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INDEX A accounting: affirmative action pro- grams in, 61; blacks underrepre- sented in, 50; racialization of jobs in, 38-42 advertising firms, black-owned, ra- cialization of jobs in, 38-42 affirmative action: black CEOs n, 73-75, 147-151, 172n.5; black economic opportunity and, 17- 27, 118, 158-159; black groups' pressure for, 107-111; career- enhancing strategies and, 81-84; challenges to, xi-xii, 17, 169n.1 (Chapter 2); compliance with anti- discrimination legislation through, 100-107; downsizing and flatten- ing of corporations and, 144-147; economic conditions and, 166- 168; education levels and, 9-10; expansion of, 18-19; federal con- tract compliance and, 20-21, 60- 63; fragility of African American middle class and, 162-168; individ- ual and group activism of black ex- ecutives and, 90-93, 104-105; job security issues facing, 126-129; legal challenges to, 119-120, 170nn.1-2; mainstreaming of black executives and, 73-75, 85- 89; as mobility trap for black ex- ecutives, 77-80, 102-107; racial equality and, 159-161; racialized jobs and, 77-80, 157-159 African American business elite. See black corporate executives African American-owned business sector, racialized roles in, 37-42 Aid to Families with Dependent Chil- dren, 24; racialized jobs for African Americans in, 31 Allen, Walter R., 17 Althauser, Robert, 25 American Can Company, 59 American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T), EEOC charges against, 19 Anderton, Douglas L., 146 Anheuser-Busch, 128-129 Arthur Andersen & Company, 61 Ashenfelte, Orley, 20-21, 60 Ashkinaze, Carol, 145 B Bakke, Allan, 119-120 Barrett, Richard E., 146 Bay Area Rapid Transit system (BART), 60 "beached" executives, 150, 152 Becker, Brian, 6-7 black corporate executives: career- enhancing strategies of, 81-89, 129-133; defined, 13; downsizing and flattening of job market for, 44-147; elite status of, xi-xiii; exiting executives, characteristics of, 133-136; external relations with black groups, 107-111; golden handcuffs for, 93-96; his- tory of hiring practices for, 45- 48, 116-118; individual and group activism of, 90-93, 102-107; black corporate executives (cont.) interviews with, 13-16, 169n.3; mainstream careers for, 75-77; marginalization of, 151-153, 158- 159; pessimism among, 137-154; placement patterns of African Americans in corporations, 141- 144; quotas and glass ceilings for, 147-153, 172n.3; racial equality and, 159-161; racialized jobs as springboard for, 84-89; racial- ized jobs held by, 73-75; self- perceptions of status, 16; vulner- ability of racialized versus main- stream positions for, 121-125; white corporations' need for, 99 Black Enterprise, 13 black militancy: expansion of job op- portunities and, 63-65, 155-159, 170n.4; versus passivity, conse- quences of, 164-166 Black Muslim movement, 165 Bloom, Jack M., 63-66, 69 blue-collar employment, African American economic mobility and, 8; downsizing, job flattening, and affirmative action, 145-146, 172n.2; racialization of, 32-37 Blumberg, Paul, 18 Bogue, Donald J., 146 Brimmer, Andrew, 20 Broadnax, Walter, 119 Brown, Michael K., 23, 26 Brunswick Corporation, 128 bureaucratic expansion, black eco- nomic opportunity and, 23-26 Burstein, Paul, 17, 45 business development, African Ameri- can: racialization of roles and, 37- 42; urban crisis as catalyst for, 68- 72 business school graduates, placement patterns in corporations of, 54-55, 141 C career-enhancing strategies, of Afri- can Americans, 81-89 Carter, Jimmy (President), 23 Cayton, Horace R., 50 Chicago Defender, 109 Chicago Department of Human Ser- vices, funding sources for, 34 Chicago Reporter, 13, 61 Chicago Sun Times, 35, 146 Chicago Tribune, 34, 37 Chicago United Compendium of Pro- fessional Services, 38 chief officers, quotas and glass ceilings for African Americans as, 147- 153, 172n.3 Civil Rights Act of 1964,2-3, 18-19, 58-63, 100, 167 Civil Rights Act of 1968, 2, 58-63, 146 Clark, Kenneth, xi, 6-7, 9-10 class: African American economic op- portunity and, xi, 10-12; black militancy and middle-class eco- nomic opportunity, 63-65, 164- 166; controversies over race and, 1-15; impact of urban rioting and, 71-72; labor market access for Af- rican Americans and, 6-7. See also middle-class African Americans clerical employment, as racialized job, 32-37 Cloward, R. A., 24, 29, 68-70 Coca-Cola, 66, 68; African American business sector and, 39; racializa- tion of jobs at, 42 Cohn, Jules, 46, 68-71, 107 college graduates (African American): job markets for, 48-50; male- female job distributions, 30; male graduates in managerial positions, 46; occupational shifts of male graduates, 30; pre-1960s job mar- kets and, 50-57, 156-159; segre- gation of colleges and, 170n.1 (Chapter 4) college graduates, professional jobs, and government contracts, 54-55 Collins, Sharon M., 17, 21, 26 Colton, Elizabeth O., 66 comfort criterion, corporate politics, and African American executives, 149-151 community organizations: black eco- nomic opportunity and, 17, 23-26, 30; militancy versus passivity in, 164-166; pressure on corporations from, 107-111, 118; vulnerability of racialized jobs with, 121-129 Community Services Administration, 36 Comprehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA), 40 conformity, patterns of, for African American executives, 149-153 Congress on Racial Equality (CORE), 65 consumption patterns of African Americans: name-brand recogni- tion and, 66-67; product market protection and, 113-18; "tan" ter- ritories and, 53-54 Container Corporation of America, 128 Continental Bank, 61 contract set-aside program, 22 Cook County Hospital, 41 corporations: African Aerican eco- nomic mobility and, 15-16; ap- peasement of black activists by, 107-111; black economic boycotts and, 66; black group solidarity within, 91-93; career-enhancing strategies of blacks in, 81-84; changing hiring practices at, 45- 46, 50; downsizing, flattening, and African Americans in, 144-147; federal antidiscrimination legisla- tion and, 59-63, 100-107; and funding of social programs, 34-35; mainstream career track for African Americans in, 75-77; mobility trap for African Americans in, 77-80; pessimism from black executives about, 139-154, 171n.1 (Chapter 8); placement patterns of African Americans in, 140-144; policy- mediated affirmative action pro- grams at, 19-20, 157-159; politics and comfort criterion in, 149-151; quotas and glass ceilings for Afri- can Americans in, 147-153, 172nn.3-4; racial harmony within, 111-113; urban crisis as catalyst for minority programs at, 68-72. See also Fortune 500 companies; private sector Cose, Ellis, 164 culture, barriers to African American economic mobility and, 7-9 D Davis, George, 54, 116 Declining Significance of Race, The, xi defense contracts, job opportunities for black professionals and, 54-55 deindustrialization, impact of on underclass, 8 Denton, Nancy A., 164: Department of Commerce (U.S.), mi- nority procurement procedures, 22-23 dependency-related services: domi- nance of federal funding for, 34- 35; fragility of African American middle class and, 163-168; ra- cialized roles for African Americans in, 31-37 desegregation, black middle-class ex- odus and, 164-166 discrimination: economic structure and culture linked to, 7-9; federal laws prohibiting,, 17; history of, 2-3, 17-18; labor market access for African Americans and, 6-7; legal prohibitions against, 58; pre-190s job markets and, 45, 49- 57, 156-159. See also federalanti- discrimination legislation Dollars and Sense, 13 Domhoff, G. William, 6 Donovan, J. C., 24 downsizing, African American execu- tives and, 144-147 Drake, St. Clair, 50 Dreyfuss, Joel, 119 E earnings ratios: for blacks in public versus private sector jobs,26; black-white comparisons, 3, 48-50 economic boycotts: expansion of black job opportunities and, 65- 68; job securityin retail sals and, 128-129; producmarket protec- tion for black consumers and, 114- 158 economic conditions: African Ameri- can middle-class fragility and, 166- 168; African American perspectives on, 6-7; pessimism from black ex- ecutives about, 139-154; racial equality and, 10-11. See also macroeconomics Economic Opportunity Act, 24 economic structure: barriers to Afri- can American economic mobility and, 7-9; cyclic factors in minority professional hiring and, 47 educational attainment: earnings ratios for white and black college graduates and, 48-50; minority professional hiring patterns and, 47-48; occupational status of Afri- can Americans and, 6-7; pre-1960s job markets for blacks and, 50-57, 156-159 Elementary and Secondary Education Act, 23-24 employment data: federal contract compliance and, 20-21; federal procurement programs and, 21-23; by race, 3-5; racialization of public sector jobs and, 31-37; social ser- vices expansion and, 23-26 employment tests, federal antidis- crimination legislation and, 59-60, 170n.2 engineering: defense contracts and black professional job oppor- tunities, 54-55; racialization of jobs in, 38-42 Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), 19-20; em- ployment data from, 31-32; federal contract compliance laws and, 60- 61, 100-107, 157 Erie, Steven P., 23, 26 F Fair Employment Practices Commit- tee, 17 Farley, Reynolds, 1, 3, 17, 27, 45, 47- 48 Farrakhan, Louis, 166 Feagin, Joe R., 6, 164 Featherman, David, 3-4, 7 federal antidiscrimination legislation: African ean American economic oppor- tunity and, 1-4, 11, 15; challenges to effectiveness of, 17, 169n.1; (Chapter 2); corporate compliance with, 100-107; fragility of African American middle class and, 162- 168; history of, 17-18; private sec- tor pressured by, 58-63; racializa- tion of employment linked to, 31, 34-43. See also affirmative action; Civil Rights Act of 1964; Civil Rights Act of 1968 federal contracts: compliance laws and minority job opportunities and, 20-21, 100-107, 157-159; down- sizing and flattening of corpora- tions and compliance laws, 145- 147; EEOC compliance policies and, 19-20; private sector and compliance laws for, 60-61; pro- fessional job opportunities for blacks and, 54-55, 85-89 federal procurement programs: Afri- can American middle class and, 21- 23, 169n.3 (Chapter 2); African American-owned businesses in, 37-42 Fernandez, John, 43, 149 food stamp programs, racialized jobs for African Americans in, 31 Fortune 500 companies: affirmative action programs at, 19-20; black militant organizations and, 65; exiting rates for black executives in, 134-135; federal contract com- pliance programs and, 20-21; mainstream career track for African Americans in, 75-77; placement patterns of African Americans in, 141-144; pressure from black groups on, 107-111; quotas and glass ceilings for African Americans in, 148-153; racialization of jobs in, 42-43; response to urban crisis in, 68-72. See also corporations; private sector Frazier, E. Franklin, 3, 50 Freedman's Hospital, 49 Freeman, Richard, 1-4, 6, 19-20, 26, 46-50, 60, 155 free-market policy, middle-class Afri- can Americans and, 27 G General Electric, affirmative action programs at, 20, 61 General Foods, 68 Gershman, Carl, xi, 6, 9-10 ghetto pathology, discrimination and, 7-8; urban riots and, 69-72 Gibson, Parke D., 66 glass ceilings, for African American executives, 147-153 golden handcuffs, for black execu- tives, 89, 93-96 government advocacy. See also public policy government jobs. See public sector grass-roots political organizations: black militancy and, 64-65, 165- 166; pressure on private sector from, 58, 107-111. See also com- munity organizations Griggs v. Duke Power, 170n.2 H Hall v. Werthan Bag Corp., 60 Hampton, Robert E., 26 Hanigan Consulting, 145 Harrington, Michael, 8 Harvard Business Review, 46, 65, 70- 71 Hauser, Robert, 3-4, 7 Haworth, Joan, 20 Head Start, 24 Health and Human Services Depart- ment, racialization of employment in, 36, 41 Heckman, James J., 17, 20-21, 60 Heidrick and Struggles, Inc., 19, 42- 43, 149 Henderson, Hazel, 69 Herring, Cedric, 17, 21 Heublein Corporation, racialization of jobs at, 42 Hicks, Jonathan, 143 Hill, Herbert, 58-60 Hills, Stephen, 6 Hispanic activists, racialization of em- ployment and, 35-36 Hispanics, in managerial occupations, 146 Honeywell, African American busi- ness sector and, 39 Housing and Urban Development (HUD), racialization of employ- ment in, 36, 41 Hout, Michael, 7 Hudson, William, 119 human-capital theory, minority hiring patterns and, 47-48 I IBM, minority hiring programs at, 19 income distribution, African Ameri- can executives and, 135-136. See also earnings ratios individual activism, racialized jobs and, 90-93, 104-107 institutional reforms, affirmative ac- tion and, 11-12 Interagency Council for Minority Business Enterprise, 23 International Business Systems, 46 Isaac, Larry, 69 J Jackall, Robert, 142, 150-151 Jackson, Jesse, 42, 66-68, 104-105 J. A. Croson Company v. City of Richmond, 171n.1 (Chapter 7) Jaynes, Gerald David, 1, 17, 45, 47 job market. See labor market Jones, Edward W., 164 K Kanter, Rosabeth, 141, 149-151 Kasarda, John D., 8 Kelly, William R., 69 Kerner Commission, 69 Kirschenman, Jolene, 164 Korn/Ferry survey, 74-75, 142, 148- 149 Kraft Corporation, 128 Kroger, 68 L labor market: African American ac- cess to, 6-7, 155-158; college- educated blacks in, 48-50; cyclic factors in minority professional hir- ing and, 47; economic conditions and, 166-168; enhancement of, programs for, 129-133; exiting rates for black executives in, 134- 136; impact of black economic boycotts on, 66; insecurity of, dur- ing 1980s, 122-129; pre-1960s job market, 50-57, 156-159; quotas and glass ceilings for African Amer- icans in, 148-153, 172n.6; social services expansion linked to, 23-26 labor relations occupations, black men employed in, 30; racial har- mony within corporations and, 111-113. See also personnel oc- cupations Lawrence, Charles, III, 119 legal profession, blacks underrepre- sented in, 50; racialization of jobs in, 39-42 Leonad, JonathanS., 14, 17, 21, 60, 145, 155 Levitan, Sar, 24 Los Angeles Times, 71 Loury, Glenn C., 9-10 M macroeconomics: African American middle-class fragility and, 166- 168; barriers to African American economic mobility and, 7-9, 139- 140; downsizing, flattening, and af- firmative action and, 145-147; mi- nority hiring patterns and, 47-48 mainstream careers: African Ameri- cans in, 75-77, 156-159; barriers to, for African Americans, 78-80, 104-106; exiting rates for black ex- ecutives in, 134-136, 171n.4; golden handcuff s barrier to, for black executives, 93-96; individual and group activism of black execu- tives and, 90-93, 104-107; pes- simism concerning advancement in, 139-154; racialized jobs as springboard to, 84-89; status of, compared with racialized jobs, 120-125; strategies for achieving, 81-89, 130-133 Mammoth Life and Accident Insur- ance Company, 39 management/consulting occupations: blacks underrepresented in, 50; career-enhancing strategies of blacks in, 81-84; golden handcuffs linked to, 93-96; mainstreaming of black executives in, 73-98; minor- ity hiring practices in, 46; minority recruitment for, following urban riots, 71-72; placement patterns of African Americans in, 141-144; quotas and glass ceilings for, 147- 153, 172n.3; racialization of jobs in, 38-42, 73-75; vulnerability of, for black executives, 122-125, 171n.3 manpower-training programs, ra- cialized jobs in, 77-79 Marable, Manning, 128 Mare, Robert D., 6, 165 marginalization, of African American executives, 151-153, 158-159 marketing strategies for African Americans: black private sector business ties to, 37-42; name- brand recognition studies and, 66- 67; product market protection and, 113-118; "tan" territories for black consumers, 53 Marshall, Thurgood (Chief Justice), 164 Massachusetts Institute of Technol- ogy (MIT), Sloan School of Man- agement, 86 Massey, Douglas S., 164 McDonalds Corporation, 114, 128 McKersie, Robert, 45, 47, 49, 51, 54, 57-58 Memphis Firefighters v. Stotts, 171n.1 (Chapter 7) mentorships, role of, for black execu- tives, 84-89, 96-98 middle-class African Americans: ad- vances by, 3-5; corporate hiring practices and, 45-46; defined, 3, 11; fragile status of, 162-168; gov- ernment hiring programsand, 21- 23; impact of urban rioting on, 71- 72; labor market analysis of, 1-2, 158-159; militancy versus passivity among, 164-166; politically medi- ated expansion of, 15, 18-27, 157- 159, 165-166; publiliplicy and, xiii, 18-27, 155-159; public sector expansion and employment oppor- tunities for, 25-26; race and class as factors for, 10-12; racial equal- ity and, 159-161; racialization of employment and occupations for, 32-43; vulnerability of, to policy changes, 15,29-30 Motorola Corporation, 59-60 Murray, Charles, 7, 10 N National Association for the Ad- vancement of Colored People (NAACP), 64-65,67, 165 National Commission for Manpower Policy, 20 Neckerman, Kathryn M., 164 New Deal, African Americans in gov- ernment jobs and, 25-26 Newman, Dorothy K., 2,49,65 New York Times, 122-123, 166- 167 Nike Copoporation, 128 Nixon, Richard M. (President), 22 Northshore Sanitary District, 41 O Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO), 24 Office of Federal Contract Com- pliance Programs (OFCCP), 60, 103,145, 157 Office of Manpower, 41 Office of Minority Business Develop- ment, 41 Office of Minority Business Enter- prise, 22 Operation Breadbasket, 66-67 Opportunity Industrialization Center, 102 opportunity structures, political medi- ation of, for African Americans, 17-27, 157-159 Orfield, Gary, 145 out-placement specialists, patterns of African American job placement and,143-144 P Payner, Brook S., 17, 21 People's Gas, African American busi- ness sector and, 39 People United to Save Humanity (PUSH), 42, 66, 104-105, 128, 165 Pepsi-Cola, 66 personnel occupations: black men em- ployed in, 30, 77-80; career- enhancing strategies of blacks in, 82-84; compliance with anti- discrimination legislation through, 100-107; placement patterns of African Americans in, 140-144; racialization of jobs in, 39-42, 77- 80 Pfeffer, Jeffrey, 151 Philip Morris Tobacco Co., 60-61 Piven, Frances Fox, 24, 29, 68-69 Plans for Progress, 54 political mediation, expansion of black middle class and, 18-27, 157-159.See also public policy politics, African Americaneconomic mobility and, 15-16, 155-159; corporate politics, 149-151, 172n.5; dependency of black mid- dle class on, 12, 163-164; fragility of African American middle class and, 162-168; racialized job se- curity and, 127-129 Pollwatcher Letter, 166-167 population patterns, racialization of jobs and,35-37 poverty line, percentages of African Americans living below, 5-6 Powell, Colin, 151 private initiative councils (PICs), 110-111, 170n.1 (Chapter 6) private sector: black economic boy- cotts and, 65-68; federal anti- discrimination legislation and, 58- 63, 100-107; functional employ- ment segregation in, 12; main- stream career track for African Americans in, 75-77; marketing niches for blacks in, 53-54; minor- ity hiring practices of white-owned corporations in, 45-48; policy- mediated affirmative action in, 19- 20, 157-158; political pressures for increased minority hiring in, 57- 68; pre-1960s minority hiring prac- tices in, 51-57, 155-159; racial- ization of black private sector business, 37-42; racialization of jobs in white private sector, 42-43; urban riots and black job expan- sion in, 69-72. See also corpora- tions; Fortune 500 companies Procter & Gamble, 68 professional occupations: federal anti- discrimination legislation and black jobs in, 58-63; history of hiring patterns in, 45-48; pre-1960s hir- ing of African Americans in, 54- 55, 155-159; private sector racial- ization of, 37-43; public sector ra- cialization of, 32-37; rise of black militancy and, 63-65. See also spe- cific occupations public policy: African American eco- nomic opportunity and, 9-12, 26- 27, 158-159; emerging black mid- dle class and, 11-12, 26-27, 163- 164; fragility of African American middle class and, 162-168; legal challenges to affirmative action and, 120; political pressure and, 18-19 public sector: African American col- lege graduates in, 49-50, 55-57; employment opportunity for blacks in, 24-27, 55-57; racialization of black private sector business ties and, 41-42; racialized roles for Af- rican Americans in, 31-37 Purcell, Theodore V., 19-20 Q Quarles v. Philip Morris, Inc., 60 quotas, for African American execu- tives, 147-153 R racial equality, economic opportunity for African Americansand, 159- 161 racialized jobs: affirmative action and, 11-12, 77-80, 102-107; African American middle-class vulnerabil- ity and, 2; in black-owned business sector, 37-42, 155-156; career- enhancing strategies using, 81-84, 130-133; corporate placement of African Americans and, 140-144; defined, 14-15, 29; enhancement of, programs for, 129-133, 156- 159; exiting rates for executives in, 133-135, 171n.4; external rela- tions with black activists and, 109- 111; golden handcuffs for, 93-96; individual activism and group com- mitment in, 90-93, 104-107; job security issues for, 125-129; middle-class African Americans in, 29-43, 73, 77-80; pessimism con- cerning career advancement in, 139-154; private sector patterns of, 51-54; product market protec- tion for black consumers through, 114-118; in public sector, 31-37; racial equality and, 159-161; racial harmony within corporations and, 111-113:; racialized services in workplace and, 29-43; shifts in, for black college graduates, 30; as springboards to mainstream jobs, 84-89; survey on status of, 120- 125; upward mobility for African Americans and, 12, 29-43, 73, 77- 80, 153-154 racism: African American economic opportunity and, xi; controversies over class and, 1-15; diminished role of in black employment, para- digm of, 8; economic opportunity linked to, 10-12; pessimism among black executives concerning, 137- 154 Ramos, Dante, 36 Reagan, Ronal4d, xi, 29, 120 Rebuild L.A. program, 127 recruitment of minorities: corporate downsizing and flattening and, 145; federal antidiscrimination legisla- tion asspur to, 61-63, 100-107; urban riots and, 70-72 : research methodology, 13-16, 169nn.3-4 (Chapter 1) retail industry: African American- owned businesses in, 37-42; im- pact of black economic boycotts on, 66; product market protection for black consumers in, 113-118 retail sales, job security for blacks in, 127-129 rioting: diminished fear of, during 1980s, 123-125; expansion of black business opportunities and, 68-72, 170n.6; income distri- bution linked to, 135-136; pres- sure on corporations from, 108- 111 role models, for black executives, 96- 98 Roosevelt, Franklin D. (President), 17 Roper and Associates, 66 Ross, Heather L., 6 Rush, Bobby, 164 S sales occupations: mainstreaming of black executives in, 87-88; ra- cialized jobs for African Americans in, 51-54 sanitation and sewage services, con- centration of black employment in 32 Sawhill, Isabel, 6 scapegoating, economic conditions as factor in, 167-168; racialized jobs as opportunity for, 117-118 school jobs, racialization of employ- ment in, 35-36 Sears Roebuck, Mandatory Achieve- ment of Goals program, 20 Seary, Norman, 26 service indutries: African American- owned businesses in, 37-42; Afri- can American underrepresentation in, 8; mobilitym of African Ameri- cans in, 155-168; racialization in, 29-43 set-aside programs, 23, 124-125 Seven-Up, 68 sex discrimination, black business elite and, 14 Sharpe, Rochelle, 145-146, 172n.2 Siegel, Paul M., 48 Sikes, Melvin P., 6, 164 Sikoff, Harvard, 63, 66, 119 Smith, James P., 3-4, 6, 47, 155 social conditions, African American economic mobility and, 15-16, 162-163 social policy. See public policy social science occupations, black men employed in, 30 social services occupations: black em- ployment opportunities and expan- sion of, 23-26, 30; black men employed in, 30; dominance of fed- eral funding for, 34-35. See also public sector South Carolina textile industry, fed- eral contract compliance and mi- nority hiring in, 21 Southern Christian Leadership Con- ference (SCLC), 65-68 Sowell, Thomas, 9-10 Starobin, Paul, 122 Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), 64 Students for a Democratic Society (SDS),64 Supreme Court (U.S.), retreat of, from affirmative action, 119-120, 170nn.1-2 (Chapter 7) T "tan" territories, black consumers and sales employees confined to, 53-54 Taylor, D. Garth, 149 Theodore, Nikolas C., 149 Thurow, Lester, 48 Touche Ross, 61 Truman, Harry S (President), 17 U underclass, defined, 169n.1; deterio- ration in, 5-6; growth of, despite affirmative action, 1; militancy ver- sus passivity in, 164-166; pacifica- tion of, through racalized jobs, 31 underemployment patterns, pre- 1960s job market, 50-57, 155-159 unskilled labor market, jobs for Afri- can Americans in, 48-50 upward mobility for African Ameri- cans: blue-collar employment and, 8; cultural factors in, 7-9; fragility of African American middle class and, 162-168; mobility trap for black executives, 77-81; pessimism from black executives about, 140- 153, 171n.1 (Chapter 8); place- ment patterns in corporate posi- tions and, 141-144, 147-151, 172n.4; political conditions and, 15-16; racialization of jobs and, 12, 29-43, 73; sex-related differ- ences in, 3-5 urban affairs programs, black CEOs in, 73-75, 157-158; corporations' use of, 107-111, 115-116, 118 urban crisis, expansion of black job opportunities and, 68-72, 157- 158, 170n.6; racialized jobs as re- sult of, 77-80 Urban League, 165 U.S. News andWorld Report, 123 V Voluntary Organization of Blacks in Government, 26 Voting Rights Act of 1965, 2 Vroman, Wane, 60 W WallStreet Journal, 143, 145 War on Poverty, 23-24 Watson, Glegg, 54, 116 Weathermen, 64 Welch, Finis R., 3-4, 6, 47, 155 welfare programs: African American job inequality and dependency on, 7-10; black economic opportunity and, 17, 24-26 Welfare Rights Organization, 65 white-collar jobs: African American entry into, 3-5; occupational segre- gation for African Americans in, 51-54 Whittingham-Barnes, Donna, 143 Williams, Robin M., Jr., 1, 17, 45, 47 Wilson, William, xi-xii, 3, 7-10, 23, 45, 71, 119, 158-159, 164 Winship, Christopher, 6 Wolpin, Kenneth, 21 women, African American: com- pliance with antidiscrimination leg- islation and, 100-101; job dis- tributions of, compared to white peers, 30; pessimism concerning ca- reer advancement among, 138; as underclass heads of households, 169n.1; underrepresentation of, among black business elite, 14; up- ward mobility for, 3-4 women, in managerial occupations, 146 World War II, government employ- ment of minorities during and after, 49 Wygant v. Jackson Board of Educa- tion, 171n.1 (Chapter 7) Y Yarmolinsky, A., 24 Z Zenith Corporation, African Ameri- can business sector and, 40 Zweigenhaft, Richard L., 6
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