General Perceived Self-Efficacy
General self-efficacy assesses a broad and stable
sense of personal competence to deal effectively
with a variety of stressful situations. This approach is not
in opposition to Bandura's
(1997)
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Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control.
New York: Freeman. suggestion that self-efficacy should
be conceptualized in a situation-specific manner. Rather,
general self-efficacy can be used to explain a complex set
of adherence behaviors (e.g., in diabetes) or the perception
of health or various symptoms. The General Self-Efficacy
(GSE) scale (Schwarzer
& Jerusalem, 1995
xClose
Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized Self-Efficacy
scale. In J. Weinman, S. Wright, & M. Johnston (Eds.),
Measures in Health Psychology: A user's portfolio. Causal
and control beliefs (pp. 35-37). Windsor, UK: NFER-NELSON.
) was created to predict coping with daily hassles
as well as adaptation after experiencing various kinds of
stressful life events (see Appendix).
Preferably, the 10 items are randomly mixed into a larger
pool of items that have the same response format. It requires
4 minutes on average to answer the questions. Responses are
made on a 4-point scale. Responses to all 10 items are summed
up to yield the final composite score, with a range from 10
to 40. No recoding. In samples from 23 nations, Cronbach's
alphas ranged from .76 to .90. The scale is unidimensional,
as found in a series of confirmatory factor analyses (Scholz,
Gutiérrez-Doña, Sud, & Schwarzer, 2002
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Scholz, U., Gutiérrez-Doña, B., Sud, S., & Schwarzer,
R. (2002). Is general self-efficacy a universal construct?
Psychometric findings from 25 countries. European Journal
of Psychological Assessment, 18, 242-251. ). Criterion-related
validity is documented in numerous correlation studies where
positive coefficients were found with favorable emotions,
dispositional optimism, and work satisfaction. Negative coefficients
were found with depression, anxiety, stress, burnout, and
health complaints. In studies with cardiac patients, their
recovery over a half-year time period could be predicted by
presurgery self-efficacy (for an overview of validation studies
see Luszczynska,
Gutiérrez-Doña, & Schwarzer, 2005
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Luszczynska, A., Gutiérrez-Doña, B., & Schwarzer,
R. (2005). General self-efficacy in various domains of human
functioning: Evidence from five countries. International
Journal of Psychology, 40, 80-89. ).
Perceived Self-Efficacy for Health Behaviors
A number of studies on the adoption of health practices have
measured self-efficacy to assess its potential influences
in initiating behavior change. Often single-item measures
or very brief scales (e.g., 4 items) have been used. It is
actually not necessary to use larger scales if a specific
behavior is to be predicted. More important is rigorous theory-based
item wording. A rule of thumb is to use the following semantic
structure: "I am certain that I can do xx, even if yy
(barrier)" (Luszczynska
& Schwarzer, 2005
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Luszczynska, A., & Schwarzer, R. (2005). Multidimensional
health locus of control: Comments on the construct and its
measurement. Journal of Health Psychology, 10, 633-642.
). If the target behavior is less specific, one can
either go for more items that jointly cover the area of interest,
or develop a few specific subscales. Whereas general self-efficacy
measures refer to the ability to deal with a variety of stressful
situations, measures of self-efficacy for health behaviors
refer to beliefs about the ability to perform certain
health behaviors. These behaviors may be defined
broadly (i.e., healthy food consumption) or in a narrow way
(i.e., consumption of high-fiber food).
Nutrition-Related or Dietary Self-Efficacy
Dieting, weight control, and preventive nutrition can be governed
by nutrition self-efficacy beliefs. It has been found that
nutrition self-efficacy operates best in concert with general
changes in lifestyle, including physical exercise and provision
of social support. Self-confident clients in intervention
programs were less likely to relapse to their previous unhealthy
diets (Bagozzi
& Edwards, 1998
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Bagozzi, R. P., & Edwards, E. A. (1998). Goal setting
and goal pursuit in the regulation of body weight. Psychology
and Health, 13, 593-621. ; Brug,
Hospers, & Kok, 1997
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Brug, J., Hospers, H. J., & Kok, G. (1997). Differences
in psychosocial factors and fat consumption between stages
of change for fat reduction. Psychology and Health, 12,
719-727. ; Fuhrmann
& Kuhl, 1998
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Fuhrmann, A., & Kuhl, J. (1998). Maintaining a healthy
diet: Effects of personality and self-reward versus self-punishment
on commitment to and enactment of self-chosen and assigned
goals. Psychology and Health, 13, 651-686. ;
Gollwitzer
& Oettingen, 1998
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Gollwitzer, P. M., & Oettingen, G. (1998). The emergence
and implementation of health goals. Psychology and Health,
13, 687-715. ).
Nutrition self-efficacy has been shown to
be a significant predictor of physical, social and self-evaluative
outcome expectancies regarding healthy nutrition (Anderson,
Winett, & Wojcik, 2000
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Anderson, E. S., Winett, R. A., & Wojcik, J. R. (2000).
Social-cognitive determinants of nutrition behavior among
supermarket food shoppers: A structural equation analysis.
Health Psychology, 19(5), 479-486. ). A study
using an objective measure of nutrition behavior, namely grocery
receipts, demonstrated that the effect of dietary fiber self-efficacy
on fat, fiber, fruit and vegetable intake was mediated by
physical outcome expectations. Nutrition goal setting was
linked to higher dietary fiber self-efficacy and actual fiber
intake (see Schnoll
& Zimmerman, 2001
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Schnoll, R., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2001). Self-regulation
training enhances dietary self-efficacy and dietary fiber
consumption. Journal of the American Dietetic Association,
101, 1006-1011. ). In a similar study, self-efficacy
to eat more fruit and vegetables as well as outcome expectancies
in terms of fruit and vegetable intake predicted a 24-hour
recall of actual fruit and vegetable intake (Resnicow
et al., 2000
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Resnicow, K., Wallace, D. S., Jackson, A., Digirolamo, A.,
Odom, E., Wang, T., Dudley, W. M., Davis, M., Mitchell, D.,
& Baranowski, T. (2000). Dietary change through African
American churches: Baseline results and program description
of the eat for life trial. Journal of Cancer Education,
15, 156-163. ). Additionally, these fruit- and
vegetable-specific predictors were inversely related to an
unhealthy diet, that is, high-fat cooking.
Studies aimed at predicting nutrition in vulnerable populations
or patients with chronic or terminal diseases usually provide
support for SCT. The nutrition of women 65 years or older
has been found to be related to current nutrition self-efficacy,
but not to outcome expectancies (Conn,
1997
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Conn, V. S. (1997). Older women: Social cognitive correlates
of health behavior. Women and Health, 26, 71-85.
). Besides knowledge about proper nutrition, dietary
self-efficacy and perceived spousal support were associated
with dietary behaviors amongst Type 2 diabetes patients (Savoca
& Miller, 2001
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Savoca, M., & Miller, C. (2001). Food selection and eating
patterns: Themes found among people with type-2 diabetes mellitus.
Journal of Nutrition Education, 33, 224-233. ).
Diabetes-related self-efficacy was found to be strongly related
to maintenance of diabetes self-care (diet, exercise and glucose
testing; see Bond,
2002
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Bond, M. J. (2002). The roles of self-efficacy, outcome expectancies
and social support in the self-care behaviors of diabetics.
Psychology, Health & Medicine, 7, 127-141. ).
The most powerful effects were observed when strong optimistic
self-beliefs were combined with strong beliefs about outcomes
(Bond,
2002
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Bond, M. J. (2002). The roles of self-efficacy, outcome expectancies
and social support in the self-care behaviors of diabetics.
Psychology, Health & Medicine, 7, 127-141. ).
Nutrition and exercise self-efficacy were also connected to
the maintenance of diet and physical activity in breast cancer
patients (Pinto
et al., 2002
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Pinto, B. M., Friedman, R., Marcus, B. H., Kelly, H., Tennstedt,
S., & Gillman, M. W. (2002). Effects of computer-based,
telephone-counseling system on physical activity. American
Journal of Preventive Medicine, 23, 113-120. ).
The measurement of this kind of self-efficacy aims at statements
that include control over the temptation to eat too much or
to choose the wrong foods. Items can include particular foods,
such as "I am certain that I can eat five portions of fruits
and vegetables per day," or can refer to self-regulatory efforts,
as in the example in the Appendix. Another way to assess nutrition
self-efficacy was presented by Anderson
et al. (2000)
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Anderson, E. S., Winett, R. A., & Wojcik, J. R. (2000).
Social-cognitive determinants of nutrition behavior among
supermarket food shoppers: A structural equation analysis.
Health Psychology, 19(5), 479-486. . Self-efficacy
was a predictor of nutrition behavior among shoppers (cf.
scale in the Appendix). Some instruments target very specific
components of nutrition, such as fat intake in specific populations.
An example of scale development is the following: Chang,
Nitzke, and Brown (2003)
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Chang, M., Nitzke, S., & Brown, R. L. (2003). Development
and validation of a self-efficacy measure for fat intake behaviors
of low-income women. Journal of Nutrition Education &
Behavior, 35, 302-307. have developed a self-efficacy
measure for eating low-fat diets in low-income women.
Physical Exercise Self-Efficacy
Perceived exercise self-efficacy has been
found to be a major instigating force in forming intentions
to exercise and in maintaining the practice for an extended
time (Dzewaltowski,
Noble, & Shaw, 1990
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Dzewaltowski, D. A., Noble, J. M., & Shaw, J. M. (1990).
Physical activity participation: Social cognitive theory versus
the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior. Journal
of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 12, 388-405. ;
Feltz
& Riessinger, 1990
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Feltz, D. L., & Riessinger, C. A. (1990). Effects of in
vivo emotive imagery and performance feedback on self-efficacy
and muscular endurance. Journal of Sport & Exercise
Psychology, 12, 132-143. ; McAuley, 1992
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McAuley, E. (1992). The role of efficacy cognitions in the
prediction of exercise behavior in middle-aged adults. Journal
of Behavioral Medicine, 15, 65-88. , 1993
xClose
McAuley, E. (1993). Self-efficacy and the maintenance of exercise
participation in older adults. Journal of Behavioral Medicine,
16, 103-113. ; Shaw,
Dzewaltowski, & McElroy, 1992
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Shaw, J. M., Dzewaltowski, D. A., & McElroy, M. (1992).
Self-efficacy and causal attributions as mediators of perceptions
of psychological momentum. Journal of Sport & Exercise
Psychology, 14, 134-147. ; Weinberg,
Grove, & Jackson, 1992
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Weinberg, R., Grove, R., & Jackson, A. (1992). Strategies
for building self-efficacy in tennis players: A comparative
analysis of Australian and American coaches. Sport Psychologist,
6, 3-13. ; Weiss,
Wiese, & Klint, 1989
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Weiss, M. R., Wiese, D. M., & Klint, K. A. (1989). Head
over heels with success: The relationship between self-efficacy
and performance in competitive youth gymnastics. Journal
of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11, 444-451. ).
The measurement of exercise self-efficacy may relate to a
specific task, such as "I am certain that I can run for
half an hour without stopping, even uphill." Or the target
behavior is not directly specified in favor of explicit barriers,
as shown in the example (cf. Appendix).
In the context of patient education (Lorig
et al., 1996
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Lorig, K., Stewart, A., Ritter, P., González, V., Laurent,
D., & Lynch, J. (1996). Outcome measures for health
education and other health care interventions. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage. ), physical activity self-efficacy
scales have been used (cf. Appendix).
The role of efficacy beliefs in initiating and maintaining
a regular program of physical exercise has also been studied
by Desharnais,
Bouillon, and Godin (1986)
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Desharnais, R., Bouillon, J., & Godin, G. (1986). Self-efficacy
and outcome expectations as determinants of exercise adherence.
Psychological Reports, 59, 1155-1159. , Long
and Haney (1988)
xClose
Long, B. C., & Haney, C. J. (1988). Coping strategies
for working women: Aerobic exercise and relaxation interventions.
Behavior Therapy, 19, 75-83. , Sallis
et al. (1986)
xClose
Sallis, J. F., Haskell, W. L., Fortmann, S. P., Vranizan,
K. M., Taylor, C. B., & Solomon, D. S. (1986). Predictors
of adoption and maintenance of physical activity in a community
sample. Preventive Medicine, 15, 331-341. ,
Sallis,
Hovell, Hofstetter, and Barrington (1992)
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Sallis, J. F., Hovell, M. F., Hofstetter, C. R., & Barrington,
E. (1992). Explanation of vigorous physical activity during
two years using social learning variables. Social Science
and Medicine, 34, 25-32. , and Wurtele
and Maddux (1987)
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Wurtele, S. K., & Maddux, J. E. (1987). Relative contributions
of protection motivation theory components in predicting exercise
intentions and behavior. Health Psychology, 6, 453-466.
. Endurance in physical performance was found to depend
on exercise efficacy beliefs that were created in a series
of experiments on competitive efficacy by Weinberg,
Gould, and Jackson (1979)
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Weinberg, R. S., Gould, D., & Jackson, A. (1979). Expectations
and performance: An empirical test of Bandura's self-efficacy
theory. Journal of Sport Psychology, 1, 320-331.
, Weinberg,
Gould, Yukelson, and Jackson (1981)
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Weinberg, R. S., Gould, D., Yukelson, D., & Jackson, A.
(1981). The effect of preexisting and manipulated self-efficacy
on competitive muscular endurance task. Journal of Sport
Psychology, 4, 345-354. , and Weinberg,
Yukelson, and Jackson (1980)
xClose
Weinberg, R. S., Yukelson, D., & Jackson, A. (1980). Effects
of public and private efficacy expectations on competitive
performance. Journal of Sport Psychology, 2, 340-349.
. In terms of competitive performance, tests of the
role of efficacy beliefs in tennis performance revealed that
perceived exercise efficacy was related to 12 rated performance
criteria (Barling
& Abel, 1983
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Barling, J., & Abel, M. (1983). Self-efficacy and tennis
performance. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 7, 265-272.
). A study on vigorous physical activity among school
girls provided strong support for SCT, modest support for
the TPB, and only weak support for the TRA (Motl
et al., 2002
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Motl, R. W., Dishman, R. K., Saundres, R. P., Dowda, M., Felton,
G., Ward, D. S., & Pate, R. R. (2002). Examining social-cognitive
determinants of intention and physical activity among Black
and White adolescent girls using structural equation modelling.
Health Psychology, 21, 459-467. ). Exercise
self-efficacy was the strongest predictor of moderate and
vigorous physical activity, whereas behavioral control predicted
only vigorous activity.
Alcohol Consumption and Self-Efficacy
This area of research can be subdivided into controlled
drinking self-efficacy, drinking refusal self-efficacy,
and abstinence self-efficacy. It is relevant
in clinical research on alcohol dependence, binge drinking,
and relapse prevention, but also primary prevention to examine
how youngsters believe that they can resist the temptation
to drink. Heavy drinkers had lower abstinence self-efficacy
than those who drink less or who drink only in social situations
(Christiansen,
Vik, & Jarchow, 2002
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Christiansen, M., Vik, P. W., & Jarchow, A. (2002). College
student heavy drinking in social contexts versus alone. Addictive
Behaviors, 27, 393-404. ). For alcohol consumption,
instruments were presented by Rychtarik,
Prue, Rapp, and King (1992)
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Rychtarik, R. G., Prue, D. M., Rapp, S. R., & King, A.
C. (1992). Self-efficacy, aftercare and relapse in a treatment
program from alcoholics. Journal of Studies on Alcohol,
53, 435-440. , Sitharthan
and Kavanagh (1990)
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Sitharthan, T., & Kavanagh, D. J. (1990). Role of self-efficacy
in predicting outcomes from a programme for controlled drinking.
Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 27, 87-94. ,
and Young,
Oei, and Crook (1991)
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Young, R. M., Oei, T. P. S., & Crook, G. M. (1991). Development
of a drinking self-efficacy questionnaire. Journal of Psychopathology
and Behavioral Assessment, 13, 1-15. .
Most of the research on self-efficacy and drinking behavior
has used the Situational Confidence Questionnaire
(SCQ; Annis, 1984
xClose
Annis, H. M. (1984). Situational Confidence Questionnaire,
short form. Toronto: Addiction Research Foundation. ,
1987
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Annis, H. M. (1987). Situational Confidence Questionnaire,
short form. Toronto: Addiction Research Foundation. ).
Ratings of self-efficacy have predicted drinking behavior
(Annis
& Davis, 1988
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Annis, H. M., & Davis, C. S. (1988). Assessment of expectancies.
In D. M. Donovan & G. A. Marlatt (Eds.), Assessment
of addictive behaviors (pp. 84-111). New York: Guilford.
). Adolescents with substance abuse, anxiety, and conduct
disorder, diagnostic combinations were found to have significantly
lower self-efficacy scores across all the SCQ subscales. Sitharthan,
Soames Job, Kavanagh, Sitharthan, and Hough (2003)
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Sitharthan, T., Soames Job, R. F., Kavanagh, D. J., Sitharthan,
G., & Hough, M. (2003). Development of a controlled drinking
self-efficacy scale and appraising its relation to alcohol
dependence. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 59, 351-362.
reported the factor structure of a 20-item Controlled
Drinking Self-Efficacy Scale (CDSES) that included
four factors: negative affect, positive mood/social context,
frequency of drinking, and consumption quantity. The CDSES
can be a useful measure in treatment programs providing a
moderation drinking goal. Assessing one's self-efficacy to
reduce alcohol consumption follows the same pattern as in
the previous examples. Items can target a highly specific
behavior such as "I am certain that I can refuse a drink tonight
when my buddies offer it to me." Or it can be less specific,
as proposed by Schwarzer
and Renner
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Schwarzer, R., & Renner, B. (2000). Social-cognitive predictors
of health behavior: Action self-efficacy and coping self-efficacy.
Health Psychology, 19, 487-495. (2000; see
Appendix). There are specific self-efficacy measures that
have been developed primarily for problem drinkers who seek
a moderation drinking goal.
The Drinking Refusal Self-Efficacy Questionnaire
(DRSEQ) by Young
and Oei (1996)
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Young, R. M., & Oei, T. P. S. (1996). Drinking expectancy
profile: Test manual. Behavior Research and Therapy Centre,
University of Queensland, Australia. assesses the
belief in one's ability to resist alcohol. A revised factor
structure (DRSEQ-R) was confirmed in community, student, and
clinical samples. The DRSEQ-R was also found to have good
construct and concurrent validity. DiClemente,
Carbonari, and Montgomery (1994)
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DiClemente, C. C., Carbonari, J. P., & Montgomery, Rosario
P. G. (1994). The Alcohol Abstinence Self-Efficacy scale.
Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 55, 141-148.
have developed the 20-item Alcohol Abstinence Self-Efficacy
scale (AASE). There were 174 men and 92 women who came to
an outpatient alcoholism treatment clinic. Ratings were made
on a 5-point Likert scale of confidence to abstain from alcohol
across 20 different high-risk situations. A parallel set of
items assessed the participants' temptation to drink in each
situation. The four 5-item subscales of the AASE measured
types of relapse precipitants labeled negative affect, social
positive, physical and other concerns, and withdrawal and
urges.
Smoking Cessation Self-Efficacy
Confidence to overcome barriers (i.e., smoking cessation
self-efficacy) can predict attempts to quit smoking (Dijkstra
& DeVries, 2000
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Dijkstra, A., & De Vries, H. (2000). Self-efficacy expectations
with regard to different tasks in smoking cessation. Psychology
& Health, 15(4), 501-511. ). Nicotine abstinence
of self-quitters depends on various demographic, physiological,
cognitive and social factors, but only a few factors are common
predictors of maintaining abstinence. These are physiological
factors, such as lower nicotine dependence, longer duration
of previous abstinence, and, as a cognitive factor, high perceived
smoking cessation self-efficacy (see Ockene
et al., 2000
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Ockene, J. K., Emmons, K. M., Mermelstein, R. J., Perkins,
K. A., Bonollo, D. S., Voorhees, C. C., & Hollis, J. F.
(2000). Relapse and maintenance issues for smoking cessation.
Health Psychology, 19, 17-31. ).
Poor smoking cessation self-efficacy is associated with lapses.
Coping successfully with high-risk situations as they occur
during the maintenance period is dependent on self-efficacy.
Confidence in one's ability to abstain from smoking might
refer to particular environmental or affective contexts, such
as feelings of irritation or sadness, socializing with smokers,
or being in a bar or a restaurant. Gwaltney
et al. (2002)
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Gwaltney, C. J., Shiffman, S., Paty, J. A., Liu, K. S., Kassel,
J. D., Gnys, M., & Hickcox, M. (2002). Using self-efficacy
judgments to predict characteristics of lapses to smoking,
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70,
1140-1149. found that lapse episodes within a four-week
abstinence period were predicted by abstinence self-efficacy.
Abstinence self-efficacy differentiated between the temptation
episodes in which the former smoker was able to resist smoking
and situations that ended up with lapses. In a study on lapses
and relapses of smokers who attempted to quit, self-efficacy
was measured daily in order to analyze whether changes in
optimistic self beliefs precede lapses during 25 days after
quitting smoking (Shiffman
et al., 2000
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Shiffman, S., Balabanis, M. H., Paty, J. A., Engberg, J.,
Gwaltney, C. J., Liu, K. S., Gnys, M., Hickcox, M., &
Paton, S. M. (2000). Dynamic effects of self-efficacy on smoking
lapse and relapse. Health Psychology, 19, 315-323.
). On days when both groups were abstinent, persons
who never lapsed during the monitoring period reported higher
daily self-efficacy than those who lapsed. Daily average self-efficacy
over the lapse-to-relapse interval was lower among persons
who relapsed than daily average postlapse self-efficacy among
those who did not. Self-efficacy after the lapse significantly
predicted subsequent behavior.
The classic smoking self-efficacy measurement
is the scale by Colletti,
Supnick, and Payne (1985)
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Colletti, G., Supnick, J. A., & Payne, T. J. (1985). The
Smoking Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (SSEQ): Preliminary scale
development and validation. Behavioral Assessment, 7(3),
249-260. . They developed the 17-item SSEQ, an instrument
designed to measure self-efficacy for resisting the
urge to smoke. Participants were treated in a behaviorally
oriented smoking reduction program. Analyses based
upon SSEQ ratings, carbon monoxide measurements, self-reported
smoking rate, and relapse data supported the predictions
derived from self-efficacy theory. Smoking abstinence
self-efficacy ratings should be context-specific; they should
vary across situations. This variability could signal high
risk for relapse situations. In a study by Gwaltney,
Shiffman, and Normal (2001)
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Gwaltney, C. J., Shiffman, S., & Normal, G. J. (2001).
Does smoking abstinence self-efficacy vary across situations?
Identifying context-specificity within the Relapse Situation
Efficacy Questionnaire. Journal of Consulting & Clinical
Psychology, 69, 516-527. , the Relapse
Situation Efficacy Questionnaire (RSEQ) was developed.
Results showed that both context-specific and unidimensional
measures of self-efficacy were relevant. Context-specific
factors included Negative Affect, Positive Affect, Restrictive
Situations (to smoking), Idle Time, Social-Food Situations,
Low Arousal, and Craving. These factors predicted cessation
outcome, after controlling for concurrent smoking rate.
Some smoking cessation self-efficacy scales were composed
in a multidimensional manner. In one study (Dijkstra
& De Vries, 2000
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Dijkstra, A., & De Vries, H. (2000). Self-efficacy expectations
with regard to different tasks in smoking cessation. Psychology
& Health, 15(4), 501-511. ), the following
five subscales were constructed: Emotional self-efficacy,
Social self-efficacy, Skill self-efficacy, Relapse self-efficacy
and Try self-efficacy. Twenty-seven items were used
in the questionnaire: Situational Self-Efficacy, 8 items;
Skill Self-Efficacy, 9 items; Relapse Self-Efficacy, 5 items;
Try Self-Efficacy, 5 items (see Appendix).
In a sample of smokers with low motivation to quit, two subsequent
self-report measurements of smoking cessation self-efficacy
were conducted. It was found that quitting history and smoking
behavior were related to the types of self-efficacy. Number
of past attempts at quitting was only related to relapse self-efficacy.
Only skill self-efficacy was predictive of quitting activity
between Time 1 and Time 2. Point prevalence quitting at Time
2 was predicted by Skill self-efficacy and relapse self-efficacy.
The more clearly the means to accomplish the task are specified,
the more valid the self-efficacy judgments were (Dijkstra,
Bakker, & DeVries, 1997
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Dijkstra, A., Bakker, M. & De Vries, H. (1997). Subtypes
within a sample of precontemplating smokers: A preliminary
extension of the stages of change. Addictive Behaviors,
22, 327-337. ).
Adherence to Medication Self-Efficacy and Rehabilitation Self-Efficacy
Poor compliance with recommended treatment may result partly
from patients' experience of adverse side effects, but it
may also be due to a lack of self-regulatory skills. Considering
psychosocial factors, adherence is related to lack of social
support and lack of self-efficacy beliefs about one's ability
to adhere to medication (Catz,
Kelly, Bogart, Benotsch, & McAuliffe, 2000
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Catz, S. L., Kelly, J. A., Bogart, L. M., Benotsch, E. G.,
& McAuliffe, T. L. (2000). Patterns, correlates, and barriers
to medication adherence among persons prescribed new treatments
for HIV disease. Health Psychology, 19, 124-133.
). For example, Molassiotis
et al. (2002)
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Molassiotis, A., Nahas-Lopez, V., Chung, W. Y., Lam, S. W.,
Li, C. K., & Lau, T. F. (2002). Factors associated with
adherence to antiretroviral medication in HIV-infected patients.
International Journal of STD & AIDS, 13, 301-310.
have found that adherence to antiretroviral medication
in patients with HIV was strongly related to self-efficacy
(that is, optimistic self-beliefs about the ability to follow
the medication regimen). These self-beliefs, together with
anxiety and nausea, were related to adherence to the recommended
treatment. The relation between social support and medication
adherence was weaker than the relation between self-efficacy
and medication adherence. Low adherence self-efficacy, together
with low outcome expectancies regarding the benefits following
the treatment regimen, have also been found to be related
to low medication adherence in HIV symptomatic women or women
with AIDS (Murphy,
Greenwell, & Hoffman, 2002
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Murphy, D. A., Greenwell, L., & Hoffman, D. (2002). Factors
associated with antiretroviral adherence among HIV-infected
women with children. Women & Health, 36, 97-111.
).
Some medications must be self- injected on a frequent basis.
A study by Mohr,
Boudewyn, Likosky, Levine, and Goodkin (2001)
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Mohr, D. C., Boudewyn, A. C., Likosky, W., Levine, E., &
Goodkin, D. E. (2001). Injectable medication for the treatment
of multiple sclerosis: The influence of self-efficacy expectations
and injection anxiety on adherence and ability to self-inject.
Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 23, 125-134.
examined cognitive and affective contributions to the ability
to self-inject and adherence among patients with a relapsing
form of MS. Pretreatment injection self-efficacy expectations
were related to 6-month adherence.
A study by Kobau
and Dilorio (2003)
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Kobau, R., & DiIorio, C. (2003). Epilepsy self-management:
A comparison of self-efficacy and outcome expectancy for medication
adherence and lifestyle behaviors among people with epilepsy.
Epilepsy & Behavior, 4, 217-225. described
self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectancies toward medication,
seizure, and lifestyle management behaviors among adults with
epilepsy. Participants responded to the Epilepsy Self-Efficacy
scale addressing the confidence for following medication dosing
schedule, planning for medication refills, coping with adverse
effects of medication, getting sufficient sleep, avoiding
alcohol, and obtaining social support. Those with low self-efficacy
are expected to benefit from self-efficacy interventions to
enhance their self-management ability.
Diabetes self-efficacy was associated with a measure of metabolic
control in insulin-dependent diabetes patients (Grossmann,
Brink, & Hauser, 1987
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Grossman, H. Y., Brink, S., & Hauser, S. T. (1987). Self-efficacy
in adolescent girls and boys with insulin-dependent diabetes
mellitus. Diabetes Care, 10, 324-329. ). Authors
used a 35-item measure, the Self-Efficacy for Diabetes
scale. Adolescents rated on a 5-point scale how much
they were confident that they could implement tasks specific
for four components of insulin-dependent diabetes management
(insulin injections, blood glucose monitoring, dietary prescriptions,
exercise).
A medication adherence self-efficacy scale
was developed by Gbenga,
Mancuso, Allegrante, and Charlson (2003)
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Gbenga, O., Mancuso, C. A., Allegrante, J. P., & Charlson,
M. E. (2003). Development and evaluation of a medication adherence
self-efficacy scale in hypertensive African-American patients.
Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 56, 520-524.
in ambulatory hypertensive African-American patients in two
sequential phases. After an initial test with a 43-item self-efficacy
questionnaire, 26 items were retained for the final self-efficacy
scale. This scale can be used to identify risk situations
in adherence to prescribed medications.
Condom Use Self-Efficacy
Condom use self-efficacy has been studied to explain unprotected
sexual behavior, such as not using contraceptives to avoid
unwanted pregnancies. Teenage girls with a high rate of intercourse
have been found to use contraceptives more effectively if
they believe they could exercise control over their sexual
activities (Levinson,
1982
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Levinson, R. A. (1982). Teenage women and contraceptive
behavior: Focus on self-efficacy in sexual and contraceptive
situations. Unpublished PhD thesis. Stanford, CA: Stanford
University. ; Wang,
Wang, & Hsu, 2003
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Wang, R.-H., Wang, H.-H., & Hsu, M.-T. (2003). Factors
associated with adolescent pregnancy - a sample of Taiwanese
female adolescents. Public Health Nursing, 20, 33-41.
). Most of the studies referring to risky sexual behaviors
have examined social cognitive predictors of condom use. Optimistic
beliefs in one's capability to negotiate safer sex practices
emerged as the most important predictor of protective behaviors
(Basen-Engquist,
1992; Kasen, Vaughn, & Walter, 1992; Wulfert & Wan,
1993
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Basen-Engquist, K. (1992). Psychosocial predictors of "safer-sex"
behaviors in young adults, Aids Education and Prevention,
4, 120-134. ). Brafford
and Beck (1991)
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Brafford, L. J., & Beck, K. H. (1991). Development and
validation of a condom self-efficacy scale for college students.
Journal of American College Health, 39, 219-225.
have developed the Condom Use Self-Efficacy
scale, consisting of 28 items describing an individual's
feelings of confidence about being able to purchase and use
condoms. Among college students, those who differed on levels
of previous condom use as well as on sexual intercourse experience
also showed differences on this scale in the expected
direction. Giles,
Liddell, and Bydawell (2005)
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Giles, M., Liddell, C., & Bydawell, M. (2005). Condom
use in African adolescents: The role of individual and group
factors. AIDS Care, 17, 729-739. have studied
self-efficacy in the context of the TPB to predict and explain
condom use in young adults at two points in time. Condom use
self-efficacy was designed to measure the extent to which
an individual believes he/she has the confidence/ability to
use a condom, such as "I believe I have the ability to use
a condom the next time I have sex." Results provided some
support for TPB. Subjective norm and self-efficacy emerged
as substantial predictors. Kaljee,
Genberg, and Riel (2005)
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Kaljee, L. M., Genberg, B., & Riel, R. (2005). Effectiveness
of a theory-based risk reduction HIV prevention program for
rural Vietnamese adolescents. AIDS Education & Prevention,
17, 185-199. present findings from a randomized-controlled
trial of an HIV prevention program for adolescents. They used
the Vietnamese Youth Health Risk Behavior Instrument, including
scales based on the protection motivation theory (PMT). The
modified instrument included an 8-item self-efficacy scale
with items such as:
- I could get condoms if I wanted to.
- I could put a condom on correctly.
- I could convince the person I am having sex with that we should use a condom, even if he doesn't want to.
- I could ask for condoms in a pharmacy.
The data suggest the potential applicability of the PMT for HIV program development with non-Western adolescents.
Detective Behaviors and Self-Efficacy
Some studies provided evidence that both outcome
expectancies and perceived self-efficacy were the
best joint predictors of the intention to engage in regular
breast cancer detection behaviors (Meyerowitz
& Chaiken 1987; Seydel, Taal, & Wiegman, 1990
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Meyerowitz, B. E., & Chaiken, S. (1987). The effect of
message framing on breast self-examination attitudes, intentions,
and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
52, 500-510. ).
Some screening behaviors refer to actions that are performed
by individuals without any contact with health practitioners.
These include breast or testicular self-examination. An example
of a breast self-examination (BSE) self-efficacy scale
was developed by Luszczynska
and Schwarzer (2003)
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Luszczynska, A., & Schwarzer, R. (2003). Planning and
self-efficacy in the adoption and maintenance of breast self-examination:
A longitudinal study on self-regulatory cognitions. Psychology
& Health, 18, 93-108. . Additionally, the
authors divided BSE self-efficacy into those referring to
forming an intention (preaction BSE self-efficacy), and those
referring to the maintenance of BSE (maintenance BSE self-efficacy).
These types of BSE self-efficacy were related to the intention
to perform BSE and to behavior, respectively. The scale has
good reliability (alphas of .81 and .77) and a two-factorial
structure (cf. Luszczynska
& Schwarzer, 2003
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Luszczynska, A., & Schwarzer, R. (2003). Planning and
self-efficacy in the adoption and maintenance of breast self-examination:
A longitudinal study on self-regulatory cognitions. Psychology
& Health, 18, 93-108. ). The scale is presented
in the Appendix.
A study on first-degree relatives of prostate cancer patients
supports the role of self-efficacy for screening behaviors.
Physician recommendation, knowledge, and risk estimation were
only poor predictors, whereas self-efficacy beliefs and positive
outcome expectancies were more closely linked to prostate
cancer screening ( Cormier,
Kwan, Reid, & Litwin, 2002
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Cormier, L., Kwan, L., Reid, K., & Litwin, M. (2002).
Knowledge and beliefs among brothers and sons of men with
prostate cancer. Urology, 59, 895-900. ).
Participation in endoscopic colorectal cancer screening was
predicted by self-efficacy, followed by the individuals' beliefs
about the outcome of participation. Self-efficacy discriminated
between those who participated in the screening and those
who did not ( Kremers,
Mesters, Pladdet, van den Borne, & Stockbrügger,
2000
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Kremers, S. P., Mesters, I., Pladdet, I. E., van den Borne,
B., & Stockbrügger, R. W. (2000). Participation in
a sigmoidoscopic colorectal cancer screening program: A pilot
study. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention,
9, 1127-1130. ).
Cancer screening might be a first step on the way to change
everyday health behaviors. However, people who enrolled in
a single cancer screening (e.g., lung cancer) do not necessarily
have high self-efficacy regarding behaviors related to this
cancer (e.g., regular screening, quitting smoking). Among
those women who smoked heavily who were asked to participate
in lung cancer screening, almost two thirds were classified
as having low self-efficacy regarding smoking cessation (Schnoll
et al., 2002
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Schnoll, R. A., Miller, S. M., Unger, M., McAleer, C., Halbherr,
T., & Bradley, P. (2002). Characteristics of female smokers
attending a lung cancer screening program: a pilot study with
implications for program development. Lung Cancer, 37,
257-265. ), while most of them (76 per cent) reported
high positive outcome expectancies of quitting. The results
are in line with SCT, which emphasizes the role of self-efficacy
in the process of behavior change. Despite relatively high
expectations about quitting smoking, the participants were
unable to change their smoking habits.
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