traded company to file an annual report 90 days after the end of the company’s fiscal year to provide an overview of that business.

Helicopters

AIA surveyed and received data from all 10 major helicopter manufacturers on their sales and deliveries.

General Aviation

The general aviation figures are taken from the General Aviation Statistical Databook published by the GAMA.General aviation refers usually to the small aircraft industry in the United States.GAMA collects quarterly data from the 10 to 14 manufacturers who nearly equal a census of the general aviation sector.

Passenger Car, Truck, Bus, and Recreational Vehicles

Ward’s Motor Vehicle Facts and Figures is the source of these data.Ward’s obtains sales data directly from manufacturers.Readers should note that automobile manufacturers have inflated sales figures in the past, but Ward’s does contact companies to verify numbers that appear too high or low.

Motorcycle

The Motorcycle Industry Council, Inc. (MIC) publishes the Motorcycle Statistical Annual, which is the source for these data.MIC derived the estimate for new retail motorcycle sales for each state from the MIC Retail Sales Report, and adjusted for total retail sales.Motorcycle company reports provided sales data.Prior to 1985, all-terrain vehicles (ATVs) were included in the motorcycle total.In 1995, the Motorcycle Industry Council revised its data for the years 1985 to present to exclude all terrain vehicles from its totals.

Bicycle

The National Bicycle Dealers Association (NBDA) reported these data, which are based on Bicycle Manufacturers Association (BMA) information through 1996.  BMA stopped reporting members’ shipments in 1996.Moreover, BMA represents the largest bicycle manufacturers (Huffy, Roadmaster, and Murray), and thus the data do not reflect specialty bike makers or other manufacturers.  The Bicycle Council estimated 1997 and 1998 figures in the table.According to a Bicycle Council representative, the estimates are a combination of domestic forecasts produced by a panel of industry experts and import data from monthly U.S. census databases.

Transit

The American Public Transit Association provided these figures, which are based on information in the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration (FTA), National Transit Database. These data are generally considered accurate because the FTA reviews and validates information submitted by individual transit agencies.Reliability may vary because some transit agencies cannot obtain accurate information or misinterpret data.APTA conservatively adjusts FTA data to include transit operators that do not report to the database (private, very small, and rural operators).

Class I Rail

The data are from Railroad Facts, published annually by the Association of American Railroads (AAR).AAR data are based on 100-percent reporting by Class I railroads to the Surface Transportation Board (STB) via Schedule 700 of the R1 Annual Report.STB defines Class I railroads as having operating revenues at or above a threshold indexed to a base of $250 million (1991) and adjusted annually in concert with changes in the Railroad Freight Rate Index published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.In 1998, the threshold for Class I railroads was $259.4 million.Although Class I railroads encompass only 2 percent of the number of railroads in the country, they account for over 70 percent of the industry’s mileage operated.Historical reliability may vary due to changes in the railroad industry, including bankruptcies, mergers, and declassification by the STB.Small data errors may also have occurred because of independent rounding in this series by the AAR.

Amtrak

Amtrak maintains a computer database with a record of every locomotive and car it operates.For each vehicle, those records include the year built, its service status (operating or not on a daily basis), and location.These data should be considered very reliable.

Water Transportation

U.S. Department of Transportation, Maritime Administration (MARAD), which classifies vessels as merchant based on size and type, reports these data in annual issues of its Merchant Fleets of the World.MARAD compiles these figures from a data service provided by Lloyd’s Maritime Information Service.The parent company, Lloyd’s Register (LR), collects data from several sources:its 200 offices worldwide, data transfers and agreements with other classification societies, questionnaires to shipowners and shipbuilders, feedback from government agencies, and input from port agents.According to an LR official, consistent data gathering methods have been maintained for more than 30 years but cautioned that inconsistencies may occur in groupings of ship types over time.For example, tank barges are now included in the tanker ship-type grouping rather than the barge grouping.

TABLE 1-12. U.S. Automobile and Truck Fleets by Use

These statistics originate from two sources.  The R.L. Polk Co. provides numbers for commercial fleet vehicles from state registrations.Bobit Publishing Co. also obtains fleet vehicle sales data from automobile manufacturers.These two sources cover nearly 100 percent of fleet vehicles in the United States.  Thus, the data should be very accurate. 

TABLE 1-13. Annual U.S. Motor Vehicle Production and Factory (Wholesale) Sales

TABLE 1-14. Retail New Passenger Car Sales

TABLE 1-15. New and Used Passenger Car Sales and Leases

TABLE 1-19. World Motor Vehicle Production, Selected Countries

Motor Vehicle Production, Factory Sales, and New Passenger Car Retail Sales

Ward’s Motor Vehicle Facts & Figures is the source of these data.  Ward’s obtains sales data directly from manufacturers.Readers should note that automobile manufacturers have inflated sales figures in the past, but Ward’s does contact companies to verify numbers that appear too high or low.

Used Passenger Car Sales and Leased Passenger Cars

ADT Automotive Used Car Market Report is the source of these data.The Wall Street Journal (WSJ) is the original source of 1999 data.According to an ADT representative, publishing deadlines require ADT to use WSJ numbers until they can be replaced with National Automotive Dealers Association data.ADT Automotive’s Market Analysis Department also gathers figures from CNW Marketing/Research and the R.L. Polk Co.CNW estimates used car sales volumes by collecting state title transfer data and determining if a transaction was made between private individuals or between a consumer and a franchised or independent dealer.This estimate is evaluated by comparing total transactions with state automobile sales revenues.Polk,  an additional source of data, maintains a state vehicle registration database.For 1998, the ADT representative stated that Polk’s data were within 5 percentage points of CNW estimates.

TABLE 1-16. Retail Sales of New Cars by Sector

The U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, uses data from Ward’s Automotive Reports.The sectoral break down is derived from registration data obtained from R.L. Polk.Ward’s obtains sales data directly from manufacturers.Readers should note that automobile manufacturers have inflated sales figures in the past, but Ward’s does contact companies to verify numbers that appear too high or low.

TABLES 1-17 and 1-18. Period Sales, Market Shares, and Sales-Weighted Fuel Economies of New Domestic and Imported Automobiles and Light Trucks, Selected Sales Periods

These data originate from Oak Ridge National Laboratory’s (ORNL) Light-Duty MPG and Market Shares System database, which relies on information from monthly Ward’s Automotive Reports.Comparisons and observations are made on sales and fuel economy trends from one model year to the next.ORNL has adopted several conventions to facilitate these comparisons, such as the use of sales-weighted average to estimate fuel economy and vehicle characteristics.For example, “sales-weighted” miles per gallon refers to a composite or average fuel economy based on the distribution of vehicle sales.ORNL’s methodology for sales-weighting can be found in the Appendix of the Highway Vehicle MPG and Market Shares Report:Model Year 1990 (the latest published report).The method was changed dramatically in 1983, and data reliability prior to that year is questionable.This information is now published annually in ORNL’s Transportation Energy Data Book.

TABLE 1-20. Number and Size of the U.S.Flag Merchant Fleet and Its Share of the World Fleet

The U.S. Department of Transportation, Maritime Administration, which classifies vessels as merchant based on size and type, compiles these figures from a data service provided by Lloyd’s Maritime Information Service.  The parent company, Lloyd’s Register (LR), collects data from several sources:its 200 offices worldwide, data transfers and agreements with other classification societies, questionnaires to shipowners and shipbuilders, feedback from government agencies, and input from port agents.  According to an LR official, consistent data gathering methods have been maintained for more than 30 years, but cautioned that inconsistencies may occur in groupings of ship types over time.  For example, tank barges are now included in the tanker ship-type grouping rather than the barge grouping.

TABLE 1-21. U.S. Airport Runway Pavement Conditions

These data originate from the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems (NPIAS).The NPIAS includes all commercial service airports, all reliever airports, and selected general aviation airports.It does not include more than 1,000 publicly owned public use landing areas, privately owned public use airports, and other civil landing areas not open to the general public.  NPIAS airports serve 92 percent of general aviation aircraft (based on an estimated fleet of 200,000 aircraft).  In 1998, the NPIAS encompassed 3,344 of the 5,357 airports with public access.Runway pavement condition is classified as follows:

Good: All cracks and joints are sealed.

Fair: Mild surface cracking, unsealed joints, and slab edge spalling.

Poor:Large open cracks, surface and edge spalling, vegetation growing through cracks and joints.

On a rotating basis, the FAA arranges annual inspections for about 2,000 of the approximately 4,700 public-use airports.The inspections are based on funding availability and not on statistical criteria, and nearly all runways are inspected every two years.  Inspections are primarily made to collect information for pilots on airport conditions.The FAA relies on state and local agencies to perform inspections, so some inaccuracy may arise from variation in their adherence to federal guidelines regarding pavement condition reporting.In 1998, the U.S. General Accounting Office found that Pavement Condition Index information was available for about 35 percent of NPIAS airports (GAO/RCED-98-226).

TABLE 1-22. Median Age of Automobiles and Trucks in Operation in the United States

The R.L. Polk Co. is a private enterprise that purchases state registration data to maintain a database of operational vehicles.Its data represent a near census of registered vehicles in the United States, and the age estimate should be considered very reliable.

TABLE 1-23. Condition of U.S. Roadways by Functional System

U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) collects pavement condition data from each state through the Highway Performance Monitoring System.The FHWA uses two rating schemes—the Present Serviceability Rating (PSR) and the International Roughness Indicator (IRI).IRI is used to measure the condition of Interstates, other principal arterials, rural minor arterials, and other National Highway System roadways.  PSR is used to measure the condition of rural major collectors and urban minor arterials and collectors.Rural minor collectors are not measured.  Where IRI data are not reported for sampled sections, the PSR data are collected.   Using the PSR, values range from 0.1 to 5.0, where 5.0 denotes new pavement in excellent condition and 0.1 denotes pavement in extremely poor condition. On the IRI scale however, lower values indicate smoother roads (e.g., <60 for interstate pavement in very good condition to >170 for interstate pavement in poor condition).

The IRI is an objective measure of pavement roughness developed by the World Bank.The PSR is a more subjective measure of a broader range of pavement characteristics and therefore less comparable.Prior to 1993, all pavement conditions were evaluated using PSR values.Beginning with data published in Highway Statistics 1993, the FHWA began a transition to the IRI, which should eventually replace the PSR.The change from PSR to IRI makes comparisons between pre-1993 pavement condition data and 1993 and later pavement condition data difficult.  Thus, trend comparisons should be made with care.

FHWA indicates that the protocol of measuring pavement roughness is not followed by all states, and some did not report for all required mileage.Totals only reflect those states reporting usable or partially usable data. Column percentages may not sum to 100 and may differ slightly from percentages in source tables, which were adjusted so that they would add to 100.FHWA believes that the IRI data are of “reasonably good quality.”

TABLE 1-24. Condition of U.S. Bridges

These figures are from the U. S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration (FHWA),National Bridge Inventory Database.State highway agencies are required to maintain a bridge inspection program and inspect most bridges on public roadways at a minimum of every two years.With FHWA approval, certain bridges may be inspected less frequently.A complete file of all bridges is collected and maintained, representing a very reliable assessment of bridge conditions.  However, some inaccuracy may be attributable to variations in state inspector’s adherence to the National Bridge Inspection Standards.

TABLE 1-25. Average Age of Urban Transit Vehicles

These figures are based on information in the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration (FTA), National Transit Database.Section 15 of the Federal Transit Act requires federally funded transit agencies to provide detailed financial and operating data, including vehicle inventories.  Transit operators that do not report to FTA are those that do not receive federal funding, typically private, small, and rural operators.The data are generally considered accurate because FTA reviews and validates information submitted by individual transit agencies.Reliability may vary because some transit agencies cannot obtain accurate information or may misinterpret certain data definitions.

TABLE 1-26. Class I Railroad Locomotive Fleet by Year Built

The data are from Railroad Facts, published annually by the Association of American Railroads (AAR).Figures reported by the AAR are based on 100-percent reporting by Class I railroads to the Surface Transportation Board (STB) via Schedule 700 of the R1 Annual Report.STB defines Class I railroads as having operating revenues at or above a threshold indexed to a base of $250 million (1991) and adjusted annually in concert with changes in the Railroad Freight Rate Index published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.In 1998, the threshold for Class I railroads was $259.4 million.  Declassification from Class I status occurs when a railroad falls below the applicable threshold for three consecutive years.Although Class I railroads encompass only 2 percent of the number of railroads in the country, they account for over 70 percent of the industry’s mileage.

TABLE 1-27. Age and Availability of Amtrak Locomotive and Car Fleets

Amtrak maintains a computer database with a record of every locomotive and car it operates.For each vehicle those records include the year built, its service status (operating or not on a daily basis), and location.These data should be considered very reliable.

TABLE 1-28. U.S. Flag Vessels by Type and Age

The data are from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), Waterborne Transportation Lines of the United States (WTLUS), annual issues. The WTLUS database contains information on vessel operators and characteristics and descriptions for all domestic vessel operations.Data are collected by the USACE’s Navigation Data Center, primarily through a survey of vessel operating companies.More than 3,000 surveys are sent to these companies and response rates are typically above 90 percent.However, a USACE official did report that less than 10 percent of the total number of companies operating inland vessel fleets either did not receive and/or did not respond to the annual survey.

TABLE 1-29. U.S. Vehicle-Miles

TABLE 1-30. Roadway Vehicle-Miles Traveled (VMT) and VMT per Lane-Mile by Functional Class

TABLE 1-31. U.S. Passenger-Miles

Air Carrier, Certificated, Domestic, All Services

The U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), the Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Office of Airline Information, reports aircraft revenue-miles andpassenger-miles in its publication Air Traffic Statistics.These numbers are based on 100-percent reporting of passengers and trip length by large certificated air carriers.Minor errors arise from nonreporting but amount to less than 1 percent of all air carrier passenger-miles.The figures do not include data for all airlines, such as most scheduled commuter airlines and all nonscheduled commuter airlines.These, ifadded, may raise total air passenger-miles by about 5 percent.

General Aviation

Passenger-mile numbers for 1975 to present are calculated by adjusting the Interstate Commerce Commission’s 1974 figure for air passenger-miles by the percentage change in annual hours flown by general aviation aircraft as published in the USDOT, Federal Aviation Administration (FAA),FAA Statistical Handbook of Aviation.Numbers in the handbook are based on the General Aviation and Air Taxi Survey (GAATA).  In 1993, the GAATA stopped including commuter aircraft.Commuter-miles collected before 1993 by the GAATA were, according to one FAA official, woefully underreported.Therefore, problems with the estimate of general aviation aircraft include: a break in the series between 1992 and 1993, a possible outdated factor used to calculate passenger-miles, and the classification of commuter operations.

Highway

Highway vehicle-miles of travel (vmt) are estimated using data from the Highway Performance Monitoring System (HPMS), a database maintained by FHWA that contains information on highway characteristics supplied by individual states.  Annual vmt by highway functional system is calculated as the product of the annual average daily traffic (AADT) along each highway section, the centerline length of each highway section, and the number of days in the year.Also, expansion factors are used for roadways that are sampled rather than continuously monitored.Vmt by vehicle type is estimated using vehicle share estimates supplied by states.

FHWA has established methods for collecting, coding, and reporting HPMS data in two manuals:Traffic Monitoring Guide (TMG) and Highway Performance Monitoring System Field Manual.The prescribed sampling process for collecting highway volume data, which is used to estimate AADT, is based on statistical methods.However, in practice, several factors affect the ultimate quality of the data. FHWA discusses many of these issues in their annual Highway Statistics report and other publications.However, BTS is not aware of any study or report that has statistically quantified the accuracy of vmt estimates.Some of the primary issues related to data quality are noted here.

 1. The sampling procedures suggested in the TMG and HPMS Field Manual are designed to produce traffic volume estimates with an average precision level of 80-percent confidence with a 10-percent allowable error at the state level. FHWA provides additional guidance to states through annual workshops and other avenues to help them follow these procedures as closely as possible.However, the actual data quality and consistency of HPMS information are dependent on the programs, actions, and maintenance of sound databases by numerous data collectors, suppliers, and analysts at the state, metropolitan, and other local area levels.Not all states follow the recommended sampling, counting, and estimating procedures contained in the Traffic Monitoring Guide, and the exact degree to which the states follow these guidelines overall is unknown.However, FHWA believes that most states generally follow the guidelines.

 2. Estimates for higher level roadway systems are more accurate than those for lower level ones, since traffic volumes on higher level roadways are sampled at a higher rate.The TMG recommends that traffic counts be collected for all Interstate and principal arterial sections on a three-year cycle.Under this scheme, about one-third of the traffic counts for these roadway sections in a given year are actually measured, while volumes on the remainder are factored to represent present growth.Although some States collect data at all traffic count locations every year, most use some variation of the TMG data collection guidelines.Volumes on urban and rural minor arterials, rural major collectors, and urban collectors are collected using a sampling procedure.States are not required to report volumes for rural/urban local systems and rural minor collectors, though most do so.However, the methods used to estimate travel on these roadways vary from state to state since there are no standard guidelines for calculating travel on these roadways.

3. Vmt estimates by vehicle type are less accurate than are estimates for total motor vehicle vmt for several reasons:1) vehicle classification equipment can frequently misclassify vehicles (see B.A. Harvey et al, Accuracy of Traffic Monitoring Equipment, GDOT 9210, (Georgia Tech Research Institute:1995)); 2) vehicle shares are often determined by methods or by special studies that are not directly compatible with HPMS data definitions and/or purposes, and observed local-level vehicle classification counts are difficult to apply on a statewide basis; and 3) vehicle type definitions can vary among states.

4. Vmt estimates for combination trucks in HPMS differ from survey-based estimates from the Truck Inventory and Use Survey (TIUS), as much as 50 percent for some categories of combination trucks.Much of this discrepancy appears to be due to differences in truck classification definitions and biases introduced by data collection practices.See R.D. Mingo et al.1995.Transportation Research Record, No. 1511 (Washington, DC: National Academy Press), pp. 42-46.

5. FHWA adjusts questionable data using a variety of standard techniques and professional judgement. For example, national average temporal adjustment factors developed from HPMS and other national highway monitoring programs are applied to State data, when necessary, to compensate for temporal deficiencies in sampling practices. Also, in estimating vmt by vehicle type, FHWA employs an iterative process to reconcile vmt, fuel economy (miles per gallon), fuel consumption, and vehicle registration estimates. Fuel consumption, total vmt by highway functional class, and registrations by vehicle group are used as control totals. This process limits the size of errors and ensures data consistency.

6.Passenger-miles of travel (pmt) are calculated by multiplying vmt estimates by vehicle loading (or occupancy) factors from various sources, such as the Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey conducted by FHWA and TIUS.Thus, pmt data are subject to the same accuracy issues as vmt, along with uncertainties associated with estimating vehicle loading factors.

Transit

The American Public Transit Association (APTA) figures are based on information in USDOT, Federal Transit Administration (FTA), National Transit Database.Transit data are generally considered accurate because FTA reviews and validates information submitted by individual transit agencies.However, reliability may vary because some transit agencies cannot obtain accurate information or may misinterpret data.APTA adjusts the FTA data to include transit operators that do not report to the FTA database (private, very small, and rural operators).

Class I Rail (vehicle-miles)

Data are from Railroad Facts, published annually by the Association of American Railroads (AAR).  AAR data are based on 100-percent reporting by Class I railroads to the Surface Transportation Board (STB) via Schedule 700 of the R1 Annual Report required of Class I railroads.STB defines Class I railroads as having operating revenues at or above a threshold indexed to a base of $250 million (1991) and adjusted annually in concert with changes in the Railroad Freight Rate Index published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.In 1998, the threshold for Class I railroads was $259.4 million.Declassification from Class I status occurs when a railroad falls below the applicable threshold for three consecutive years.Although Class I railroads represent only 2 percent of railroads in the country, they account for over 70 percent of the industry’s mileage.

Intercity Train

The AAR passenger-miles number is based on an almost 100-percent count of tickets and, therefore, is considered accurate.

TABLE 1-33. Long-Distance Travel in the United States by Selected Trip Characteristics: 1995

TABLE 1-34. Long-Distance Travel in the United States by Selected Traveler Characteristics: 1995

The data presented in these tables are estimates derived from the 1995 American Travel Survey (ATS) conducted for the U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics. The survey’s estimation procedure inflates unweighted sample results to independent estimates of the total population of the United States. Values for missing data are estimated through imputation procedures.

Since ATS estimates come from a sample, they are subject to two possible types of error: nonsampling and sampling. Sources of nonsampling errors include inability to obtain information about all sample cases, errors made in data collection and processing, errors made in estimating values for missing data, and undercoverage.

The accuracy of an estimate depends on both types of error, but the full extent of the nonsampling error is unknown. Consequently, the user should be particularly careful when interpreting results based on a relatively small number of cases or on small differences between estimates.

Standard errors for ATS estimates that indicate the magnitude of sampling error as well as complete documentation of the source and reliability of the data may be obtained from detailed ATS reports.Because of methodological differences, users should use caution when comparing these data with data from other sources.

TABLE 1-35. U.S. Air Carrier Departures, Enplaned Revenue Passengers, and Enplaned Revenue Tons

The Airport Activity Statistics of Certificated Air Carriers (AAS) is the source of these data.Published annually by the U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Office of Airline Information (OAI), the AAS presents traffic statistics for all scheduled and nonscheduled service by large certificated U.S. air carriers for each airport served within the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and other U.S. areas designated by the Federal Aviation Administration.The publication draws its data from the T-100 and T-3 databases maintained by OAI.These data are based on a 100-percent reporting of enplanements, departures, and tonnage information by large certificated U.S. air carriers via BTS Form 41.

Prior to 1993, the AAS included all scheduled and some nonscheduled enplanements for certificated air carriers but did not include enplanements for air carriers offering charter service only.Prior to 1990, the freight category was divided into both freight and express shipments and the mail category was divided into U.S. mail (priority and nonpriority) and foreign mail.Beginning in 1990, only aggregate numbers were reported for freight and mail.

Air traffic hubs are designated as geographical areas based on the percentage of total passengers enplaned in the area.A hub may have more than one airport.This definition of hub should not be confused with the definition used by airlines in describing their “hub-and-spoke” route structures.

TABLE 1-36. Passengers Boarded at the Top 50 U.S. Airports

The Airport Activity Statistics of Certificated Air Carriers (AAS), is the source of these data.Data for 1998 are from the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), Federal Aviation Administration’s Statistical Handbook of Aviation.Published by USDOT, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Office of Airline Information (OAI), the AAS presents traffic statistics for all scheduled and nonscheduled service by large certificated U.S. air carriers for each airport served within the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and other U.S. areas designated by the Federal Aviation Administration.The publication draws its data from the T-100 and T-3 databases maintained by OAI.These data are based on a 100-percent reporting of enplanements, departures, and tonnage information by large certificated U.S. air carriers via BTS Form 41.

Prior to 1993, the AAS included all scheduled and some nonscheduled enplanements for certificated air carriers but did not include enplanements for air carriers offering charter service only.Prior to 1990, the freight category was divided into both freight and express shipments and the mail category was divided into U.S. mail (priority and nonpriority) and foreign mail.Beginning in 1990, only aggregate numbers were reported for freight and mail.

TABLE 1-37. Air Passenger Travel Arrivals in the United States from Selected Foreign Countries

TABLE 1-38. Air Passenger Travel Departures from the United States to Selected Foreign Countries

The International Trade Administration in the U. S. Department of Commerce publishes these data, which are based on information collected from 100,000 international visitors.

TABLE 1-41. U.S. Ton-Miles of Freight

Air Carrier

Air Carrier Traffic Statistics, published by the U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics (BTS), Office of Airline Information (OAI), is the source of these data.Large certificated U.S. air carriers report domestic freight activities to OAI via BTS Form 41.The information reported in the table represents transportation of freight (excluding passenger baggage), U.S. and foreign mail, and express mail within the 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands.It also covers transborder traffic to Canada and Mexico by U.S. carriers.  The data does not include information on small certificated air carriers, which represent less than 5 percent of freight ton-miles.

Intercity Truck

The data are estimates from Transportation in America, published by the Eno Transportation Foundation, Inc. (Eno).  Eno’s estimates of intercity truck ton-miles are based on historic data from the former Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), estimates from the American Trucking Association, and other sources.Eno supplements its estimates by using additional information on vehicle-miles of truck travel published in Highway Statistics by the Federal Highway Administration.Users should note that truck estimates in the tables do not include local truck movements.

Class I Rail

The data are from Railroad Facts, published annually by the Association of American Railroads (AAR).  AAR data are based on 100-percent reporting by Class I railroads to the Surface Transportation Board (STB).The data represent all revenue freight activities of the Class I railroads and are not based on information from the Rail Waybill Sample. The STB defines Class I railroads as having operating revenues at or above a threshold indexed to a base of $250 million (1991) and adjusted annually in concert with changes in the Railroad Freight Rate Index published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.In 1998, the threshold for Class I railroads was $259.4 million.  Declassification from Class I status occurs when a railroad falls below the applicable threshold for three consecutive years.Although the Class I railroads represented only 2 percent of the number of railroads in the country, they account for over 90 percent of the rail industry’s freight revenues.

Domestic Water Transport

The data are from Waterborne Commerce of the United States, published by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE).All vessel operators of record report their domestic waterborne traffic movements to USACE via ENG Forms 3925 and 3925b.Cargo movements are reported according to points of loading and unloading.  Certain cargo movements are excluded: 1) cargo carried on general ferries, 2) coal and petroleum products loaded from shore facilities directly into vessels for fuel use, 3) military cargo moved in U.S. Department of Defense vessels, and 4) cargo weighing less than 100 tons moved on government equipment.USACE calculates ton-miles by multiplying the cargo’s tonnage by the distance between the points of loading and unloading.

Oil Pipeline

The data for 1960, 1965, and 1970 are from Transportation in America, published by the Eno Transportation Foundation, Inc., and the data for 1975 to 1998 are from Shifts in Petroleum Transportation, by the Association of Oil Pipe Lines (AOPL).Eno’s data are based on information from the former Interstate Commerce Commission’s Transport Economics.Common carrier oil pipelines reported all freight activities to the ICC.

AOPL obtains barrel-miles from the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), which requires petroleum shippers to report annual shipments.  AOPL then coverts barrel-miles to ton-miles using conversion figures in the American Petroleum Institute’s (API’s) Basic Petroleum Data Book.Since 16 percent of pipeline shipments are intrastate and not subject to FERC reporting requirements, AOPL makes adjustments to FERC data.

TABLE 1-42. Average Length of Haul:Domestic Freight and Passenger Modes

Freight

Air Carrier and Truck

The Eno Transportation Foundation, Inc. estimated these figures.

Class I Rail

The data are from Railroad Facts, published annually by the Association of American Railroads (AAR).  AAR data are based on 100-percent reporting by Class I railroads to the Surface Transportation Board (STB) via Schedule 700 of the R1 Annual Report required of Class I railroads.The STB defined Class I railroads as having operating revenues at or above a threshold indexed to a base of $250 million (1991) and adjusted annually in concert with changes in the Railroad Freight Rate Index published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics.In 1998, the threshold for Class I railroads was $259.4 million.  Declassification from Class I status occurs when a railroad falls below the applicable threshold for three consecutive years.Although Class I railroads represent only 2 percent of railroads in the country, they account for over 70 percent of the industry’s mileage.

Water

The data are from Waterborne Commerce of the United States, published by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE).All vessel operators of record report their domestic waterborne traffic movements to USACE via ENG Forms 3925 and 3925b.Cargo movements are reported according to points of loading and unloading.  Certain cargo movements are excluded: 1) cargo carried on general ferries, 2) coal and petroleum products loaded from shore facilities directly into vessels for fuel use, 3) military cargo moved in U.S. Department of Defense vessels, and 4) cargo weighing less than 100 tons moved on government equipment.USACE calculates ton-miles by multiplying the cargo’s tonnage by the distance between points of loading and unloading.

Oil Pipeline

The Eno Transportation Foundation, Inc., provided these figures, which are estimates based on U.S. Department of Energy and Association of Oil Pipe Lines reports.Figures are derived by dividing estimated pipeline ton-miles by estimated crude and petroleum products tonnage.

Passenger

Air Carrier

The U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), the Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Office of Airline Information, reports average trip length in its publication Air Traffic Statistics.These numbers are based on 100-percent reporting of passengers and trip length by large certificated air carriers via BTS Form 41.The figures do not include data for all airlines, such as most scheduled commuter airlines and all nonscheduled commuter airlines.

Bus

The Eno Transportation Foundation, Inc. estimated these figures based on Class I carrier passenger data and vehicle-miles data from Highway Statistics, an annually published report of the USDOT, Federal Highway Administration.

Commuter Rail

The American Public Transit Association (APTA) provided these data, which are based on the USDOT, Federal Transit Administration’s (FTA’s), National Transit Database.Transit data are generally accurate because the FTA reviews and validates information submitted by individual transit agencies.Reliability may vary because some transit agencies cannot obtain accurate information or may misinterpret data.APTA conservatively adjusts FTA data to include transit operators that do not report to the database (private, very small, and rural operators).

Intercity/Amtrak

The Statistical Appendix to the Amtrak Annual Report is the source of these data.Amtrak data are based on 100 percent of issued tickets, and thus should be accurate.

TABLE 1-43. Top U.S. Foreign Trade Freight Gateways by Value of Shipments: 1998

The value of U.S. air, maritime, and land imports and exports are captured from administrative documents required by the U.S. Departments of Commerce and Treasury.In 1990, the United States entered into a Memorandum of Understanding with Canada concerning the exchange of import data.As a consequence, each country is using the other’s import data to replace its own export data.U.S. international merchandise trade statistics, therefore, are no longer derived exclusively from the administrative records of the Departments of Commerce and Treasury, but from Revenue Canada.Import value is for U.S. general imports, customs value basis.  Export value is FAS (free along ship) and represents the value of exports at the U.S. port of export, including the transaction price and inland freight, insurance, and other charges.  Trade levels reflect the mode of transportation as a shipment entered or exited a U.S. Customs port.

Truck, rail pipeline, mail, and miscellaneous modes are included in the total for land modes. Data present trade activity between the United States, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands and Canada and Mexico.These statistics do not include traffic between Guam, Wake Island, and America Samoa and Canada and Mexico.These statistics also exclude imports that are valued at less than $1,250 and for exports that are valued at less than $2,500.

TABLE 1-46. U.S. Waterborne Freight

The data are from Waterborne Commerce of the United States, published by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). All vessel operators of record report their domestic waterborne traffic movements to USACE via ENG Forms 3925 and 3925b.  Cargo movements are reported according to points of loading and unloading.Certain cargo movements are excluded: 1) cargo carried on general ferries, 2) coal and petroleum products loaded from shore facilities directly into vessels for fuel use, 3) military cargo moved in U.S. Department of Defense vessels, and 4) cargo weighing less than 100 tons moved on government equipment.  USACE calculates ton-miles by multiplying the cargo’s tonnage by the distance between points of loading and unloading.

Foreign waterborne statistics are derived from Census Bureau and U.S. Customs data, which excludes traffic between Guam, Wake Island, and American Samoa and any other foreign country, and imports and exports used by U.S. Armed Forces abroad.Individual vessel movements with origins and destinations at U.S. ports, traveling via the Panama Canal are considered domestic traffic.

TABLE 1-47. Tonnage of Top 50 U.S. Water Ports, Ranked by Total Tons

Data on the weight of U.S. maritime imports and exports are captured from administrative documents required by the U.S. Departments of Commerce and Treasury.In 1990, the United States entered into a Memorandum of Understanding with Canada concerning the exchange of import data.As a consequence, each country is using the other’s import data to replace its own export data.The United States’ merchandise trade statistics, therefore, are no longer derived exclusively from U.S. government administrative records, but from Revenue Canada.  Maritime weight data are initially processed and edited by the Foreign Trade Division, U.S. Census Bureau (Census) as part of the overall edits and quality checks performed on all U.S. international merchandise trade data.After Census processing, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) and the Maritime Administration (MARAD) perform additional maritime-specific processing and quality edits on maritime-related data elements, including the weight of maritime imports and exports.The USACE and MARAD began performing this function in October 1998 after the Foreign Waterborne Trade data program was transferred from the Census Bureau.Prior to October 1998, the USACE historically performed additional specialized edits at the port level, including reassignment of some tonnage data to the actual waterborne port rather than the reported U.S. Customs port.

TABLE 1-43. Modal Shares of Freight Shipments within the United States by Domestic Establishments:1993 and 1997

TABLE 1-49. Value, Tons, and Ton- Miles of Freight Shipments within the United States by Domestic Establishment, 1997

TABLE 1-52. U.S. Hazardous Materials Shipments by Mode of Transportation, 1997

TABLE 1-53. U.S. Hazardous Materials Shipments by Hazard Class, 1997

These data are collected via the 1997 Commodity Flow Survey (CFS) undertaken through a partnership between the U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau (Census), and the U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics.For the 1997 CFS, Census conducted a sample of 100,000 domestic establishments randomly selected from a universe of about 800,000 multiestablishment companies in the mining, manufacturing, wholesale trade, and selected retail industries.  It excluded establishments classified as farms, forestry, fisheries, governments, construction, transportation, foreign, services, and most retail.

Reliability of the Estimates

An estimate based on a sample survey potentially contains two types of errors—sampling and nonsampling. Sampling errors occur because the estimate is based on a sample, not on the entire universe.Nonsampling errors can be attributed to many sources in the collection and processing of the data and occur in all data, not just those from a sample survey.The accuracy of a survey result is affected jointly by sampling and nonsampling errors.

Sampling Variability

Because the estimates are derived from a sample of the survey population, results are not expected to agree with those that might be obtained from a 100-percent census using the same enumeration procedure.However, because each establishment in the Standard Statistical Establishment List had a known probability of being selected for sampling, estimating the sampling variability of the estimates is possible.The standard error of the estimate is a measure of the variability among the values of the estimate computed from all possible samples of the same size and design.Thus, it is a measure of the precision with which an estimate from a particular sample approximates the results of a complete enumeration.The coefficient of variation is the standard error of the estimate divided by the value being estimated.It is expressed as a percent.Note that measures of sampling variability, such as the standard error or coefficient of variation, are estimated from the sample and are also subject to sampling variability.Standard errors and coefficients of variation for CFS data presented in this report are given in Appendix B of the 1997 Economic Census report, and are available online www.census.gov/econ/wwwse0700.html.

Nonsampling Errors

In the CFS, as in other surveys, nonsampling errors can be attributed to many sources, including 1) nonresponse; 2) response errors; 3) differences in the interpretation of questions; 4) mistakes in coding or recoding the data; and 5) other errors of collection, response, coverage, and estimation.

A potentially large source of nonsampling error is due to nonresponse, which is defined as the inability to obtain all intended measurements or responses from selected establishments.Nonresponse is corrected by imputation.

TABLE 1-50. Value of U.S. Land Exports to and Imports from Canada and Mexico by Mode

The Transborder Surface Freight Data (TSFD) is derived from official U.S. international merchandise import and export data. (For a description of U.S. merchandise trade statistics, see www.census.gov/foreign-trade/www/index.html.)  As of December 1995, about 96 percent of the value of all U.S. imports has been collected electronically by the Automated Broker Interface System. About 55 percent of the value of all U.S. exports is collected electronically through the U.S./Canada Data Exchange and the Automated Export Reporting Program.The balance is collected from administrative records required by the U.S. Departments of Commerce and Treasury.

The TSFD incorporates all data, by surface mode, on shipments entering or exiting the United States from or to Canada or Mexico.  Prior to January 1997, this dataset also included transshipments—shipments entering or exiting the United States by way of U.S. Customs ports on the northern or southern borders even when the actual origin or final destination of the goods was other than Canada or Mexico.(In other U.S. Bureau of the Census trade statistics, transshipments through Canada and Mexico are credited to the true country of origin or final destination.)  To make this dataset more comparable to other U.S. Census Bureau trade statistics, detailed information on transshipments has been removed.The TSFD presents a summary oftransshipments by country, direction of trade, and mode of transportation.  Shipments that neither originate nor terminate in the United States (i.e., intransits) are beyond the scope of this dataset because they are not considered U.S. international trade shipments.

In general, the reliability of U.S. foreign trade statistics is very good.  Users should be aware that trade data fields (e.g., value and commodity classification) are typically more rigorously reviewed than transportation data fields (e.g., the mode of transportation and port of entry/exit).Users should also be aware that the use of foreign trade data to describe physical transportation flows may not be accurate.For example, this dataset provides surface transportation information for individual U.S. Customs districts and ports on the northern and southern borders.  However, because of filing procedures for trade documents, these ports may or may not record where goods physically cross the border.This is because the information filer may choose to file trade documents at one port while shipments actually enter or exit at another port.The TSFD, however, is the best publicly available approximation for analyzing transborder transportation flows.

Since the dataset was introduced in April 1993, it has gone through several refinements and improvements.When improbabilities and inconsistencies were found in the dataset, extensive analytical reviews were conducted and improvements made.However, accuracy varies by direction of trade and individual field.For example, import data are generally more accurate than export data.This is primarily because the U.S. Customs Bureau uses import documents for enforcement purposes while it performs no similar function for exports.  For additional information on TSFD, the reader is referred to the U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics Internet site at www.bts.gov/transborder.

TABLE 1-51. Crude Oil and Petroleum Products Transported in the United States by Mode

Pipelines

The Association of Oil Pipelines (AOPL) obtains barrel-miles from the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), which requires petroleum shippers to report annual shipments.AOPL then coverts barrel-miles to ton-miles using conversion figures in the American Petroleum Institute’s (API’s) Basic Petroleum Data Book.Since 16 percent of pipeline shipments are intrastate and not subject to FERC reporting requirements, AOPL makes adjustments to FERC data to include intrastate shipments.AOPL also conducts periodic studies to estimate intrastate shipments.

Water Carriers

Data are from Waterborne Commerce of the United States, published by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE).All vessel operators of record report domestic freight and tonnage information to USACE via ENG Forms 3925 and 3925b.Cargo movements are reported according to points of loading and unloading.  Certain cargo movements are excluded:  1) cargo carried on general ferries, 2) coal and petroleum products loaded from shore facilities directly into vessels for fuel use, 3) military cargo moved in U.S. Department of Defense vessels, and 4) cargo weighing less than 100 tons moved on government equipment.  USACE calculates ton-miles by multiplying the cargo’s tonnage by the distance between the points of loading and unloading.

Motor Carriers

AOPL estimates ton-miles by multiplying tons by the average length of haul.For crude, the tonnage of the prior year is projected by using a growth rate established by data from the U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration’s Petroleum Supply Annual, vol. 1, table 37.  For products, the same calculation is made but with a growth rate estimated by the American Trucking Association in Financial and Operating Statistics, Class I and II, Motor Carriers, Summary table VI-B.Average length of haul is determined from the prior six years of data for ton-miles and tonnage of crude and petroleum products moved by motor carriers.

Railroad

AOPL calculates ton-miles by multiplying tonnage by average length of haul.  Tonnage data for crude and products comes from the Association of American Railroad’s Freight Commodity Statistics, U.S. Class I Railroads.  The U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Commission provides the average length of haul for crude and products in its Carload Way Bill Statistics.

TABLE 1-54. Worldwide Commercial Space Launches

The U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Associate Administrator for Commercial Space Transportation (AST) licenses and regulates U.S. commercial space launches as authorized by the Commercial Space Launch Act of 1984 and Executive Order 12465.Every commercial space launch must be approved and monitored by AST.Thus, data reliability is high.

TABLE 1-55. Passengers Denied Boarding by the Largest U.S. Air Carriers

TABLE 1-56. Mishandled-Baggage Reports Filed by Passengers with the Largest U.S. Air Carriers

TABLE 1-57. Flight Operations Arriving On Time for the Largest U.S. Air Carriers

These numbers are based on data filed with the U.S. Department of Transportation on a monthly basis by the largest U.S. air carriers – those that have at least one percent of total domestic scheduled-service passenger revenues.  Data cover nonstop scheduled service flights between points within the United States (including territories).  The largest U.S. carriers account for more than 90 percent of domestic operating revenues.They include Alaska Airlines, America West Airlines, American Airlines, Continental Airlines, Delta Air Lines, Northwest Airlines, Trans World Airlines, Southwest Airlines, United Airlines, and US Airways.However, there are other carriers offering domestic scheduled passenger service that are not required to report.In some cases, major airlines sell tickets for flights that are actually operated by a smaller airline that is not subject to the reporting requirement.

TABLE 1-58. U.S. Air Carrier Delays Greater than 15 Minutes by Cause

The source of these data, the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), counts a flight as delayed if it departed or arrived more than 15 minutes after its scheduled gate departure and arrival times.FAA calculates delayed departures based on the difference between the time a pilot requests FAA clearance to taxi and the time an aircraft’s wheels lift off the runway, minus the airport’s standard unimpeded taxi-out time.Users should note that taxi-out time varies by airport due to differences in configurations.The cause of delay is also recorded, e.g., weather, terminal volume, closed runways, etc.

USDOT guidance defines departure as the time the aircraft parking brake is released and gate arrival as the time the brake is set.According to the USDOT’s Office of the Inspector General (OIG), FAA’s omission of part of a plane’s ground movement compromises the data’s validity.A recent OIG report noted that the FAA tracks ground time only after a pilot requests clearance and fails to track a plane’s time in the ramp area.OIG found that ramp time comprised 28.7 percent to 40.5 percent of the average taxi-out time at the three major New York area airports (OIG Audit Report CR-2000-112), and would not be counted as an FAA delay.

Reliability

Several data collection changes complicate comparisons over time.For example, FAA modified its method for calculating volume-related delays that resulted in a 17 percent drop in such delays.  Decreases in volume-related delays from 1998 to 1999 totaled less than one percent.Moreover, prior to 1999, USDOT did not provide a clear definition of what a departure was.An OIG Audit (CE-1999-054) report noted that air carriers used four different departure events: 1) rolling of aircraft wheels; 2) release of parking brake; 3) closure of passenger and/or cargo doors; and 4) a combination of door closures and release of the parking break.The same report also noted errors in the reporting of departure times by the air carriers.

Data are now manually entered in FAA’s Operations Network (OSPNET) database, and reporting errors may arise and decrease reliability.The FAA monitors data quality assurance by spot checking the reported delay data and requesting that discrepancies be reviewed by the responsible facility.According to an OIG Audit (CR-2000-112), however, mistakes are not reliably corrected and many air traffic controllers suggested that delays are underreported sometimes by as much as 30 percent.

TABLE 1-59. Major U.S. Air Carrier Delays, Cancellations, and Diversions

A second data source for air-carrier delay is the USDOT, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Office of Airline Information (OAI).This information originates from the Airline Service Quality Performance data. These figures are collected from the largest airlines—those that have at least one percent or more of total domestic scheduled service passenger revenues. Delays are categorized by phase of flight (i.e., gate-hold, taxi-out, airborne, or taxi-in delays).  These data differ from FAA’s OSPNET information due to differences in definition of delay.

While the FAA tracks delays on the taxiway, runway, and in the air, BTS tracks delays at the departure and arrival gates.OAI calculates delays as the difference between scheduled and actual gate departure.If a flight leaves the gate within 15 minutes of its scheduled time, then OAI would record it as departed on-time even if it sat for several hours on the ramp or runway, in which case the delay would be accounted for as a late arrival. 

TABLE 1-60. Annual Person-Hours of Delay Per Eligible Drive

TABLE 1-61.Roadway Congestion Index

TABLE 1-62.Congestion Index and Cost Values

The Texas Transportation Institute’s (TTI) Urban Roadway Congestion Annual Report provided figures for tables 1-54 through 56.TTI relies on data from the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Highway Performance Monitoring System database (HPMS).  TTI utilizes these data as inputs to its congestion estimation model.Detailed documentation for the TTI model and estimations can be found at this website http://mobility.tamu.edu/study/index.stm. 

Structure, Assumptions, and Parameters

Urban roadway congestion levels are estimated using a formula measuring traffic density. Average travel volume per lane on freeways and principal arterial streets are estimated using area wide estimates of vehicle-miles of travel (vmt) and lane miles of roadway. The resulting ratios are combined using the amount of travel on each portion of the system so that the combined index measures conditions on the freeway and principal arterial street systems. Values greater than one are indicative of undesirable congestion levels.Readers seeking the algorithm for the congestion index should examine this websitehttp://mobility.tamu.edu/study/numbers.stm.

Annual person-hours of delay results from the multiplication of daily vehicle-hours of incident and recurring delay times 250 working days per year times 1.25 persons per vehicle.Two types of costs are incurred due to congestion: time delay and fuel consumption.Delay costs are the product of passenger vehicle hours of delay times $12.00 per hour person time value times 1.25 occupants per vehicle.Fuel costs are calculated for passenger and commercial vehicles from the multiplication of peak period congestion speeds, the average fuel economy, fuel costs, and vehicle-hours of delay.

In previous reports, the TTI methodology assumed that 45 percent of all traffic, regardless of the urban location, occurred in congested conditions.  TTI indicated that this assumption overestimated travel in congested periods.Thus, their 1999 estimates now vary by urban area anywhere from 21 percent to 50 percent of travel that occurs in congestion.TTI’s model structure applies to two types of roads: freeways and principal arterial streets.The model derives estimates of vehicle traffic per lane and traffic speed for an entire urban area.Based on variation in these amounts, travel is then classified under 5 categories: uncongested, moderately congested, heavily congested, severely congested, and extremely congested (a new category in 1999).The threshold between uncongested and congested was changed in 1999.  Previous editions classified congested travel when areawide traffic levels reached 13,000 vehicles per lane per day on highways and 5,000 vehicles per lane per day on principal arterial streets.These thresholds were raised in the latest report to 14,000 and 5,500 vehicles per lane per day respectively.  Comparisons across time will be questionable due to these changes.For instance, TTI applied the new methodology to 1996 data that resulted in lower congestion levels.Readers should refer to the TTI Internet site for more detailed algorithms and estimation procedures at http://mobility.tamu.edu/estimating_mobility.

TTI reviews and adjusts the data used in their models.State and local officials also review the TTI data and estimations.Some of the limitations acknowledged in the TTI report include the macroscopic character of the index. Thus, it does not account for local variations in travel patterns that may affect travel times.The index also does not account for local improvements, such as ramp metering or travel speed advantages obtained with transit or carpool lanes.

TABLE 1-63.Amtrak On-Time Performance Trends and Hours of Delay by Cause

Amtrak determines on-time performance through its computer system maintained at the National Operations Center (NOPS) in Wilmington, Delaware.If a train is delayed, a call is made to the NOPS for recordkeeping.These data can be supplemented with computer entries made for locomotive or car malfunctions that cause delays.These data should be considered reliable.

Chapter 2Safety

AIR DATA

TABLE 2-1. Transportation Fatalities by Mode

TABLE 2-2. Injured Persons by Transportation Mode

TABLE 2-3. Transportation Accidents by Mode

TABLE 2-4. Distribution of Transportation Fatalities by Mode

TABLE 2-7. Transportation-Related Occupational Fatalities

TABLE 2-9. U.S. Air Carrier Safety Data

TABLE 2-10. U.S. Commuter Air Carrier Safety Data

TABLE 2-11. U.S. Air Carrier Fatal Accidents by First Phase of Operation

TABLE 2-12. U.S. Commuter Air Carrier Fatal Accidents by First Phase of Operation

TABLE 2-13. U.S. On-Demand Air Taxi Safety Data

TABLE 2-14. U.S. General Aviation Safety Data

National Transportation Safety Board investigators perform onsite and offsite investigations of all accidents involving U.S. registered air carriers operating under 14 CFR 121, 14 CFR 135, and general aviation U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulations.  The investigators compile information on fatalities and injuries for all accidents.The counts for fatalities and serious injuries are expected to be extremely accurate.(See glossary for serious injury definition.)

Exposure data (aircraft-miles, aircraft-hours, and aircraft-departures) are obtained from the FAA, which in turn gets some of its exposure data from the USDOT, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Office of Airline Information (OAI) and other exposure data from its own General Aviation and Air Taxi Activity and Avionics (GAATAA) Survey.The OAI data represent 100 percent reporting by airlines.Tables that include air carriers (14 CFR 121, scheduled and nonscheduled service) and commuter air carriers (14 CFR 135, scheduled service only) use OAI exposure data.  Tables that include on-demand air taxi (14 CFR 135, nonscheduled service) and general aviation use GAATAA Survey results.For information about the GAATA Survey, please refer to the chapter 1 data accuracy statement for table 1-9.

The coefficients of variation for aircraft-hours vary by year, but are usually in the 9 to 10 percent range for on-demand air taxi and are approximately 2 percent for general aviation.

TABLE 2-15. Number of Pilot-Reported Near Midair Collisions by Degree of Hazard

Near Midair Collision reports are provided voluntarily by air carriers, general aviation companies, and the military, and this information is added to the Near Midair Collisions System database.Factors that may influence whether or not a near midair collision is reported include the pilot’s or other crew member’s perception of whether a reportable near midair collision occurred, which in turn can depend on factors such as visibility conditions; the reporter’s flying experience; or the size of the aircraft involved.A reportable incident is one in which an aircraft is within 500 feet of another aircraft and a possibility of collision existed.

TABLE 2-16. Airline Passenger Screening Results by Type of Weapons Detected, Persons Arrested, and Bomb Threats Received

Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) mandate that passenger screening be performed by each air carrier required to implement an approved security program.The USDOT, Federal Aviation Administration, monitors the records of passenger screening in accordance with FAR, and oversees compliance with the carriers’ security programs through, for example, scheduled and unscheduled inspections.FAR requires the reporting of information on bomb threats.

HIGHWAY DATA

TABLE 2-1.Transportation Fatalities by Mode

TABLE 2-2. Transportation Injuries by Mode

TABLE 2-3. Transportation Accidents by Mode

TABLE 2-4. Distribution of Transportation Fatalities by Mode

TABLE 2-5. Highway-Rail Grade-Crossing Safety Data and Property Damage

TABLE 2-7. Transportation-Related Occupational Fatalities

TABLE 2-17. Motor Vehicle Safety Data

TABLE 2-18. Motor Vehicle Fatalities, Vehicle-Miles, and Associated Rates by Highway Functional System

TABLE 2-19. Occupant Fatalities by Vehicle Type and Nonoccupant Fatalities

TABLE 2-21. Passenger Car Occupant Safety Data

TABLE 2-22. Motorcycle Ride Safety Data

TABLE 2-23. Truck Occupant Safety Data

TABLE 2-24. Bus Occupant Safety Data

TABLE 2-25. Fatalities by Highest Blood Alcohol Concentration in Highway Crashes

TABLE 2-27. Motor Vehicle Fatal Crashes by Day of Week, Time of Day, and Weather and Light Conditions

TABLE 2-28. Motor Vehicle Fatal Crashes by Posted Speed Limit  

TABLE 2-20. Occupant and Nonmotorist Fatalities in Crashes by Number of Vehicles and Alcohol Involvement

Fatalities

Highway fatality data come from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS), which is compiled by trained FARS analysts at USDOT, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) regional offices. Data are gathered from a census of police accident reports (PARs), state vehicle registration files, state drivers licensing files, state highway department data, vital statistics, death certificates, coroner/medical examiner reports, hospital medical reports, and emergency medical service reports.A separate form is completed for each fatal crash.Blood alcohol concentration (BAC) is estimated when not known.  Statistical procedures used for unknown data in FARS can be found in the NHTSA report A Method for Estimating Posterior BAC Distributions for Persons Involved in Fatal Traffic Accidents, DOT HS 807 094 (Washington, DC: July 1986). 

Data are collected from relevant state agencies and electronically submitted for inclusion in the FARs database on a continuous basis.Cross-verification of PARs with death certificates ensures that undercounting is rare.Moreover, when data are entered, they are checked automatically for acceptable range values and consistency, enabling quick corrections when necessary.  Several programs continually monitor the data for completeness and accuracy.Periodically, sample cases are analyzed for accuracy and consistency.

Note that the FARS data do not include motor vehicle fatalities on nonpublic roads.However, previous NHTSA analysis found that these fatalities account for 2 percent or fewer of the total motor vehicle fatalities per year. (See glossary for highway fatality definition.)

Injuries and Crashes

NHTSA’s General Estimates System (GES) data are a nationally representative sample of police-reported crashes that contributed to an injury or fatality or resulted in property damage, and involved at least one motor vehicle traveling on a trafficway.  Trained GES data collectors randomly sample PARs and forward copies to a central contractor for coding into a standard GES system format.Documents such as police diagrams or supporting text provided by the officers may be further reviewed to complete a data entry.

NHTSA suggests that about half of motor vehicle crashes in the United States are not reported to police and that the majority of these unreported crashes involve minor property damage and no significant personal injury.A NHTSA study ofinjuries from motor vehicle crashes estimated the total count of nonfatal injuries at over 5 million compared with the GES’s estimate of 3.2 million in 1998.  (See glossary for highway crash and injury definitions.)

(See U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Traffic Safety Facts, 1998, DOT HS 808 983 (Washington, DC: October 1999), appendices B and C for further information on the GES, including a table of standard errors applicable to GES data.)

TABLE 2-29. Safety Belt and Motorcycle Helmet Use

The National Occupant Protection Use Survey (NOPUS), conducted in 1994, 1996, and 1998 by the U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration is the source for these data.

In 1994 and 1996, NOPUS consisted of three separate studies: 1) the Moving Traffic Study, which provides information on overall shoulder belt use, 2) the Controlled Intersection Study, which provides more detailed information about shoulder belt use by type of vehicle, characteristics of the belt users and child restraint use, and 3) the Shopping Center Study, which provides information on rear-seat belt use and shoulder belt misuse.In 1998, the Shopping Center Study was dropped from the survey.  The Controlled Intersection Study includes the collection of license plate information to link seat belt use to vehicle type.As the results of the Controlled Intersection Study for 1998 were not available prior to publication, only the Moving Traffic Study data were used in this table.

In 1998, the NOPUS separated pickups from the light truck category, thereby creating three categories of passenger vehicles:passenger cars, pickup trucks, and other passenger vehicles.Other passenger vehicles include vans, minivans, and sport utility vehicles.In this table, 1998 data for pickup trucks and other vehicles are combined into the light truck category to allow comparison to data from the earlier surveys.

In 1994, operators and riders wearing any type of helmet were counted as helmeted.In 1996 and 1998, motorcycle helmets that meet USDOT standards are counted as valid protection, whereas those that do not meet USDOT standards were treated as if the operator/rider were not wearing a helmet.

Data collection from the moving traffic study was conducted at over 3,800 sites across the country.Shoulder belt use was obtained for drivers and right-front passengers only.Three observers (two observers in 1994 and 1996) were stationed for 30 minutes at interstate/highway exit ramps, controlled (intersections with stop signs or traffic signals), and uncontrolled intersections.Every day of the week and all daylight hours (8 a.m. to 6 p.m.) were covered in each survey.Commercial and emergency vehicles were excluded.

NOPUS was designed as a multistage probability sample to ensure that the results would represent occupant protection use in the country.In the first stage, counties were grouped by region (northeast, midwest, south, west), level of urbanization (metropolitan or not), and level of belt use (high, medium, or low).Fifty counties or groups of counties were selected based on the vehicle miles of travel in those locations.In the next stage, roadways were selected from two categories: major roads and local roads.  Finally, approximately 4,000 intersections or exit ramps were chosen on these roadways. Of the originally selected sites, some were found to be ineligible during mapping and data collection, and at some sites no vehicles were observed.In 1998, a total of 199,412 passenger cars, 135,505 light trucks (of which 76,004 were other vehicles and 59,501 were pickup trucks), and 1,444 motorcycles were observed.

Each reported estimate has been statistically weighted according to the sample design. Two kinds of error can be attributed to all survey research: sampling and nonsampling. A measure, called the standard error, is used to indicate the magnitude of sampling error.The source information provides two standard errors along with each estimate.  Nonsampling errors could include problems such as vehicles not counted, incorrect determination of restraint use, and data entry mistakes, among others.

TABLE 2-30. Estimated Number of Lives Saved by Use of Restraints

The U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) uses data obtained from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System to calculate the number of lives saved by the use of restraints.The methodology used is outlined in a NHTSA report, Research Note, Estimating Lives Saved by Restraint Use in Potentially Fatal Crashes (Washington, DC: June 1995).The general approach is to adjust the observed number of fatalities by a determined effectiveness rate for each type of restraint.This equates to subtracting the actual fatalities from the potential fatalities to determine the number of lives saved.This method is more accurate than earlier estimation methods since all calculations are derived from NHTSA’s count of fatalities in which restraints were used.Reported restraint use is believed to be accurate for fatalities.

The key to NHTSA’s calculations is the effectiveness estimate for preventing fatalities for each type of restraint.With the exception of an adjustment in the effectiveness estimate for front outboard air bag-only restraint use in passenger cars (NHTSA, Fourth Report to Congress, Effectiveness of Occupant Protection Systems and Their Use, Washington, DC, May 1999), a list of effectiveness estimates can be found in a NHTSA report, Estimating Alcohol Involvement in Fatal Crashes in Light of Increases in Restraint Use, published in March 1998.This report also includes additional references describing the determination of these effectiveness estimates.

TRANSIT DATA

TABLE 2-1. Transportation Fatalities by Mode

TABLE 2-2. Transportation Injuries by Mode

TABLE 2-3. Transportation Accidents by Mode

TABLE 2-4. Distribution of Transportation Fatalities by Mode

TABLE 2-31. Transit Safety and Property Damage Data

TABLE 2-32. Transit Safety Data by Mode for All Reported Accidents

TABLE 2-33. Transit Safety Data by Mode for All Reported Incidents

TABLE 2-34. Reports of Violent Crime, Property Crime, and Arrests by Transit Mode

The data for this report are obtained from the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration’s (FTA’s) National Transit Database (NTD) Reporting System.  Transit agencies are required to file an NTD report at regular intervals if they are recipients ofUrbanized Area Formula Funds. In 1998, 575 agencies reported to the NTD.Of that total, 60 transit agencies received exemptions from detailed reporting because they operated 9 or fewer vehicles, and 6 were deleted because their data were incomplete.Thus, 509 individual reporters were included in the NTD, accounting for 90 to 95 percent of passenger-miles traveled on transit.Of the transit agencies reporting, 56.2 percent contract for some or all of their transportation from private or public companies or organizations. 

Transit operators report fatalities, injuries, accidents, incidents, and property damage in excess of $1,000. Electronic reporting has recently been implemented for the NTD.  Certification from a company’s Chief Executive Officer must accompany all NTD reports along with an independent auditor’s statement.  Upon receipt, an NTD report is reviewed and outstanding items noted in writing to the agency that submitted the form.(See glossary for transit fatality, injury, and accident definitions.)

Four major categories of transit safety are collected: 1) collisions, 2) derailments/buses going off the road, 3) personal casualties, and 4) fires.These major categories are divided into subcategories.The collisions category comprises collisions with vehicles, objects, and people (except suicides).Of the four major categories, only the first two are included in the definition of transit accidents adopted in this report (see glossary).   Understanding this definition of accident is relevant to understanding how double counting is removed in the grand total of U.S. transportation fatalities and injuries.(See cross modal comments in box 2-1.)

Transit data submitted to the NTD are generally considered accurate because the FTA reviews and validates information submitted by individual transit agencies.  However, reliability may vary because some transit agencies cannot obtain accurate information or misinterpret data.

Security

FTA collects security data from transit agencies serving urbanized areas of over 200,000 in population, using Form 405, and manages it in the National Transit Database (NTD).  The reporting of security data follows the FBI Uniform Crime Reporting Handbook (Washington, DC:1984) and is divided into two categories:1) Reported Offenses, including violent and property crime, and 2) Arrests, consisting of less serious crimes.The figures for violent and property crime are based on records of calls for service, complaints, and/or investigations.They do not reflect the findings of a court, coroner, jury, or decision of a prosecutor.Security data were first reported in 1995 and were not compiled for earlier years.

In 1998, the number of agencies reporting to this database was 575.Of that, 60 transit agencies received exemptions from detailed reporting because they operated nine or fewer vehicles, and six were deleted because their data were incomplete.Thus, 509 individual reporters are included in the full database in 1998.Of the transit agencies reporting, 56.2 percent contract for some or all of their transportation from private or public companies or organizations.