Computers in Spaceflight: The NASA
Experience
Source Notes: Chapter
Two
-
-
- 1. D. G. Hoag, Apollo Navigation Guidance
Computer Systems, Report E-2411 MIT, Cambridge, MA, April 1969, p.
2.
-
- 2. A. L. Hopkins, "Electronic Navigator
Charts Man's Path to the Moon," Electronics, 109 (January 9,
1967); Ralph Ragan interview, MIT, Cambridge, MA, by Ivan Ertel,
April 28, 1966, Johnson Space Center transcript.
-
- 3. Hoag, Apollo Navigation Systems, p.
3.
-
- 4. Hoag, Apollo Navigation Systems, pp.
3-4
-
- 5. P. Hersch, "Engineers Reassessing
Electronic Hardware in the Light of Some Near Failures on Apollo
12" IEEE Spec., 23 (January 1970).
-
- 6. B. K. Thomas, Jr., "Apollo 8 Proves
Value of Onboard Control," Aviation Week, 43 (January 20,
1969).
-
- 7. Steve Bales interview, Johnson Space
Center, Houston, TX, May 31, 1983; Howard W. Tindall, notes in
review of draft chapter, August 1985.
-
- 8. John R. Garman interview, Johnson Space
Center, Houston, TX, May 25,1983 and June 1, 1983.
-
- 9. C. G. Brooks, L. S. Grimwood, and L. S.
Swenson, Jr., Chariots
or Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft; NASA SP-205 Washington, D.C., 1979, p. 355.
-
- 10. Hopkins, "Electronic Navigator," p.
116.
-
- 11. Brooks, Grimwood, and Swenson,
Chariots
for Apollo, pp. 38-39
-
- 12. Ragan interview.
-
- 13. Hoag, Apollo Navigation Systems, p.
5.
-
- 14. Ragan interview.
-
- 15. Eldon Hall lecture, "The Apollo
Guidance Computer-A Designer's View," Digital Computer Museum,
Marlboro, MA, June 10, 1982, transcript at museum's Boston
location, p. 4.
-
- 16. P. G. Felleman and D. C. Fraser,
"Digital Fly-by-Wire: Computers Lead the Way," Astronaut. and
Aeronaut., 30 (July-August 1974).
-
- 17. H. J. Goett to G. Low,
"Recommendations for Apollo On-board Guidance Computer," June 6,
1961, JSC History Office.
-
- 18. L. A. Wood to R. Chilton, NASA Space
Task Group, "Information of RCA Computers Adaptable to Guidance,"
June 6, 1961, JSC History Office.
-
- 19. R. G. Chilton to multiple addresses,
NASA Space Task Group, "Discussions at Goddard of a Possible Joint
Development Program for Airborne Computers for OAO and Apollo,"
memo, June 6, 1961, JSC History Office.
-
- 20. R. Alonso to multiple addresses, MIT,
"Review of Saturn Computer Discussions," memo, June 27, 1961, JSC
History Office.
-
- 21. D. W. Gilbert to multiple addresses,
JSC, "Guidance Computer for Apollo," memo, July 9, 1963,
JSC.
-
- 22. Maj. Gen. Samuel C. Phillips, deputy
director of the Apollo Program, reported on a meeting to discuss
the use of the triple modular redundant Saturn launch vehicle
computer in Apollo. S. C. Phillips to multiple addresses, "Saturn
V/Apollo Spacecraft Guidance Computer Conference," memo, May 14,
1964, JSC History Office.
-
- 23. Hopkins, "Electronic Navigator", p.
110.
-
- 24. Ragan interview.
-
- 25. E. C. Hall, Reliability History of the
Apollo Guidance Computer;. NASA CR-140340 MIT, Cambridge, MA,1972,
p. 25.
-
- 26. C. D. Brady to multiple addresses,
"Integrated Circuit Packages for the AGC," memo, June 19,1964, JSC
History Office.
-
- 27. D. G. Hoag interview, MIT, Cambridge,
MA, by Ivan Ertel, April 29, 1966, Johnson Space Center
transcript.
-
- 28. Brooks, Grimwood, and Swenson,
Chariots
for Apollo, p. 187.
-
- 29. R. Alonso, H. Blair-Smith, and A.
Hopkins, "Logical Description for the Apollo Guidance Computer,"
MIT, Cambridge, MA, March 1963, p. 1.1.
-
- 30. Hopkins, "Electronic Navigator," p.
110.
-
- 31. Hall, Reliability History; p.
9.
-
- 32. Alonso, Blair-Smith, and Hopkins,
"Logical Description," p. 1.1.
-
- 33. Alonso, Blair-Smith, and Hopkins,
"Logical Description," p. vii.
-
- 34. Ragan interview.
-
- 35. Ragan interview.
-
- 36. Hall, Reliability History, p.
5.
-
- 37. Hopkins, "Guidance Computer Design,"
Spacecraft Navigation, Guidance, and Control MIT, Cambridge, MA,
1965, pp. 13-15.
-
- 38. Hopkins, "Electronic Navigator," p.
112.
-
- 39. R. H. Battin and F. H. Martin,
"Computer Controlled Steering of the Apollo Spacecraft," J.
Spacecr. Rockets, 5, 402 (1968); A. Drake and B. 1. Savage, AGC4
Basic Training Manual MIT, Cambridge, MA, 1967, pp.
1.1-1.2.
-
- 40. F. Bedford, S. P. Cockrell, and R. T.
Savely, Apollo Experience Report: Onboard Navigational and
Alignment Software, MSC-04238, Houston, TX, 1971, p. 2; Hopkins,
"Electronic Navigator," p. 113.
-
- 41. Drake and Savage, AGC4, p. 1.3.
-
- 42. Hopkins, "Electronic Navigator," p.
118.
-
- 43. Hall, Reliability History, p. 10;
Raytheon Corporation, Apollo Guidance Computer Program Block 1
(100) and Block 2-Final Report (July 25, 1969-December 31,1969),
p. 2.17.
-
- 44. Hall lecture, p. 5.
-
- 45. R. Alonso and A. Hopkins, The Apollo
Guidance Computer, NASA CR-118183, MIT, Cambridge, MA, p.
8.
-
- 46. E. M. Copps, Recovery from Transient
Failures of the Apollo Guidance Computer, NASA CR-92255, MIT,
Cambridge, MA, 1968, p. 2.
-
- 47. Drake and Savage, AGC4, p.
1.13.
-
- 48. H. Kreide and D. W. Lambert,
"Computation: Aerospace Computers in Aircraft, Missiles, and
Spacecraft," Space/Aeronaut., 42 77 (1964).
-
- 49. Alonso and Hopkins, Apollo Computer,
p. 12.
-
- 50. L. J. Carey and W. A. Sturm, "Space
Software at the Crossroads," Space/Aeronaut. 63 (December 1968);
Kreide and Lambert, "Computation," pp. 97-98.
-
- 51. A. Hopkins, "Design Concepts of the
Apollo Guidance Computer," Mimeograph, MIT Instrumentation Lab,
Cambridge, MA, June 1963, p. 2.1.
-
- 52. Alonso, Blair-Smith, and Hopkins,
"Logical Description," p. 1.3; Stan Mann interview, Johnson Space
Center, Houston, TX, June 6, 1983.
-
- 53. E. C. Hall, MIT's Role in Project
Apollo: Computer Subsystem, Charles Stark Draper Laboratory,
Cambridge, MA, 1972, vol. 3, p. 3.
-
- 54. Alonso, Blair-Smith, and Hopkins,
"Logical Description," p. 4.2; Hopkins, "Design Concepts," June
1963, p. 2.5; P. Kuttner, "The Rope Memory-A Permanent Storage
Device," Proc. AFIPS, 49 (November 1963).
-
- 55. Hopkins, "Electronic Navigator," p.
114.
-
- 56. Raytheon Corporation, Final Report, p.
2.29.
-
- 57. Drake and Savage, AGC4, p. 1.6.
-
- 58. John R. Garman interview, Johnson
Space Center, Houston, TX, May 25, 1983 and June 1,1983.
-
- 59. Raytheon Corporation, Final Report, p.
4.5.
-
- 60. A. Laats and J. E. Miller, Aollo
Guidance and Control System Flight Experience, NASA CR- 101823,
MIT, Cambridge, MA, 1969, p. l.
-
- 61. Raytheon Corporation, Final Report, p.
2.56.
-
- 62. Ragan interview.
-
- 63. R. C. Seamans, Jr., to multiple
addresses, "Raytheon Negotiations on Apollo Guidance Computer,"
memo, November 9, 1962, JSC History Office.
-
- 64. J. F. Shea to multiple addresses,
Johnson Space Center, "Integrated Circuit Packages for the Block
II Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC)," memo, September 9, 1964, JSC
History Office.
-
- 65. Hall, Reliability History, p.
43.
-
- 66. C. W. Frasier to multiple addresses,
Johnson Space Center, "Block II Computer Design Deficiency," memo,
August 10, 1965, JSC History Office.
-
- 67. I. V. Ertel, The Apollo Spacecraft,
GPO, Washington, D.C., 1969, pp. 31-32.
-
- 68. Hall, Reliability History, pp.
15-16,19.
-
- 69. Raytheon Corporation, Final Report, p.
3.12.
-
- 70. Felleman and Fraser, "Digital
Fly-By-Wire," p. 30.
-
- 71. W.M. Keese, et al, Management
Procedures in Computer Programming for Apollo-Interim Report,
Bellcomm. Inc., Washington, D.C., November 30, 1964.
-
- 72. Garman interview.
-
- 73. Hopkins, "Design Concepts," June 1963,
p. 3.11.
-
- 74. Frank Hughes interview, Johnson Space
Center, Houston, TX, June 2, 1983.
-
- 75. Ertel, Apollo Spacecraft, p.
288.
-
- 76. Mann interview.
-
- 77. Guidance Software Validation
Commission, Apollo Guidance Software Development and Verification
Plan, Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, TX, October 4, 1957, p.
2.1.
-
- 78. Ed Lineberry interview, Johnson Space
Center, Houston, TX, June 2, 1983.
-
- 79. Dick Parten interview, Johnson Space
Center, Houston, TX, June 3, 1983 and June 16, 1983.
-
- 80. M. D. Richter to multiple addresses,
MIT, "Summary of AGC Program Processing Procedures," memo, August
13, 1965, JSC History Office.
-
- 81. Garman interview.
-
- 82. RASPO to MIT memo, JSC History Office
Archives, October 22,1963.
-
- 83. Hopkins, "Guidance Computer Design,"
p. 48.
-
- 84. Mann interview.
-
- 85. C. A. Muntz, Users Guide to the Block
2 AGC/LGC Interpreter, NASACR-1268l5, MIT, Cambridge, MA, April
1965.
-
- 86. Hopkins, "Electronic Navigator," p.
117.
-
- 87. Battin and Martin, "Computer
Controlled Steering," p. 403.
-
- 88. Hopkins, "Electronic Navigator," p.
117.
-
- 89. Copps, Recovery From Transient
Failures, p. 3.
-
- 90. D. J. Bowler, Apollo Guidance Computer
Improvement Study-Apollo Guidance, Navigation, and Control, NASA
CR-114898, MIT, Cambridge, MA, 1970, p.2.
-
- 91. George W. Cherry to multiple
addresses, "Exegesis of the 1201 and 1202 Alarms Which Occurred
During the [Mission G] Lunar Landing," memo no. 370-69, MIT
Instrumentation Lab, Cambridge, MA, August 4, 1969, JSC History
Office.
-
- 92. Hopkins, "Electronic Navigator," p.
117; T. Lawton and C.A. Muntz, Organization of Computation and
Control of the Apollo Guidance Computer, MIT Instrumentation Lab.,
Cambridge, MA, E-1758, 1965, p. 15.
-
- 93. Drake and Savage, AGC4, p.
1.21.
-
- 94. Garman interview.
-
- 95. Hopkins, "Design Concepts," June 1963,
pp. 2.8-2.9; Lawton and Muntz, Computation and Control,
p.15.
-
- 96. Gatman interview.
-
- 97. Raytheon Corporation, Final Report, p.
2.32.
-
- 98. Howard "Bill Tidall to multiple
addresses, "Spacecraft Computer Program Names," memo, May 23,
1967, JSC History Office.
-
- 99. Ertel, Apollo Spacecraft, p.
238.
-
- 100. Copps, Recovery From Transient
Failures, p. 4; Hall, Reliability History, pp. 7-8.
-
- 101. Copps, Recovery From Transient
Failures, pp. l, 5; Cherry, "Exegesis of the 1201 and 1202
Alarms."
-
- 102. Copps, Recovery From Transient
Failures, p. 3.
-
- 103. Hopkins, "Design Concepts," p.
2.11.
-
- 104. Hopkins, "Design Concepts," p.
2.11.
-
- 105. Hall, Reliability History, p.
31.
-
- 106. Cherry, "Exegesis of the 1201 and
1202 Alarms."
-
- 107. Garman interview.
-
- 108. Cherry, "Exegesis of the 1201 and
1202 Alarms."
-
- 109. T. Lawton and C. A. Muntz,
Verification Plan for AGC/LGC, MIT, Cambridge, MA, E-1786, 1964,
p. 5.
-
- 110. Lawton and Muntz, Verification Plan,
p. 5; MIT, Guidance System Operations Plan for Manned CM Earth
Orbital and Lunar Missions Using Program COLLOSSUS, Sec. 5, NASA
CR-97515, MIT, Cambridge, MA, n.d., p. 6.2.
-
- 111. Mann interview.
-
- 112. Carey and Sturm, "Space Software," p.
63.
-
- 113. Mann interview.
-
- 114. Lawton and Muntz, Verification Plan,
p. 14.
-
- 115. Guidance Software Control Panel File,
JSC History Office Archives, May 13, 1966.
-
- 116. Bowler, Improvement Study, p.
2.
-
- 117. Hoag interview.
-
- 118. Tindall to multiple addresses,
"Apollo Spacecraft Computer Program Development Newsletter," memo,
May 31, 1966, JSC History Office.
-
- 119. Tindall, "Program Development
Newsletter."
-
- 120. See Madeline S. Johnson, MIT's Role
in Project Apollo: The Software Effort, Charles Stark Draper
Laboratory, Cambridge, MA, 1971, vol. 2, pp. 21-22 for a chart
showing the "manloading" at MIT during the Apollo effort.
-
- 121. Mann interview.
-
- 122. Tindall to multiple addresses,
"Apollo Spacecraft Computer Programs-Or, A Bucket of Worms," memo,
June 13, 1966, JSC History Office.
-
- 123. Tindall to multiple addresses,
"Another Apollo Spacecraft Computer Status Report," memo, July 1,
1966, JSC History Office.
-
- 124. Tindall to multiple addresses,
"Spacecraft Computer Programming Development Improvements to be
Utilized by MIT," memo, 67-FM-1-T:85, October 18, 1967.
-
- 125. Tindall, "Program Development
Newsletter."
-
- 126. Tindall to multiple addresses,
untitled memos, May 13, 1966 and May 14, 1966, JSC History
Office.