Editor: Dug Miller

Systematic Entomol. Lab.

Building 005, Room 137

10300 Baltimore Avenue

Plant Sciences Institute

Beltsville Agric. Res. Ctr.

Beltsville, MD 20705 USA

dmiller@sel.barc.usda.gov

Volume XXVIII December 30, 2004

From Chris Hodgson a Questionaire concerning the site for ISSIS 2007: At the ISSIS meeting in Padua in 2001, it was suggested that the 2007 meeting should take place in Egypt. However, that was before the situation in the Middle East had worsened. The International Committee of ISSIS feels that it is important that as many delegates as possible should attend these meetings. Each meeting takes a lot of organisation and a final decision needs to be made at least 2 years prior to the actual meeting. So a decision regarding the venue for the next meeting needs to be made this Spring. Prof. Dr. Amin of Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt is keen to hold the meeting there but, in case the present problems in Iraq and Israel/Palestine are still continuing in three months time, Dr. Manuala Branco, Departmento Florestal in Lisbon, Portugal, has kindly agreed to hold the meeting there. In order to help us make the most democratic decision, we would very much appreciate your response to the following questions. Please choose only one answer for each question.

1. If you had a choice, which of the following venues could you attend (choose one):

A. Egypt B. Portugal C. Both D. Neither

2. If it is necessary for you to get permission to attend ISSIS meetings from your employer, would you anticipate having problems in attending a meeting in (choose one):

A. Egypt B. Portugal C. Both D. Neither

3. If it is necessary to apply for a grant to attend the next meeting, either for travel, subsistence or both, would you anticipate having problems if the meeting was held in:

A. Egypt B. Portugal C. Both D. Neither.

4. If you had a choice between the two venues, which would you choose:

A. Egypt B. Portugal C. No preference.

If you have any other comments to make which might affect the choice of site, please add these to your reply. The International Committee would be most grateful if you would either return a copy of this questionnaire by post (to dug Miller at the address given above), or email your choice for each of the above questions to dmiller@sel.barc.usda.gov. In either case, please respond AS SOON AS POSSIBLE and not later than January 30, 2005. Thank you.

Loss of a great coccidologist: Jan Koteja was an innovative scientist and added numerous interesting and exciting bodies of information to the study of scale insects. According to ScaleNet he wrote 114 research papers on scale insects (and there likely are several others in press) and described at least 7 new families, 20 new genera, and 42 new species. He frequently had ideas that didn’t “fit in the box” of tradition; but in many instances his hypotheses have gained wide acceptance in coccidology. His findings in systematics, morphology, phylogeny, and fossils will remain important reading for scientist well into the future. He will be greatly missed.

A message from Pawel Koteja: I am sorry to inform you that my father, Jan Koteja, has died on Aug 19. The funeral will be on Rakowice Cemetery in Krakow, on Aug 24 at 13.00. As you may know, he has been retired for two years, but has worked at home to his last day. I know that he has been in the process of revising and writing manuscripts - some of which, I believe, were contributions to books or special journal issues. He has also worked on several specimens of amber inclusions, some of which came from his colleagues and various museums. Soon after the funeral I will start digging through his computer and drawers to find the connections, and will do my best to return all the materials to the owners. As you guess, it will not be an easy job - especially because my scientific interests were quite distinct from those of my father. I obviously know - since my childhood, indeed - several names of his colleagues (e.g., Ferenz Kozar, Michael Kosztarab, Yair Ben-Dov, Evelyna Danzig, and others), but I have only vague information about his current contacts and commitments. I will certainly be able to find the connections, but it would ease my job if the information about my father's death was distributed through "The Scale" and a mailing list of scale insect specialists you probably have. I would especially appreciate it if those who had sent specimens or collaborated on current manuscripts e-mailed me and helped with identifying the specimens and provided instructions concerning returning of the materials. Some of the borrowed as well as my father's own specimens are partly or perhaps even completely prepared for microscopic examination. I hope somebody may be interested in finishing the job.

Ferenc Kozár, Hungary: Finally in the spring of 2004 my book “Ortheziidae of the World” was published. Now I can return to my research on Rhizoecini mealybugs. To this point in time I have published on one new genus, including a new species. Also four new Ripersiella species have been described from the Australian-Pacific region. A World revision of Ripersiella including eight new species has been submitted. In total, the number of species in this genus has increased to 73. Two new genera of the Rhizoecini are in print and one genus is reestablished. These genera include 9 new species. A new species of Geococcus has also been submitted for publication. I hope to finish a short revision of the genus Rhizoecus, with a description of at least four new species, increasing the total number of species to 83. Currently I am working on the identification of part of Imre Foldi’s Pseudococcidae collection from South America. I also am planning to do more work in on the Eriococcidae.

Gillian on the move: From 7 December 2004, Gillian Watson will be working as Associate Insect Biosystematist (covering Sternorrhyncha and Thysanoptera) at the following address: Plant Pest Diagnostic Center, California Department of Food & Agriculture, 3294 Meadowview Road, Sacramento, California 95832-1448, USA. Tel.: (+) 916 262-1100, Fax: (+) 916 262-1190, Email: gwatson@cdfa.ca.gov

Yair Ben-Dov, Israel: The Catalogue of the Diaspididae (Ben-dov, Y & German, V. 2003. A systematic catalogue of the Diaspididae (armoured scale insects) of the world, subfamilies Aspidiotinae, Comstockiellinae and Odonaspidinae. Intercept Publishers, Ltd. Andover, England, 1111 pp.) was published on December 2003, and is now available for purchase from the Publisher [see short review below]. Subsequently, the database for the genera and species of the above-listed subfamilies have been joined with the Diaspidinae and Leucaspidinae (compiled by Dug Miller). Consequently, the whole Diaspididae family is now available on-line on ScaleNet. I have finalized (cut-off date December 2003) the preparation of the manuscript of The Catalogue of the Margarodidae. The Catalogue will be published in 2005. During 2002 and 2003 I have proceeded inputting data for ScaleNet, the joint project with Dug Miller. I have been adding data on the families Aclerdidae, Asterolecaniidae, Beesoniidae, Carayonemidae, Coccidae, Dactylopiidae, Diaspididae (subfamilies Aspidiotinae, Comstockiellinae and Odonaspidinae), Kerriidae, Lecanodiaspididae, Margarodidae and Pseudococcidae. The website Directory of Scale Insect (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) Systematists, was developed and is now available for users at the URL: This website was developed to provide information on systematists of scale insects, beginning with Carl von Linnaeus (1707-1778) to the present. “Scale Insect” systematists is regarded, in the context of this directory, a person who has been either an author or co-author of a new taxon in the Coccoidea. The Directory presents the following details: For deceased systematists - full names, year of birth and year of death, reference to biography and a portrait (when available); for living systematists the user may retrieve information including full names, affiliation address, e-mail address, URL of website page and a portrait. It is my wish to update and upgrade the Directory, therefore, feedback from colleagues and users will be highly appreciated. If you discover that a particular scale insect systematist is not included in the Directory, or you have new information and corrections to be included, please send the information to .

Rosa Henderson, New Zealand: This year has been notable for travel, first away to Turkey to participate in ISSIS X at Adana, and secondly a reorganised life with a long daily commute across town to work, since the April move into our new Landcare Research building. We have mixed feelings about this building, although on the whole it is a great improvement for the insect collection, e.g. some pluses … pinned insects are now housed in unit trays in flat drawer cabinets instead of upright store boxes… the Coccoidea are all in one area … and there is a dedicated small lab for slide preparation. The minuses of a noisy environment (unlined concrete walls, floors and ceilings) may be lessened if we can get sound-absorbing additions. Surely, everyone enjoyed ISSIS X as much as I did! As well, a developing collaboration with Ben Normark from that meeting promises much for the revision of the NZ Diaspididae. The Normark Lab team at the University of Massachusetts are sequencing the NZ species that I send over, and I hope this information will throw some light on the Leucaspis armoured scales in particular. At this end I am busy collecting (with the help of two enthusiastic friends) and making slides of everything we find, while the list of possible new species grows apace. The NZ Coccidae are not completely forgotten. Chris Hodgson’s and my monograph describing adult males, pupae and prepupae came out in June as “Fauna of New Zealand 51,” and Chris has kindly written up descriptions of the females of two new Umbonichiton species, for a paper that we hope to have published soon. Then there are interesting eriococcids lurking on the descriptions agenda. Life is never dull when studying scale insects!

Jon Martin, London, UK: Major changes are afoot at the Natural History Museum in London. In order to provide space for the building of phase 2 of their Darwin Center project, the existing Entomology building is scheduled for demolition in 2005. General background to these plans is given on the web link http://www.nhm.ac.uk /entomology/move.html. The details of which parts of the Entomology collections will be temporarily transferred to which locations are still being finalised. However, the liklihood is that the Coccoidea collections will be located at a facility near the Wimbledon tennis grounds, about 4 miles (6 kilometers) from the museum itself. This will have implications for intending visitors for the next three years. As part of the preparations for moving this huge collection, the slide collection has now been substantially updated from recent catalogues and the Zoological Record. The dry collection had been in three sections for many decades - a "main" collection (material in shunt boxes, alphabetically arranged), the former Newstead Collection (housed in display drawers, arranged by family / subfamily) and what was euphemistically termed a "supplementary" collection (unarranged but named duplicates of material already on slides). All this dry material has now been melded into the main dry collection, in shunt boxes and other small boxes, in one alphabetical series, not arranged by family. While this was being done, the names were brought up to date following the system of the slide collection. Holdings of dry material have now also been databased at a very basic level - i.e. dry material present in or absent from NHM collection. An inevitable consequence of such a major reorganisation of a collection has been the disposal of much unsorted material in poor condition. However, the same exercise has revealed valuable material, including type material, that has now been fully incorporated into the collection. The cabinets that housed the Newstead and supplementary collections have been released for re-use outside the museum, thus minimising the volume of furniture to be moved in 2005. Jon Martin, the curator with responsibility for the coccoid collections, suggests that 2005 is not likely to be a good year to plan to visit the London NHM's collections. Also, enquiries are likely to be dealt with more quickly if material is already slide-mounted.

Uri Gerson, Israel: Thank you for your message about the new “The Scale.” As you may know, I am now retired (albeit still reasonably active) and have not "touched" scale insects for many years. So the only contribution I can offer is a short chapter from our book (with Bob Smiley and Ron Ochoa), "Mites (Acari) for Pest Control". This chapter (38-4) is attached, for you to decide whether the included information could be of interest to the readers of “The Scale.”

Acarine biocontrol agents as enemies of scale insects

Scale insects (Homoptera: Coccoidea) are major plant pests, causing their damage by feeding, injecting toxins, transmitting plant viruses and excreting honeydew on which disfiguring sooty-mould fungi grow. The most important families are the Diaspididae (armoured scale insects), Coccidae (soft scales), Pseudococcidae (mealybugs) and Margarodidae. Most scale insects (with the notable exception of the mealybugs) are sedentary during most of their lives. After eclosion the first-instar nymphs (‘crawlers’) leave their birth place and, unless blown away by winds, settle at near-by sites, thus often forming colonies. In most cases the settled female insect spends the rest of her life at that location. The post-crawler instars either lose their legs when moulting or, if these appendages are retained, seldom move. The short- lived, winged males lack mouthparts, serving merely to inseminate the females. The colonies, while intensifying scale insect damage at their sites, also increase the probability of being detected by natural enemies (including ABAs). Another factor that facilitates the biological control of individual scale insects is the long life cycle, which prolongs their exposure time. Scale insects usually require several months to raise a generation, a period less than half the time by ABAs, which thus produce more than a single generation on each host scale.

ABAs of armoured scale insects

The body of the Diaspididae is covered by a closely-adhering shield that usually protects them from ABAs. However, as the crawlers hatch they raise a posterior flap of the shield in order to emerge. This portal serves Hemisarcoptes and Saniosulus to gain access to the females' bodies and eggs. The mites then feed on the body of the female scale, its young and eggs. The Diaspididae is the family that has attracted the most acarine parasites and predators, being the only coccoid family that has a specific genus of associated natural enemies (e.g. Hemisarcoptes) that can control its populations (Gerson et al., 1990). Most of the predatory Eupalopsellidae whose prey are known feed on crawlers (although they may be found on the adults), as do some Camerobiidae and Cheyletidae that occur on fruit trees (e.g. Moraes et al., 1989). The small bodies of the crawlers do not suffice for the development of the generalist parasitoid Pyemotidae, which often attack adult diaspidids. Pyemotids are generally rare on scale insects, although De Lillo & Porcelli (1993) recorded parasitoism rates of about 30% on a Cotoneaster-infesting armoured scale in Italy. Stigmaeidae, especially species of Agistemus, may feed on armoured scale crawlers (e.g. Ehara, 1962; Farag et al., 1990), but probably do not affect their populations. Another potential stigmaeid predator of diaspidids is Eryngiopus, because three of its species were found under the shields of pestiferous scale insects (Vacante & Gerson, 1989). Several Phytoseiidae feed, reproduce, and complete their development when offered only diaspidid eggs and crawlers (McMurtry, 1963; Ragusa & Swirski, 1977). At least one, Typhlodromus baccettii Lombardini, seems to have a special relationship with Carulaspis, a cypress- inhabiting diaspidid; almost all scales sampled in the spring at Florence, Italy, had the mites under their shields. The predator devoured the eggs of Carulaspis, but may also feed on available phytophagous mites (Baccetti, 1960). The recent literature on diaspidids as a food source for phytoseiids was reviewed by Schausberger (1998), who demonstrated that three generalists developed and reproduced when given an exclusive diet of crawlers of the San Jose scale, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus (Comstock). Generalist predators in the families Anystidae, Bdellidae, Cunaxidae and Erythraeidae consume diaspidid crawlers (Gerson et al., 1990), but such feeding appears to be opportunistic and there is no evidence that it affects the pests’ populations. The citrus red mite, Panonychus citri, has a negative, non-destructive association with the California red scale, Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell), a major pest of citrus. Orange leaves were infested with adult mites and about 100 crawlers were added almost daily. Half the crawlers settled on leaves that had been infested by the mites for 1-4 days, their settlement rate decreasing thereafter. By day 11 no scales were able to settle, suggesting that the mites had rendered these leaves unsuitable for the crawlers (Ebeling, 1948). The mechanism of this inhibition is not known.

ABAs of Soft scales, mealybugs and other scale insects

Soft scales do not appear to have any specific acarine predators or parasites, but may be parasitised by opportunistic ABAs, such as Pyemotes (Vaivanijkul & Haramoto, 1969). The eggs and crawlers of several soft scale species served as subsistence food for Amblyseius swirskii in the laboratory, but only few became adults and oviposition was negligible (Ragusa & Swirski, 1977). Mycophagous Tydeidae serve as sanitizing agents in citrus grove, because by feeding on the sooty-mould that develops on coccid honeydew they reduce the attendant damage (Mendel & Gerson, 1982). Tydeids may serve a similar function in regard to the honeydew of mealybugs, whose eggs and crawlers provided survival food for phytoseiids. Some species fed on this diet and a few eggs were produced, but none of the progeny developed beyond the protonymphal stage (Ragusa di Chiara & Tsolakis, 1995). The honeydew of mealybugs provided sufficient nutrients for the production of a few eggs by Amblyseius limonicus and enhanced the females’ survival (McMurtry & Scriven, 1965). Larvae and nymphs of Leptus sp. and Bochartia sp. (Erythraeidae) attacked the nymphs and adults of Drosicha mangiferae Green (Margarodidae), a pest of mango in India. The mites parasitised the scales and sucked out their body fluids, causing the hosts to blacken and shrivel. The mites killed about 15-20% of the pests, were active from January to May and later migratedg to the soil (Tandon & Lal, 1976). The trombidiid Allothrombium mitchelli Davis fed on and seemed to reduce the numbers of the beech scale (Cryptococcus fagisuga Lindinger, Eriococcidae) in the eastern USA (Wiggins et al., 2001). This variety of reports suggests that additional natural enemies of scale insects remain to be discovered, especially in the tropics. However, the available evidence indicates that, with the exception of Hemisarcoptes, few ABAs capable of controlling scale insect pests will be found.

Francesco Porcelli, Italy: The study of the interactions between Septobasidium and the Diaspididae is finished. I refrain from providing extensive information because some parts of the research are from the thesis of Carmela Stigliano. She will conclude her work in January and a publication will follow. I have almost finished the first study of the action of Aphanocladium album (fungi) against L. viburni. See the attached picture of an infected scale. This is a joint study with Prof. Ciccarese, a mycologist here from the faculty of agriculture. A study about paternal heterochromatization has just started; we have a lot of material of Unaspis euonymi at hand and this image shows the general structure of the reproductive system. Tuoloidin blue is the intra vitam stain.

Imre Foldi, Paris, France: Since I am now retired and no longer President of the Entomological Society of France, I now have much time to work on scale insects. Indeed, I continue full time and am focusing my research on the Margarodidae and related families. A series of papers are in preparation on the archaeococcoids, starting with the Matsucoccidae of the Mediterranean basin (publication probably in December, 2004), followed by others on the Monophlebidae, the Margarodidae and so on. Hopefully, I will complete a generic revision of the archaeococcoids. Another very exciting research project is a collaborative work with Chris Hodgson on the phylogeny of the Margarodidae sensu Morrison and related taxa based on adult male morphology; the first results were presented by Hodgson at ISSIS-X, Adana, Turkey (2004). We have nearly completed describing and illustrating representative males of most of the higher taxa and hope to obtain a well supported phylogenetic tree in the final analysis. This year (2004), I had the pleasure of a visit from Ferenc Kozár, who has just finished his book on the Ortheziidae of the World, in my laboratory. I very much enjoyed working with him on diverse aspects of scale insects. In addition, I must mention the visit of Douglas Williams (November, 2004) which, as always, was a very pleasant experience.

Lerzan Erkilic, Turkey: ISSIS-X was held in Adana, Turkey on 19-23 April 2004. We have 52 attendances from 14 different countries. During the meeting 10 different sessions were held and 44 presentations were given. Beside oral presentations there were 20 posters on different aspects of scale insect research. We hope that the attendees of the meeting had a nice time during their stay in Adana. We also missed a significant number of colleagues who couldn’t attend for diverse reasons.

Evelyna Danzig, Russia: This year I have finished the second and last part of the revision of the genus Phenacoccus of the former USSR. It includes 49 species. In addition I wrote and published in “Entomologicheskoe Obozrenie” a work on Phenacoccus spp. inhabiting different species of Picea with a discussion of polymorphism of the wide spread species Ph. piceae Loew. I reported on this work at the X Scale Insect Symposium in Adana. I want to say that the traveling in Turkey was very impressive and very well arranged. Now I am close to finishing an investigation on the genus Euripersia which I consider to be a junior synonym of Fonscolombia. It is a very interesting root mealybug characterized by ovoviviparous reproduction. The size of the genus is not large, but it is difficult to find characters to diagnose the genus when compared with Phenacoccus.

Ilya Gavrilov, Russia: I am currently finishing my dissertation (Ph.D. thesis): “Systematics and cytogenetics of scale insects (Homoptera, Coccinea) of European Russia”. It will include keys for all species from the region and neighbouring territories, descriptions of new and little known species, and a cytogenetic review of more than 40 species from 29 genera and 8 families. A recent article was published in "Entomologicheskoe Obozrenie": “The scale insects of Volga area” with descriptions of a new mealybug genus and species – Perystrix ulmaria Gavrilov, 2004. In co-operation with Dr. Valentina Kuznetsova, I am preparing a review of coccid chromosome systems for a special Russian book dedicated to evolutionary and genetic problems. I am also preparing a review of chromosome numbers in scale insects of the world (it will be in English). The review will be useful since most of this kind of information (with the exception of the works of Brown and Nur) is currently scattered in obscure publications.

Chris Hodgson, Wales, UK: Projects completed or almost completed -- With Dug Miller and Samual Goncalves: a new species of Pseudotectococcus from Brazil ( Lundiana 5: 51-72); with Rosa Henderson: the males of the indigenous soft scales of New Zealand (Fauna of New Zealand No. 51); with Rosa Henderson: 2 new species of soft scale from New Zealand (submitted to Zootaxa); with Prof. Takagi: a new gall-inducing coccoid on dipterocarps (almost completed); with Carl-Axel Gertsson: four new species of mealybug and a new species of soft scale from Greenland (about to be submitted); also the description of the males of nine of the 11 coccoid species known from Greenland (about to be submitted). Work in progress: With Imre Foldi: the phylogeny of the margarodids and related families based on male morphology; also the rest of the scale insect families based on male morphology; with Penny Gullan: revision of the Australian Coccidae; with Dug Miller: descriptions of the type species of the eriococcid genera in South America; with Sophia Gounari: the scale insect sources of honeydew used by honeybees for honey production in Greece; with Rosa Henderson: the immature stages of the soft scales of New Zealand.

Penny Gullan, California, USA: Penny's lab at UCD now has three graduate students, Janie Booth, Cory Unruh and Nathaniel (Nate) Hardy, and one postdoctoral researcher, Takumasa (Demian) Kondo, all studying the phylogenetic systematics of scale insects. Cory is studying iceryine margarodids and especially Steatococcus, Janie is working on Matsucoccus, Nate is investigating Australian eriococcids, and Demian is continuing his coccid studies but with some "diversification" into other families. Much of our funding comes from a PEET (Partnerships for Enhancing Expertise in Taxonomy) National Science Fund grant to Penny, with Dug Miller (USDA) and Ben Normark (University of Massachusetts) as collaborators. Check out our lab web page for details of all of our projects and activites: http://entomology.ucdavis.edu/gullanandcranstonlab/ In June 2003, as part of our PEET project, Penny hosted an informal five-day training workshop on scale insect systematics and phylogeny, with emphasis on the morphology of adult females. This workshop, or "Scale Camp", involved almost all PEET project trainees and participants and was held in the Department of Entomology at UCD. Doug Williams (who visited from England for the event), Dug Miller, Ray Gill and Demian Kondo helped Penny with instruction, and Ph.D. student, Patrycja Gazinska (Agriculture University in Warsaw), even traveled from Poland to attend. For more details go to: http://entomology.ucdavis.edu/Scalewebpages/peet/workshop.html Ben Normark hosted a second Scale Camp, held at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, in October 2004, with the theme of molecular phylogenetic analysis. All members of Penny's lab (except Nate who was in India) went to Amherst to participate, and everyone learned a great deal about scale insect DNA data, including how wacky it is! Plus we all had a wonderful time interacting with Ben, postdoc Geoff Morse, and graduate students Matt Gruwell and Rodger Gwiazdowski. Lyn Cook, from the Australian National University in Canberra, Australia, also participated in training at the second Scale Camp and visited UCD afterwards for two weeks to collaborate with Penny. Lyn's expertise in obtaining and analyzing coccoid DNA, especially aligning nucleotide sequences using secondary structure, was very helpful to the students. Members of our lab have been traveling a lot since publication of the last edition of "The Scale" in April 2003. In addition to flying east to the Scale Camp held at University of Massachusetts, there have been two major trips that have involved two or more members of our lab. The first was the Tenth International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies (ISSIS-X) in Adana, Turkey, from April 19-24, 2004. Penny, Cory and Demian traveled to Turkey to attend ISSIS-X, where they each presented a paper. They thoroughly enjoyed ISSIS, the Turkish hospitality and the tour of Cappadocia, and wish to especially thank Lerzan Erkilic and Bora Kaydan. The second big trip was to Australia for the International Congress of Entomology (ICE), which took place in Brisbane in August 2004. Cory and Nate presented posters at ICE on their scale insect research and Penny gave two talks, but only one on scale insects (on coccoid-eucalypt radiations, co-authored with Lyn Cook, of ANU). In January 2004, Penny and Lyn also co-authored an invited talk on their eriococcid research, presented to the IV Southern Connection meeting (an international congress of scientists who study southern hemisphere biology and earth history; go to: http://www.uct.ac.za/conferences/sc2004), held in Cape Town, South Africa. Demian Kondo completed a Ph.D. on soft scale (Coccidae: Myzolecaniinae) systematics at Auburn University, Alabama, in early 2003 and he commenced a post-doctoral position with the PEET project in April 2003. He still primarily works on the phylogenetic systematics of soft scale insects. His major project is a taxonomic revision of a group of coccids that feed only on Macaranga plants in intimate association with Crematogaster ants, but he and Penny have a number of smaller taxonomic projects to describe other scale insect species, including a new Peruvian species of Cryptostigma, a new Colombian lac insect and two new Brazilian mealybug species. Demian spends most of his time drawing and describing scale insects, but prepares some slide-mounts, does a bit of databasing, and has (reluctantly) learnt some molecular techniques. In September 2003, Demian and Peter Cranston went to Jamaica for a week, specifically to collect at the type locality of Ferrisia virgata in Kingston. They ventured into Kingston at the quietest time of the week, early Sunday morning, to avoid attracting unwanted attention as they searched for mealybugs on the street trees. Their success in finding the target mealybugs just goes to show that some type localities remain mealybug-friendly for at least a hundred years! In late 2003, Demian went on a collecting trip (organized by Dr. Elizabeth Arias from UC Berkeley) to a number of forested areas in Chile, where he braved the rain for several weeks to collect scale insects, mainly eriococcids. Cory Unruh, who began her graduate studies in October 2002, is researching the taxonomy and phylogeny of iceryine Margarodidae for her Ph.D. dissertation. She has been preparing taxonomic redescriptions of two Heteromargarodes species (ground pearls), producing a database for Steatococcus species, scoring iceryine margarodids for cladistic analysis of morphological data, and also acquiring and analyzing molecular data on iceryines. Her molecular phylogenetic data from the large subunit ribosomal DNA gene (28S) suggest that the genera Icerya and Steatococcus are not monophyletic. Cory will be testing these first hypotheses of relationships with additional genes and morphological data, and is keen to obtain more iceryine species for her analyses. Please collect and preserve (in 90-100% ethanol) any margarodids that you see and post them to Cory. Thanks to everyone who has sent specimens already. As well as doing lots of lab work, Cory has made trips to Turkey for ISSIS-X (April 2004), to the south-west USA for fieldwork (spring 2004), to Australia for ICE (August 2004), and to Montana and Salt Lake City, USA, for Entomological Society of America meetings. Janie Booth commenced her graduate studies in late September 2003 and is studying the systematics and evolution of the pine-infesting genus Matsucoccus (Margarodidae). During her first academic year, Janie completed a substantial amount of coursework and did several short collecting trips in California and the east coast of the U.S. She also presented a talk on Matsucoccus at the Western Forest Insect Work Conference, held in southern California in late April 2004. Her most valuable data for phylogenetic reconstruction are nucleotide sequences because Matsucoccus is very conservative morphologically. Janie has successfully sequenced the small subunit ribosomal DNA gene (18S) from a number of Matsucoccus samples from around the world (thanks to all of you who have sent specimens), and she has commenced work on several other potentially informative genes. Her preliminary analyses suggest that she will be able to reconstruct relationships among Matsucoccus species successfully using DNA data alone, but she needs many more species yet. Janie is using morphological data from adult females and nymphs to augment and help interpret the molecular data. Check out her Matsucoccus WEB at:

http://entomology.ucdavis. edu/gullanandcranstonlab/MatsucoccusWEB/MAIN.htm

Nate Hardy trained in entomology at Cornell University and joined the Gullan/Cranston lab in July 2003, initially as a volunteer and then as a postgraduate researcher. He worked on a project (begun by the late Dr. Jack Beardsley) on the Australian eriococcid genus Lachnodius, including preparing taxonomic drawings, making a Lucid key to species and reconstructing the phylogeny of Lachnodius and its relatives based on morphology. The project expanded so much that the systematics and evolution of Lachnodius, Opisthoscelis and related Australian eriococcids now forms the topic of his Ph.D. dissertation, which he formerly commenced in October 2004. Nate and Penny will be doing fieldwork in Victoria, Australia, during February 2005, to visit most of Jack Beardsley's former collecting sites. Nate already has visited Australia to attend ICE, where he presented a poster on relationships of Lachnodius and its relatives. In November 2004, Nate traveled to northeast India where he collected some scale insects and helped Gavin Svenson (from the Whiting lab at Brigham Young University, Utah) collect mantids. In Spring 2004, Nate spent a couple of months scoring mealybugs for morphological cladistic analysis to complement previous phylogenetic research on Pseudococcidae that used molecular data (see Downie & Gullan, 2004). Our mealybug phylogeny project is continuing as more specimens become available for both DNA and morphological work. We are especially interested in obtaining first-instar nymphs for as many mealybug species as possible and, in particular need specimens of legless mealybugs (Sphaerococcus and similar taxa), Rhizoecine and Phenacoccinae for DNA work. Two undergraduate students, Meredith Chalfant and Sarah Thrasher, worked with Penny during 2003 as part-time lab assistants funded by the PEET grant. Meredith worked on taxonomic illustrations for the project on Lachnodius. Sarah gathered taxonomic measurements and prepared an illustration of the adult female of a new species of Tessarobelus (Margarodidae) collected by Penny in New Caledonia.

Benjamin Normark, Massachusetts, USA, bnormark@ent.umass.edu. The main project in my laboratory is molecular systematics of Diaspididae. Currently we are writing up three manuscripts: (1) molecular systematics of Diaspididae, using 95 species and 3 genes (first author Geoff Morse); (2) molecular systematics of the Aspidiotus nerii complex (first author Lisa Provencher), and (3) molecular systematics of beech scale, Cryptococcus fagisuga (first author Rodger Gwiazdowski). Matthew Gruwell is doing his Ph.D. dissertation on the primary endosymbionts of diaspidids. I am especially interested in the unusual genetic systems of scale insects and related issues such as: sex ratios, sex determination, genomic imprinting, ploidy levels of bacteriomes/mycetomes, and cytogenetics. I have just received an NSF-CAREER grant that supports work on the

molecular systematics of diaspidids and their endosymbionts for the next 5 years. This grant enables me to recruit an additional graduate student at a generous stipend level, so please alert me to any talented undergraduates interested in the evolution of scale insects. I am also interested in establishing collaborative relationships with colleagues who can provide diverse samples of diaspidids for the phylogeny project. One long-term goal is developing a "DNA-barcoding" capability for molecular identification of armored scales at different life stages. If your job involves identifying diaspidids, and you are interested in helping develop this capability, please contact me.

Dug Miller, Maryland, USA: This year has been a bit traumatic personally, but through the dedication and assistance of several colleagues in the Systematic Entomology Laboratory (particularly Alessandra Rung, Gary Miller, Debra Creel, Nit Malikul, and Michael Schauff) we have been able to make progress on several ongoing research projects. In collaboration with Yair Ben-Dov and Gary Gibson we have completed catalogs on several small families including the Cerococcidae, Halimococcidae, Kermesidae, Micrococcidae, Ortheziidae, Phenacoleachiidae, Phoenicococcidae, and Stictococcidae. These catalogs will be combined in a book in the series published by Intercept and is authored by Miller, Gimpel, and Rung. A great deal of effort was devoted to adding data from Ferenc Kozár’s book on the Ortheziidae. The final volume on the second half of the Diaspididae is currently in manuscript form, but it is so large that even proofing it takes weeks or months. The book on the economic armored scales of the US finally appears that “it will see the light of day,” since it is due to be published by Cornell University Press in the summer of 2005. It contains a color plate, line drawing, and detailed description for each of more than 100 species, and has field keys and keys to slide-mounted adult females. It is set up in the same large format of books like Johnson and Lyon (1976). Our main thrust for the year has been to complete 2 keys in the Lucid system. The family key is in the beta-testing phase and will be on line in the near future; it includes all extant families and provides numerous images of the characters and the structures included in the fairly extensive glossary. Line drawings, automontage images, and habitus images are included. Authors include Miller, Rung, Venable, and Gill. The second key is on the 50 most commonly intercepted mealybug species at US ports-of-entry. Its completion is expected in 2005. Other projects include a revision of the armored scale genus Furcaspis with Douglas Williams, a paper on the eriococcid genera of South America with Chris Hodgson, and new research on the Dysmicoccus bispinosus group of mealybugs. We are doing our best to keep ScaleNet up to date, but the lack of a person dedicated to this task makes it difficult. Karen Veilleux is doing a wonderful job of keeping the reference files in ScaleNet up to date. However, if you see items that need changes or know of publications that need to be added, please let us know. A major project in the collection area is to incorporate the Kosztarab collection which was kindly donated to the US National Museum of Natural History in the fall of 2003. The collection includes more than 20,000 slides and numerous envelopes of dry material. It is an important addition to the collection and we are working diligently on the compilation of a detailed inventory.

Douglas Williams, London, UK: Please don’t hold Douglas responsible for this note; it was written by the lesser dug, i.e. Miller. The major accomplishment for the year was the publication of his new book on the mealybugs of southern Asia; a short review is given below. I can’t write enough about how critically important this work is to our identification services in the USA. We currently are (perhaps “were” after the Tsunami) importing large quantities of tropical fruit from this part of the world, but it was nearly impossible to determine many of the common mealybug species that are intercepted at ports-of-entry. Douglas’s book solves this problem. During the year, Douglas also published at least 3 other papers, 1 on a Rhizoecus associated with Acropyga ants, another on 2 new mealybugs from the Falkland Islands, and a synopsis of the mealybug genus Neochavesia. Who knows what other papers emerged this year. He also took his annual trek to “The States” and worked with Penny Gullan in California on research on the iceryines of Australia. Later he visited with me in Maryland and worked on a joint project on the genus Furcaspis. In November he made a quick trip to France to work with Daniele Ferrero and Imre Foldi. [And this man is retired and celebrated his 70^th birthday several years ago].

Louise Russell to reach the century mark May 6, 2005: I just had lunch with Louise Russell and Matilda and Michael Kosztarab and was amazed at how well Louise is doing at the age of 99. The remarkable thing is that she ate an entire entree of 2 crab cakes, mashed potatoes and gravy, coleslaw, and a salad. Louise lives in her home of more than 50 years by herself, and although she is nearly blind, she takes care of herself with only limited assistance from visitors and neighbors. Manya Stoetzel keeps in close contact with Louise and provides assistance and advice whenever possible. If you are interested in sending Louise a congratulatory note for becoming a centurion, her address is: 9 Sunnyside Road, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910, USA or you can send me a card or note around May 6 and I will present it to her at the celebration that we will be holding here at Beltsville on that day. All are welcome to attend the festivities. Contact me for details. In case there are some who don’t remember Louise, she published a monograph on Asterolecanium in 1941 that still is very useful for making identifications. Most of her career was spent working on aphids and whiteflies. She was employed by the US Department of Agriculture for 47 years and only retired because the mandatory retirement age was 70.

Professor Tremblay honored: Antonio Porcelli drew my attention to some truly fascinating recent research on mealybug endosymbionts including the discovery of bacterial symbionts inside bacterial symbionts that reside inside the bodies of mealybugs. Antonio suggested that a short note should be included in “The Scale” pointing out that one of the involved bacterial genera was named in honor of Professor Tremblay (Tremblaya) in recognition of the important work that he did on scale insect endsymbionts. It also is worth mentioning that a different genus is named in honor of the German coccidologist P. Buchner (Buchnera).

Herdsman ants and their mealybug partners: A new book: Dill, Williams, and Maschwitz 2002. Abhandlungen der Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft Frankfurt am Main, 557, 373 pp. This wonderful book documents the remarkable symbiosis between Dolichoderus ants and mealybugs in the tribe Allomyrmococcini. The book has 6 chapters including an introduction, an overview of the distribution of the herdsman, taxonomy of herdsman species in Dolichoderus, taxonomy of mealybugs in the Allomyrmococcini, biology, and herdsman without mealybug associates. The publication is printed on quality paper and the illustrations, SEM images, and color images are of very well done. The color photographs of ants with attached mealybugs on their bodies are quite remarkable. The chapter written by Doug Williams “IV The mealybug tribe Allomyrmococcini and its association with herdsman ants of the genus Dolichoderus in southern Asia” gives a detailed treatment of 11 genera and 37 species in the tribe. Characters that diagnose the tribe are unusually heavily sclerotized ostioles and large expanded claw digitules. The line drawings are particularly impressive since most specimens contain large numbers of setae and some of the setae are remarkably long and difficult to draw. The revision includes a list of all species, a key to the genera of the tribe, and detailed descriptions of each of the included species. In all cases the adult female is illustrated, but drawings of first instars and an adult male also are included. This is a very important work on the fascinating interactions of the obligate symbiosis between ants and mealybugs. See http://www.schweizerbart.ed

Mealybugs of southern Asia: Williams 2004. Southdene Sdn. Bhd. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and The Natural History Museum, London, UK, 896 pp. This remarkable book is the most recent in a series of six book-length publications written by Douglas Williams since 1985 (others are Australian mealybugs, The scale insects of the tropical South Pacific Region in 3 volumes, and mealybugs of Central and South America). Each of these works is essential for anyone identifying mealybugs or scale insects from the treated area of the world. The copies of these volumes that reside in the library at Beltsville, Maryland are frayed and tattered from heavy use, and the southern Asia volume will be no exception. The work includes 353 species in 61 genera that are recorded from the 17 countries treated as southern Asia. In recent years there has been considerable trade with southern Asia, and many of the mealybug species that were intercepted in quarantine from this area were unknown to science or were misidentified. This caused serious problems since incorrect determinations could allow introduction of new invasive species in any country importing commodities from the area. This book solves this problem and is a must for scale-insect identifiers worldwide. See http://www.edi.co.uk/barlow for more information.

A systematic catalogue of the Diaspididae (Aspidiotinae, Comstockiellinae, Odonaspidinae): Ben-Dov and German. Intercept Ltd., Andover, UK, 1111 pp. Part of the series of catalogues that is being published as a result of the ScaleNet initiative. The volume includes information on 864 species placed in 118 genera.. See http://www.intercept.co.uk for more information.

RECENT LITERATURE

Compiled by Karen Veilleux

Karen continues to do a wonderful job on the ScaleNet literature. I don’t know how we could do it without her. It is a huge, challenging and tedious job and she is great at it.

The total number of reference records on ScaleNet now is 20,666 (that's 3,052 new records since the last Scale). Maybe some of you have been searching ScaleNet to retrieve a list of your own publications when needed. If you do, we would appreciate it if you would draw our attention to any inadvertent errors or omissions that you may notice. Thanks to those of you who have already taken the time to help us improve the database in this way. Please send new publications to me directly either to 710 Cedarview Dr., Blacksburg, VA 24060 USA or, electronically, to veilleux@vt.edu. I give priority to entering records into the database from actual papers received from the authors directly; other papers are entered as I learn of them.

Results

Abd-Rabou, S. 2003. The species of Coccophagus (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), with description of one new species from Egypt. Acta Phytopathologica et Entomologica Hungarica 38(3/4): 351-355. [AbdRab2003]
Notes: The species of the aphelinid genus Coccophagus are primary parasitoids of soft scale insects belonging to the family Coccidae. These soft scale insects infect several economically important fruits or ornamental trees, and several species of Coccophagus have been used in the biological control of different scale insects. This paper reviews the Egyptian species of Coccophagus, namely C. bivittaus, C. ishii, C. lycimnia, C. qenai and C. scutellaris. C. qenai is described as a new species from Egypt. Each species is briefly diagnosed and the known information on host and distribution is given. A key is provided to these species.

Abd-Rabou, S. 2004. The role of augmentative releases of indigenous parasitoid Metaphycus lounsburyi (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) in enhancing the biological control of Saissetia oleae (Homoptera: Coccidae) on olive in Egypt. Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection 37(3): 233-237. [AbdRab2004]
Notes: The Mediterranean black scale, Saissetia oleae is the most important pest of olive in Egypt. Indigenous parasitoid Metaphycus lounsburyi from different localities in Egypt, were manipulated, reared and mass-produced for classical biological control in Egypt, more than 193,130 parasitoids were released. Several releases were made between May 1999 and April 2001. Increases of the parasitism from 17.4 to 42.0 and from 6.4 to 19.2 during the first year (1999-2000) and the second year (2000-01), respectively, in the Northern Coast. This parasitoid became established in some of the release sites in El-Arish and Matruh Governorates.

Abd-Rabou, S. 2004a. Augmentative releases of indigenous parasitoids of the Mediterranean black scale Saissetia oleae (Oliver) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) on olive in Egypt. Shashpa 11(1): 51-56. [AbdRab2004a]
Notes: The Mediterranean black scale, Saissetia oleae is an important pest of olive in Egypt. Approximately 113,250 indigenous parasitoids of S. oleae from different localities in Egypt, were mass produced and released at three locations, from April 1999 to April 2000. Among all the indigenous parasitoids released, only Metaphycus bartletti established itself on S. oleae with parasitism rates of 83, 56, and 33% in the Northern Coast, Marsa Matruh and El-Arish, respectively.

Abd-Rabou, S. 2004b. Revision of the genus Aphytis (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) with descriptions of two new species from Egypt. (In Chinese; Summary In English). Entomologia Sinica 11(2): 149-164. [AbdRab2004b]
Notes: The Egyptian species of the aphelinid genus Aphytis Howard are reviewed. Aphytis azai Abd-Rabou and Aphytis matruhi Abd-Rabou are described as new species from Egypt. Each species is briefly diagnosed and known information on hosts and distributed is given. A. azai sp. nov. is similar to A. melinus but different in the measurement of antennal segments. A. matruhi sp. nov. differs from A. lepidosaphes by the relative length of propodeum, metanotum and scutellum. A key to the Egyptian species of Aphytis is provided. Hosts include Aonidiella aurantii and Lepidosaphes beckii.

Abd-Rabou, S. & Hayat, M. 2003. A synopsis and key to the Egyptian species of Aphytis Howard (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) parasitoids of diaspidid scale insects (Homoptera: Diaspididae). Acta Phytopathologica et Entomologica Hungarica 38(3/4): 357-363. [AbdRabHa2003]
Notes: The species of Aphytis have great potential in the biological control of diaspidid pests, and have been used for this purpose, mostly with successful results, throughout the world. This paper provides a key for the identification of the known species from Egypt, and gives a brief synopsis of the hosts and plants from which these parasitoids were collected. Some of the collected Aphytis species appear to be new for the Egyptian fauna, i.e. A. chilensis, A. hispanicus, A. paramaculicornis, A. vandenboschi, A. philippinensis, A. africanus, A. lingnanensis, A. phoenicis, A. aonidiae and A. libanicus.

Abdel-Moniem, A. 2003. Ecological studies on the red-striped sugarcane soft scale, Pulvinaria tenuivalvata (Newstead) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) in Upper Egypt. Archives of Phytopathology and Plant Protection 36(3/4): 161-172. [AbdelM2003]
Notes: The red-striped soft scale P. tenuivalvata is a pest attacking sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) recently recorded in Upper Egypt governorates. Sugarcane plantations in Upper Egypt were thoroughly inspected for 2 years from January 2001 until December 2002 to record infestation with P. tenuivalvata and its population density. Crops, plants and weeds growing near sugarcane fields were examined to determine the host range of this pest. Soft scale insect pests have become increasingly dangerous on sugarcane in Egypt. These insects occurred from 3 to 8 months on the infested hosts. The red-striped soft scale was active from May to December. Sugarcane, cogongrass (Imperata cylindrica) and Deccan grass (Echinochloa crus-galli) were the hosts, which harboured all insect stages. The infestation was restricted on the lower surface of the leaves and lower numbers were found on the upper surface. Damage to sugarcane included withering of the leaves and reduced yield, with reduction in the sucrose content of the juice. The growth rate of pest population infesting the sugarcane plants in 2001 increased gradually from June to September and decreased from October to December. The same trend was found for the growth rate of population in 2002. At high growth rates, it is advisable to use chemical control. The effect of weather factors on the population density of the P. tenuivalvata (the correlation between the total number of pests and temperature or relative humidity) was positive both years.

Ackacha, M.A., Polec-Pawlak, K. & Jarosz, M. 2003. Identification of anthraquinone coloring matters in natural red dyestuffs by high performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet and electrospray mass spectrometric detection. Journal of Separation Science 26(11): 1028-1034. [AckachPoJa2003]
Notes: Reversed phase liquid chromatography with diode array detection (DAD) and electrospray mass spectrometric (ESI MSD) methods were developed for the identification of anthraquinone color components of cochineal, lac dye, and madder - red natural dyestuffs. Electrospray mass spectrometry was found to be more suitable than diode array detection for such analysis because of its higher sensitivity (detection limits in the range 30-90 ng mL(-1)) and selectivity. The developed method permitted unequivocal identification of carminic acid and laccaic acid A as coloring matters in examined preparations of cochineal and lac dye, respectively.

Adomako, B. & Ackonor, J.B. 2003. Genetic analysis of attractiveness of Upper Amazon cocoa selections to homopterous insect pests. Tropical Science 43(1): 39-43. [AdomakAc2003]
Notes: The breeding value of 10 Upper Amazona cocoa selections was evaluated with respect to their attractiveness to 4 homopterous insect pests (Toxoptera aurantii, Tyro tessmannii, Planococcus citri and Planococcoides njalensis) in a study established in 1982 in Ghana. Ten female parents (Alph. B36, IMC 60, Pa 7, Pa 150, Pound 7, Pound 26, T17/524, T65/238, T60/887 and T85/799), each crossed with 3 male parents (ICS 6, P30 and Sca 9). The females came from one broad Upper Amazon population and can be classified into Nanay, Parinari, IMC and T types. ICS 6 is an Imperior College Selection of the Trinitario population; P30 is a west African Amelonado selection from the Lower Amazon Forastero population; and Sca 9 is a Scavina from the Upper Amazon population. There were significant differences in the attractiveness of the 10 Upper Amazon cocoa selections to the homopterous insect pests but none of the Nanay, Parinari, IMC or T types was consistently preferred when the female parents were considered. For the male parents, Sca 9 (Upper Amazon) was markedly more attractive to the insect pests than either ICS 6 (Trinitario) or P30 (Amelonado).

Afonso, A.P.S., Teixeira, I., Botton, M., Faria, J.L. & Loeck, A.E. 2004. [Control of the European peach scale Parthenolecanium persicae (Fabricius, 1776) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) in vineyards.] Controle da cochonilha-parda Parthenolecanium persicae (Fabricius, 1776) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) na cultura da videira. (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Ciencia Rural 34(4): 985-989. [AfonsoTeBo2004]
Notes: The efficacy of dimethoate (Tiomet 400 EC at 100 ml/100 litre), fenitrothion (Sumithion 500 EC at 150 ml/100 litre), methidathion (Supracid 400 CE at 100 ml/100 litre), parathion-methyl (Folidol 600 EC at 100 ml/100 litre) and trichlorfon (Dipterex 500 SNAqC at 300 ml/100 litre) in 2001, and imidacloprid (Provado 200 SC at 30, 40 and 50 ml/100 litre), thiacloprid (Calypso 480 SC at 20, 30 and 40 ml/100 litre), thiamethoxam (Actara 250 WG at 20, 30 and 40 g/100 litre) and parathion-methyl (Folidol 600 CE at 100 ml/100 litre) in 2002 to control P. persicae in vineyards was investigated in a field experiment in Monte Belo do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The insecticides were sprayed using 800 litre of water/ha seeking third instar nymphs. Fenitrothion, methidathion, parathion-methyl, trichlorfon, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam were efficient for P. persicae control. Dimethoate and thiacloprid reduced pest population levels below 50%.

Aguiar-Menezes, E.L., Menezes, E.B., Cassino, P.C.R. & Soares, M.A. 2002. Passion fruit. 361-390 In: Peña, J., Sharp, J. & Wysoki, M. (Eds.), Tropical Fruit Pests and Pollinators: Biology, Economic Importance, Natural Enemies and Control. CABI Publishing, . 448 pp. [AguiarMeCa2002]
Notes: Scales listed as pests include Aonidiella aurantii, Coccus hesperidum, Planococcus citri, P. pacificus and Selenaspidus articulatus. Description and life history, host plants, injury, natural enemies and chemical control are discussed. [Available on the internet at http://www.cabi-publishing.org/Bookshop/Readingroom/0851994342/0851994342Ch12.pdf on September 2003.]

Ahmad, K.F., Shah, W.H., Khalid, M. & Samina, J. 2004. Distribution of San Jose scale, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus (Com.) [Diaspididae: Homoptera] on apple trees in Kashmir, Pakistan. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture 20(1): 135-142. [AhmadShKh2004]
Notes: Studies on the spatial and temporal distribution of San Jose scale (SJS), Q. perniciosus [Diaspidiotus perniciosus], on apple trees were carried out in three apple growing localities, i.e. Bagh, Muzaffarabad and Rawalakot, in Kashmir, Pakistan, during 1999. The SJS population, by examining a total of 1152 samples (i.e. 6 trees x 6 samples x 2 sites x 16 sampling time) per locality varied significantly (P<0.001) throughout the sampling period. It also significantly (P<0.001) varied on different cultivars of apple at different localities and sites. The apple orchard at Dheerkot (Bagh) locality was found severely infested compared to two other localities at Lamniyan (Muzaffarabad) and Rawalakot. The intra-tree variation was also evident at different localities. The data indicates that all the indigenous and introduced cultivars of apple were found infested by SJS with varying degrees of susceptibility. Among local cultivars, Banky was comparatively the least infested whereas the introduced cultivar (Star-Crimson) was found highly susceptible to SJS infestation. The pest population was significantly high at the upper half of the canopy compared to the lower half.

Aimanbetov, M.Z. & Azhbenov, V.K. 2004. [Plant protection in Kazakhstan.] (In Russian). Zashchita i Karantin Rastenii No. 3: 18-21. [AimanbAz2004]
Notes: Significant infestations of Italian [Calliptamus italicus], Asian and Moroccan [Dociostaurus maroccanus] locusts, the worst for the last 50 years, occurred in 1999 in Kazakhstan. Crop losses, particularly those of cereals, and economic losses caused by locusts are outlined. Information is also included on several quarantine insect pests (including San Jose scale [Diaspidiotus perniciosus].

Aksit, T., Özsemerci, F. & Cakmak, I. 2003. [Studies on determination of harmful fauna in the fig orchards in Aydin province (Turkey).] Aydin ilinde incir agaclarinda saptanan zararli türler. (In Turkish; Summary In English). Turkiye Entomoloji Dergisi 27(3): 181-189. [AksitOzCa2003]
Notes: A survey was conducted in 12 districts in Aydin, Turkey during 1999-2002 to identify the pests infesting figs. A total of 36 pests species were recorded on the branches, shoots, leaves and fruits of the fig trees. Ceroplastes rusci, Carpophilus spp. and Drosophila spp. were found infesting figs at low altitudes, whereas Poecilimon sanctupauli and Otiorhynchus davricus were found infesting figs at high altitudes. Tetranychus urticae was found infesting figs at both altitudes.

Albuquerque, F.A. de, Pattaro, F.C., Borges, L.M., Lima, R.S. & Zabini, A.V. 2002. [Insects associated to Barbados cherry (Malpighia glabra L.) in the region of Maringá, PR.] Insetos associados à cultura da aceroleira (Malpighia glabra L.) na região de Maringá, Estado do Paraná. (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Acta Scientiarum 24(5): 1245-1249. [AlbuquPaBo2002]
Notes: Surveys to determine the occurrence of insect populations associated with Barbados cherry (M. glabra) were conducted from August 1997 to December 1998 in Maringá, Paraná, Brazil. Insects were collected every two weeks in branches, leaves and fruits of 20 Barbados cherry plants in a commercial orchard. The insects in the plants were collected manually, using an entomological net (a trap with attractive feed and cutting branches and leaves that were later observed under a stereomicroscope). The following insects were observed Nezara viridula, Piezodorus guildinii, Euschistus heros, Thyanta spp., Dysdercus ruficollis, D. peruvianus, Leptoglossus zonatus, L. gonagra, Enchenopa gracilis, Toxoptera citricidus, Saissetia coffeae, Saissetia oleae, Coccus viridis, Chrysomphalus ficus [Chrysomphalus aonidum], Selenaspidus articulatus, Orthezia praelonga, Mahanarva fimbriolata, M. posticata, Dilobopterus costalimai, Oncometopia facialis, Chrysopa sp., Polistes sp., Diabrotica speciosa, Cerotoma sp., Lagria villosa, Cycloneda sanguinea, Ceratitis capitata, Anastrepha fraterculus and Euxesta sp.

Aldama Aguilera, C. & Llanderal Cazares, C. 2003. [Cochineal: Comparison of production methods in cut cladodes.] (In Spanish). Agrociencia (Agrociencia) Texcoo 37(1): 11-19. [AldamaLl2003]
Notes: The growing demand of natural dyes has stimulated the research for production of cochineal (Dactylopius coccus). In this research four forms of arranging cactus pear pads, or cladodes, and four methods of infesting the pads to produce cochineal (Dactylopius coccus) were evaluated in a greenhouse. Efficiency was determined by counting the number of females per cladode and calculating the return-on-investment ratio. The most effective method was infestation with tulle nests on cladodes arranged vertically in a raffia net.

Allen, J.A. 2002. Forest pest management (insects). 301-303 In: Pimentel, D. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Pest Management. Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York. 929 pp. [Allen2002]
Notes: Maconellicoccus hirsutus is one of the forest pests discussed.

Alvarez, J.M. 2004. Trionymus haancheni McKenzie: A New Pest of Barley in Idaho. PMN: Plant Health Progress March 15, 2004. [Alvare2004]
Notes: [Published online: http://www.plantmanagementnetwork.org/pub/php/management/2004/barley/] A new insect pest of barley, Trionymus haancheni McKenzie, sometimes referred to as the Haanchen barley mealybug, was discovered for the first time in Idaho near Soda Springs during June 2003 in a commercial barley field. Brief description, illustrations, distribution in Idaho, damage, life cycle and chemical and biological control.

Anagnou, M.V., Kontodimas, D.C. & Kontodimas, D.C. 2003. Laboratory tests of the effect of Bacillus thuringiensis on grape berry moth Lobesia botrana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) and on the pseudococcids' predator Nephus includens (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). IOBC/WPRS Bulletin 26(8): 117-119. [AnagnoKoKo2003]
Notes: [Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group: Integrated Protection and Production in Viticulture held in Volos, Greece, 18-22 March, 2003, C. Lozzia (Ed.)] Some Bacillus thuringiensis-based produced were tested for their effects on grape berry moth Lobesia botrana and on the pseudococcids' predator Nephus includens, reared on Planococcus citri (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae).

Andaló, V., Moino Júnior, A., Santa-Cecília, L.V.C. & Souza, G.C. 2004. [Compatibility of Beauveria bassiana with chemical pesticides for the control of the coffee root mealybug Dysmicoccus texensis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)] (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Neotropical Entomology 33(4): 463-467. [AndaloMoSa2004]
Notes: [Original title: Compatibilidade de Beauveria bassiana com agrotóxicos visando o controle da cochonilha-da-raiz-do-cafeeiro Dysmicoccus texensis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae).] Several chemical substances are used to control insects, diseases and weeds, however many of these products are toxic to mankind and the animals, besides reducing the potential of pest control by predators, parasitoids and pathogens. Integrated control using selective chemical pesticides and entomopathogenic fungi is a viable strategy, however some of these products can negatively affect these microorganisms, reducing vegetative growth, viability and sporulation. The objectives of this work were to evaluate the effect of chemical pesticides used in the coffee crop on the entomopathogenic fungus B. bassiana (isolate UEL 114), for the control of the coffee root mealybug (D. texensis).

Angeles Martínez, M. 2003. New host of Antonina graminis (Maskell) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in Cuba. Revista de Protección Vegetal 18(1): 70 pp. [Angele2003]
Notes: A. graminis, previously isolated only on Echinochloa colonum, Tricholaena rosea, Panicum maximum and Digitaria sanguinalis, was collected from the stem base and internodes of Cynodon dactylon in a golf course in Matanzas, Cuba. C. dactylon constitutes a new host for A. graminis in Cuba.

Anis, S.B. & Hayat, M. 2002. A revision of the Indian species of Cheiloneurus Westwood (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Encyrtidae). Oriental Insects. New Delhi 36: 129-209. [AnisHa2002]
Notes: Saccharicoccus sacchari is one of the species mentioned.

Antonucci, C. 2003. Ceroplastes ceriferus: an exotic scale pest of ornamental woody plants. Foreste ed Alberi Oggi 9(6): 25-26. [Antonu2003]
Notes: A short illustrated description is given of the insect pest Ceroplastes ceriferus, found for the first time in Europe on laurel (Laurus nobilis) hedges near Verona, N. Italy, in 2001, and subsequently at two locations in Emilia Romagna and Lombardy, on greenhouse stock.

Aquino Perez, G. & Bárcenas, N.M. 2002. Reproductive biology and genetic (genetics?) of cochineal insect (Dactylopius spp.). CACTUSNET NEWSLETTER (FAO International Technical Cooperation on Cactus) No. 7: 6-10. [AquinoBa2002]
Notes: This paper discusses chromosomes in cochineal insects, heterochromatic chromosome set and sex determination, meiosis in cochineal insects, sex ratio and sex determination.

Aquino Perez, G., Bárcenas Ortega, N.M. & Valdez Carrasco, J. 2002. [Advances in the cytology of the prickly pear cochineal in vivo and in vitro and its reproductive biology.] Avances en la citología de la cochinilla del nopal en condiciones in vivo e in vitro y su biología reproductiva. (In Spanish). 3-25 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 p. [AquinoBaVa2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This paper discusses the cellular organization and cytogenetics of Dactylopius coccus.

Arai, T. 2002. Attractiveness of sex pheromone of Pseudococcus cryptus Hempel (Homoptera : Pseudococcidae) to adult males in a citrus orchard. Applied Entomology and Zoology. Tokyo 37(1): 69-72. [Arai2002]
Notes: The attractiveness of the sex pheromone of Pseudococcus cryptus to adult males and natural enemies was tested in citrus orchards in 1999 and 2000. Males were caught by the pheromone trap during two periods in 1999 and three periods in 2000, whereas natural enemies were not attracted in either year. When seasonal degree-day accumulations reached 302 DD above a base of 10degreesC from the periods that males were trapped, the first instars emerged.

Arai, T. 2003. Development of the parasitoid Allotropa sp. and its effect on the suppression of the mealybug Pseudococcus cryptus. 426 In: Van Dreische, R.G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Washington D.C.. 573 pp. [Arai2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002.] Poster only.

Arai, T. & Mishiro, K. 2004. Development of Allotropa citri Muesebeck (Hymenoptera: Platygastridae) and Anagyrus subalbipes Ishii (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) on Pseudococcus cryptus Hempel (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Applied Entomology and Zoology. Tokyo 39(3): 505-510. [AraiMi2004]
Notes: Allotropa citri can parasitize all stages of Pseudococcus cryptus. Under experimental conditions, however, no difference was observed in the percentage parasitism between the first and the second instar hosts, while parasitism on the third instar and adult female hosts was lower than on the first and second instars. No difference was observed in the developmental duration of this parasitoid between the first and the second instar hosts. Therefore, the first and second instar nymphs of P. cryptus were considered suitable host stages for the parasitoid. The lower developmental threshold temperature and thermal constant of A. citri for the first and second instar nymphs of P. cryptus were 10.1 degrees C and 518.1 degree-days (DID), respectively. The lower developmental threshold temperatures and thermal constants of Anagyrus subalbipes females and males on P. cryptus adult females were 13.0 degrees C and 234.2 DD, and 12.1 degrees C and 245.5 DD, respectively. A. citri produced five generations and A. subalbipes seven generations in a year in the field of Nagasaki where the host produced four generations.

Arai, T., Sugie, H., Hiradate, S. Kuwahara, S., Itagaki, N. & Nakahata, T. 2003. Identification of a sex pheromone component of Pseudococcus cryptus. Journal of Chemical Ecology 29(10): 2213-2223. [AraiSuHi2003]
Notes: A sex pheromone component of Pseudococcus cryptus has been isolated and identified. The crude pheromone extract obtained by airborne collection was fractionated by liquid chromatography (LC) on Florisil, and further purified by high performance liquid chromatography and preparative Gas Chromatography (GC). The pheromone component was shown to be an ester, the alcohol part of which was identical to the known alcohol moiety of the pheromone of Planococcus citri. The chemical structure was determined to be 3-isopropenyl-2,2-dimethylcyclobutylmethyl 3-methyl-3-butenoate by MS and H NMR analyses. The absolute configuration of the pheromone was assigned as (1R,3R) by comparison of the retention time of the alcohol derived from the P. cryptus pheromone with those of the alcohol derived from P. citri pheromone, and a synthetic sample of alcohol enriched in the (1R,3R)-enantiomer, using a chiral GC stationary phase. The structure of the pheromone was confirmed by synthesis, and by bioassays in a glasshouse.

Araóz Palamino, P., Avila Uribe, M.M., Berdeja Martínez, B.M., Ascencio Almanza, D. & Villegas y De Gante, M. 2002. [Evaluation of cochineal (Dactylopius coccus Costa) in the town of Tezontepec, HGO.] Evaluación de la producción de grana cochinilla (Dactylopius coccus Costa) en villa de Tezontepec, HGO. (In Spanish). 69-70 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 p. [AraozPAvBe2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This research attempts to develop a system to improve cultivation and marketing of D. coccus for dye production in this region.

Armijos, F., Flores, R. & Silva, D. 2003. [Mealybugs, vectors of the banana streak virus in Ecuador.] Los piojos harinosos (cochinillas) vectores del virus del estriado del banano (BSU) en Ecuador. (In Spanish). Boletín Divulgación Técnica No. 293: 1-8. [ArmijoFlSi2003]
Notes: Symptoms, vectors, transmission, life cycle, illustrations and control of Dysmicoccus sp. (similar to D. bispinosus and Pseudococcus elisae are provided.

Arnold, C. & Sengonca, C. 2003. [Possibilities of biological control of the horse chestnut scale insect, Pulvinaria regalis Canard (Homoptera: Coccidae), on ornamental trees by releasing its natural enemies.] Zeitschrift für Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz 110(6): 591-601. [ArnoldSe2003]
Notes: The aim of this study was to investigate possibilities of biological control of the horse chestnut scale insect, Pulvinaria regalis Canard (Homoptera: Coccidae), on ornamental trees by releasing its natural enemies. For this purpose, single releases of Exochomus quadripustulatus larvae and Coccophagus semicircularis as well as Microterys flavus adult females and combined release of E. quadripustulatus as well as C. semicircularis were carried out on lime trees in the centre of Duisburg in 1999 and 2000, respectively. All the three beneficials were reared under defined climatic conditions. The release of E. quadripustulatus larvae lead to a significant reduction in numbers of P. regalis nymphs measured per m(2) leaf area. The release of 20 E. quadripustulatus larvae resulted in 2644.3 P. regalis nymphs per m(2) while 30 E. quadripustulatus larvae resulted in 2250.3 nymphs per m(2). The number of pests was significantly higher in the control treatment with 4298.3 nymphs per m(2). The number of parasitized P. regalis nymphs was significantly higher in the C. semicircularis female-released plots where it was 9.5% with 20 and 12.9% with 30 C. semicircularis released females. A combined release of 20 E. quadripustulatus larvae in early summer and 20 C. semicircularis females in autumn resulted in a reduction of 1985.8 (46.2%) P. regalis nymphs per m(2) leaf area and an increase in numbers of parasitized nymphs to 610.4 (14.2%) per m(2) leaf area compared with the control. After two repetitive releases of M. flavus females in spring 2000, a mean parasitization of 53.9 (19.6%) of P. regalis females per tree was observed. M. flavus females deposited 1-7 eggs into the adult scale insects, depending on their respective body size. The number of eggs laid by parasitized P. regalis females was reduced to a mean of 217.9 eggs per female as compared to 1272.4 eggs laid per unparasitized females.

Arnold, C., Hamacher, J. & Nahif, A.A. 2004. Occurrence of microsporidia, endosymbionts and viruses in the horse chestnut scale Pulvinaria regalis Canard (Homoptera : Coccidae). Zeitschrift für Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz 111(2): 173-182. [ArnoldHaNa2004]
Notes: The present study aimed to investigate the occurrence of microsporidia, endosymbionts and viruses in the Horse Chestnut Scale Pulvinaria regalis Canard (Homoptera: Coccidae), an introduced pest insect of more than 65 different plant species. Microsporidia could not be detected either in eggs or in three nymphal stages or in the adult scales. The number of endosymbiotic organisms increased continuously during the development of P. regalis. Mycetocytes appeared in the first nymphal stage for the first time. Their number and size increase considerably within the following developmental stages, merging into a mycetome in the adult scales. Two virus-like particles (VLP) were detected by electron microscopy (TEM). One VLP of 30 nm diameter was of isometric shape and had no outer or inner structures. The other VLP was 65 to 70 nm in diameter, had a hexagonal outline and a core of 4560 nm in diameter. The classification of the VLPs is discussed.

Asplanato, G. & Garcia Mari, F. 2002. [Parasitism of the California red scale Aonidiella aurantii (Homoptera: Diaspididae) in the southern citrus zone of Uruguay.] (In Spanish; Summary In English). Boletín de Sanidad Vegetal, Plagas 28(1): 5-20. [AsplanGa2002]
Notes: [Original title: Parasitismo de la cochinilla roja californiana Aonidiella aurantii (Homoptera: Diaspididae) en la zona citrícola sur de Uruguay.] Observations were made during two seasons (1995-96 and 1996-97) in two Navel orange orchards to determine the identity and abundance of parasitoids of the California red scale Aonidiella aurantii and to determine factors that influence parasitism levels. The ectoparasitoids Aphytis melinus, A. lingnanensis and A. chrysomphali, and the endoparasitoids Encarsia perniciosi and E. citrina were identified in traps and on their hosts. The relative abundance of the three ectoparasitoid species fluctuated depending on the year and locality, whereas E. perniciosi was the predominant species among the endoparasitoids. The annual mean percentage of ectoparasitism ranged from 8 to 13%, and the endoparasitism from 1 to 9%. The highest parasitism by Aphytis was observed on leaves, whereas Encarsia parasitized more scales placed on the wood. The percentage of ectoparasitism was minimum in winter and the percentage of endoparasitism reached its maximum in winter and spring. The adult trap catches were usually highest for Aphytis in autumn, whereas for Encarsia tended to be higher in summer rather than in autumn. Aphytis parasitized almost exclusively third stage virgin females and second stage males, whereas Encarsia preferred the two initial developing stages L1 and L2. The differences between ecto- and endoparasitoids in tree localization, season of year and host stage preferred suggest a complementary role of the two groups of parasitoids.

Aung, L.H., Leesch, J.G. & Jenner, J.F. 2004. Methyl iodide and forced aeration on the post-harvest quality of lemons. Postharvest Biology and Technology 33(1): 45-50. [AungLeJe2004]
Notes: Methyl iodide (MI) fumigation to control California red scale (Aonidiella aurantii) at dosages of 24, 28, and 32 g/m3 for 2 h combined with 2- and 24-h forced aeration using 3.5 l of air per min at 21EC immediately after fumigation was tested on early-, mid- and, late-season lemons [Citrus limon (L.) Burm. F] from the coastal and desert regions. The MI treatment lowered fruit quality due to moderate to severe rind injury with increasing MI dosage. The degree of lemon phytotoxicity was influenced by season of harvest. Early season lemons of both coastal (cooler) and desert (warmer) regions sustained less fruit phytotoxicity than mid- and late-season lemons. Forced aeration of 24-h immediately after the MI treatment dramatically reduced fruit phytotoxicity regardless of seasonal and climatic factors. Based upon the results of MI and on the known response of California red scale to this fumigant, we propose that a MI dosage of 26 g/m3 for 2 h combined with 24-h forced aeration post-fumigation could provide an effective quarantine treatment for lemon.

Awadallah, K.T., Ammar, E.D., Tawafik, M.F.S. & Attia, A.R. 2002. Notes on the new parasitoid species, Neoplatycerus nr. palestinensis (Rivnay) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) on Planococcus ficus (Signoret) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) in Egypt. Egyptian Journal of Biological Pest Control 12(1): 83. [AwadalAmTa2002]
Notes: Ecological and biological studies on the parasitoids associated with the vine mealybug Planococcus ficus, infesting grapes in Egypt were conducted during 1998/99 and 1999/2000. Clausenia josefi, Leptomastix dactylopii and Leptomastidea abnormis [Leptomastidea abnormis] were found during the whole period of the study, while Neoplatycerus nr. palestinensis [Neoplatycerus palestinensis] was found only in April 2000. This is thought to be the first record of Neoplatycerus nr. palestinensis in Egypt. Rearing and biological studies on Neoplatycerus nr. palestinensis showed that a temperature of 30 deg C and 50-55% relative humidity were the most suitable conditions for both its development and reproduction. The second and third nymphal instars, and adult female were the most suitable stages for the parasitoid for producing highest number of progenies. Neoplatycerus nr. palestinensis is an arrhenotokous species. The unfertilized eggs developed into males only, while an average of 133.8 offspring were counted per fertilized female.

Ayón, M., Vigueras G., A.L., Portillo, L. & Nieto S., C. 2002. [Color permancence in wool died with cochineal.] Permanencia de color en lana teñido con grana cochinilla. (In Spanish). 109-111 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 pp. [AyonViPo2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] Techniques are suggested to increase permanence of this dye.

Azab, S.G., Sadek, M.M. & Khalil, Z.H. 2003. Light and scanning electron microscopic studies on the various stages of the scale insect Pulvenaria (Pulvinaria?) tenuivalvata (Hemiptera, Coccidae), attacking sugarcane. TL3.3 In: Mahmoud, M.R., Baron, P. & Bayoumi, M.R. (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Conference on 'Arab Region and Africa in the World Sugar Context', Aswan, Egypt, 9-12 March 2003. International Sugar Organization, London. unpaginated. [AzabSaKh2003]
Notes: We examined the life cycle of the scale insect Pulvinaria tenuivalvata in the laboratory and investigated its morphology using light microscope and scanning electron microscope. The insect was reared in the laboratory on young sugarcane shoots. We found that during the period lasting from July to October, the insect completes its life cycle in about 45 days, whereas in the period from November to March the growth is much slower and the complete life cycle takes about 65 days. Each adult female produces about 250 eggs in average. The eggs are 150 micro m wide and 340 micro m long. They hatch parthenogenetically, giving rise to highly mobile nymphs. Promptly after hatching, the nymphs search a suitable place on the plant to settle and start feeding. Two stylet-like structures are present among the other components of the mouth parts of the feeding nymphs. Combined together, the two structures form a 165 micro m long proboscis. Antennae bear a considerable number of olfactory sensilla of the trichoid and basiconical types. As the nymph continues feeding, it grows in its place to adulthood. Adults measure an average of 5 mm in length, although some individuals may reach the length of 8 mm. The adult has a highly sclerotized convex dorsal surface, whereas the ventral surface is almost flat, fitting tightly to the substratum. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Babitha, S., Sandhya, C. & Pandey, A. 2003. Natural food colourants. Applied Botany Abstracts 23(4): 258-266. [BabithSaPa2003]
Notes: This paper discusses some factors that influence the acceptability of colour in a given food (processing and cultural, geographical and sociological aspects of the population), the regulations on "colour additives", and sources of natural food colourants (annatto, betalains, crocetin, gardenia blue, lutein, cochineal, and pigment-producing bacteria, fungi, yeasts and algae).

Babu, B.S., Varaprasad, K.S. & Anitha, K. (Eds.) 2002. Resources management in plant protection during twenty first century, Hyderabad, India, 14-15 November 2002. Volume II. Plant Protection Association of India, Hyderabad, India. 201 pp. [BabuVaAn2002]
Notes: These proceedings contain 46 papers focusing on the importance of resource management, including the exploitation of biodiversity and the utilization of natural plant products and natural enemies, in the integrated control of plant pests and diseases. A paper containing information on scales is: Influence of time of planting on the incidence of sugarcane scale insect Melanaspis glomerata G. (Krishnamooorthy & Mahadevan).

Baghel, C.L. 2002. Comparative study of copulatory complex of typical diaspidis (Coccoidea: Homoptera). Flora and Fauna (Jhansi) 8(1): 33-34. [Baghel2002]
Notes: A detailed morphological study on the structure of copulatory complex of Parlatoria crypta and Aspidiotus tamarindi [Octaspidiotus tamarindi] was carried out. In P. crypta, the average length of the stylus was approx equal to 0.2 (0.19-0.23) mm and the width across the middle of the stylus is approx equal to 0.019 (0.018-0.021) mm. The distal less than half genital sheath bears 4 pairs of sensilla. The length of aedeagus is approx equal to 0.18 (0.16-0.20) mm and the width is 0.015 (0.014-0.016) mm across the middle of the aedeagus. The penis or aedeagus also bears 3 pairs of sensilla on the less than half distal portion. The genital base bears 2 pairs of long setae. The aedeagus also has 3 pairs of small setae whose size increase from the anterior to the posterior part. In A. tamarindi, the length of stylus is approx equal to 0.22 (0.20-0.025) mm and the width across the middle of the stylus is 0.023 (0.020-0.024) mm. The posterior half of the stylus has 5 pairs of sensilla. The length of aedeagus is approx equal to 0.21 (0.1900.23) mm and the width is approx equal to 0.20 (0.19-0.23) mm across the middle of the aedeagus. The aedeagus is also provided with 4 pairs of sensilla. The genital base sheath has 2 pairs of long setae which are longer than the setae of the penis base. All these setae are equal in size. On both species, the anus is situated on the dorsal surface of the base. The basal ridge on the penial sheath is well-developed present on the ventral side.

Bahuguna, R. & Shiva, M.P. 2002. Lac: a review on present status and its prospects. International Journal of Forest Usufructs Management 3(1/2): 63-70. [BahuguSh2002]
Notes: This paper discusses the current status of lac production in India. A description of the lac insect Laccifer lacca [Kerria lacca] is presented. The 3 major host plants (Butea monosperma, Schleichera oleosa and Ziziphus mauritiana) of the lac insect, as well as other multipurpose tree species (Albizia lucida, Grewia serrulata, Leea crispa, Ougeinia oojeinensis [Desmodium oojeinense], Shorea talura [S. roxburghii] and Z. xylophora) where the lac insect grows, are also described. Other topics discussed include: the cultivation, yield, production, uses and marketing of lac in India; and the export of lac from India to other countries.

Balaram Tolat, P. 2002. History of cochineal in India. 57-58 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 p. [Balara2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This review discusses dyes historically made from Coccus ilicis, C. lacca, C. maniparus and C. polonicus.

Balykina, E.B., Yagodinskaya, L.P. & Duchak, A.N. 2003. [Against apple pests.] (In Russian). Zashchita i Karantin Rastenii No. 11: 31-32. [BalykiYaDu2003]
Notes: Occurrence is reported of the most important pests of apple in Crimea, the Ukraine, such as Laspeyresia pomonella [Cydia pomonella], Quadraspidiotus perniciosus [Diaspidiotus perniciosus], Panonychus ulmi and Tetranychus viennensis [Amphitetranychus viennensis]. Field trials were conducted in 2001 with Dimilin [diflubenzuron], Match [cyanazine] and Insegar [fenoxycarb] used for control of C. pomonella. Preparation 30 [of unstated composition], Fufanon [of unstated composition], Mospilan [acetamiprid], Actaru [of unstated composition] and Basudin [diazinon] were tested against D. perniciosus. Omait [of unstated composition] was successfully tested against P. ulmi and A. viennensis.

Bani, G., Divassa, S.M., Nzemba, M.D. & Magema, J.M. 2003. [The Cassava brown root scale insect, Stictococcus vayssierei Richard, new for Congo-Brazzaville (on Manihot esculenta Crantz) (Hem. Stictococcidae).] Bulletin de la Société Entomologique de France 108(5): 529-530. [BaniDiNz2003]
Notes: [Original title: Presence au Congo-Brazzaville de Stictococcus vayssierei Richard, ravageur du manioc (Manihot esculenta Crantz) (Hem., Stictococcidae).]

Baraishchuk, G.V. & Gaivas, A.A. 2004. Physokermes hemicryphus. Zashchita i Karantin Rastenii No. 3: 55 pp. [BaraisGa2004]
Notes: Investigations carried out in conifer plantations in the town of Omsk, Siberia, Russia, in 2002 revealed damage of Siberian spruce [Picea obovata] caused by P. hemicryphus. This is the first record of damage to P. hemicryphus in this region. Information is included on morphology of male and female insects, life cycle and damage to trees.

Baranowska, I., Zydron, M. & Szczepanik, K. 2004. TLC in the analysis of food additives. Journal of Plant Chromatography 17(1): 54-57. [BaranoZySz2004]
Notes: TLC methods have been developed for analysis of food pigment sweeteners, and a preservative. Patent blue V, quinoline yellow: brilliant blue FCF, tartrazine, azorubine, ponceau 4R, curcumine, indigo carmine, cochineal, methyl violet, mixed carotenes, plain caramel, erythrosine B, and orange yellow S were separated on silica gel G with isopropanol-(12.5%) aqueous ammonia, 10 + 2 (v/v), as mobile phase. Aspartame, acesulfame K, sodium cyclamine, and benzoic acid were separated on thin layers of silica gel G with ethanol-isopropanol-(12.5%) aqueous ammonia, 10 + 40 + 1 (v/v), as mobile phase. These chromatographic systems were applied to the analysis of food additives in 23 sparkling and non-sparkling drinks.

Barlow, N.D. & Goldson, S.L. 2002. Alien invertebrates in New Zealand. 195-216 In: Pimentel, D., Biological Invasions: Economic and Environmental Costs of Alien Plant, Animal, and Microbe Species. CRC Press, Boca Raton et al.. 369 pp. [BarlowGo2002]
Notes: Invasive species discussed include Ultracoelostoma simile and U. britanni.

Beattie, G.A.C., Clift, A.D., Parkes, R.A. & Jiang, L. 2002. Impacts of spray volume and horticultural mineral oil concentration on control of pink wax scale and red scale in citrus orchards. 582-591 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [BeattiClPa2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Scale species include Aonidiella aurantii, Ceroplastes rubens and C. sinensis.

Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.) 2002. Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [BeattiWaSt2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] 21 papers include information on scales.

Becerra, V.C., Miano, J.L. & Gonzalez Maldonado, D. 2002. [Black scale of olive: control with pesticides.] Cochinilla negra del olivo: Control mediante insecticidas. (In Spanish). Revista de la Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias. Argentina 34(2): 7-10. [BecerrMiGo2002]
Notes: Dimethoate, ethion, methidathion and chlorpyrifos were used to control black scale H (Saissetia oleae) on olives in Argentina. The mortality percentages were calculated using a given mathematical formula.

Beglaryan, E.A. 2003. Ceroplastes japonicus Green. Zashchita i Karantin Rastenii No. 1: 30 pp.. [Beglar2003]
Notes: First discovery of the dangerous quarantine pest on Grecian laurel [Laurus nobilis] in May 2001 is reported from Armenia. Further investigations revealed spread of C. japonicus on various fruit and ornamental plants.

Ben-Dov, Y. 2004. Nomenclature and taxonomy of Ortonia Signoret, 1876, and Llaveia Signoret, 1876 (Hemiptera, Coccoidea, Margarodidae). (In English; Summary In French). Bulletin de la Societe Entomologique de France 109(4): 383-386. [BenDov2004]
Notes: The identity of two species of margarodid scale insects, Ortonia bouvari and O. uhleri, and the genus Ortonia, all described by Signoret in 1876, is established. Lectotypes are designated. The name Ortonia Signoret, junior homonym, is replaced by Ecuadortona new name. Ortonia bouvari Signoret is newly synonymized with Llaveia axin (Llave). Taxonomic features of L. axin, type species of Llaveia and of Ortonia uhleri Signoret, type species of Ecuadortonia are discussed.

Ben-Dov, Y. & German, V. 2003. A Systematic Catalogue of the Diaspididae (Armoured Scale Insects) of the World, Subfamilies Aspidiotinae, Comstockiellinae and Odonaspidinae. Intercept, Andover, Hants, U.K.. 1112 pp. [BenDovGe2003]
Notes: The armoured scale insects comprise the largest family, Diaspididae, in the superfamily Coccoidea. Several species of armoured scale insects, for example the California red scale and the pernicious scale, are of great economic importance as they are destructive pests to crops such as cassava, citrus, avocado, sugarcane, pineapple, as well as various forest trees and ornamentals. This catalogue provides up-to-date data on three subfamilies, namely Aspidiotinae, Comstockiellinae and Odonaspidinae, covering 864 species placed in 118 genera, which have been described in the family since Linnaeus (1758), until December 2002, the cut-off date. This book is a synthesis and catalogue of all of the information published on these genera and species worldwide up to December 2002, and gives information on their correct scientific name, taxonomy, common names, synonyms, host plants, geographical distribution, natural enemies, biology, economic importance, and published references. This catalogue will be of major importance to scale insect students, crop protection specialists, quarantine officers and any entomologist who requires information about armoured scale insects, either for research or for control projects.

Ben-Dov, Y. & Skutelsky, Y. 2003. [Vryburgia amarylidis (Bouché) (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae) in Israel.] (In Hebrew; Summary In English). Olam Pore'akh (Flower Board of Israel) No. 28: 60. [BenDovSk2003]
Notes: The mealybug, Vryburgia amarylidis (Bouché) (Hemiptera: Coccoidea Pseudococcidae) was found on Amaryllis (Amaryllidaceae) in 2002-2003 for the first time in Israel. Infested plants were damaged, resulting in reduced growth and chlorosis of leaves.

Ben-Dov, Y. & Williams, D.J. 2003. The identity of Aspidiotus guianensis Lindinger, 1957 (Hem., Coccoidea, Diaspididae). Bulletin de la Societe Entomologique de France 108(2): 166-167. [BenDovWi2003]
Notes: In a work discussing some miscellaneous Coccoidea, Newstead (1917) described some specimens under the name Aspidiotus camelliae Signoret with malformed squamae (now known as plates) from British Guiana (Guyana). Newstead recorded these specimens from Turkey, on Erythraspis glauca, 17IX.1915 (G.L. Bodkin). There is no such plant genus Erythraspis and Newstead must have mistaken the plant for Erythrina glauca (Leguminosae), often used as a shade tree in cocoa plantations. Newstead thought that the malformed appearance of the plates was due to disease rather than to fungi or parasites. Lindinger (1957) referred to Newstead's record as "A. [Aspidiotus] guianensis nom. nov.". This reference to Newstead's illustration and description validates Lindinger's name. There are 5 of Newstead's orginial slides, containing altogether 29 adult female and 4 second instar females, in the Natural History Museum, London. These specimens, therefore, must be regarded as syntypes of Aspidiotus guianensis Lindinger. The plates in many of these specimens appear to be normal. Furthermore, a critical study shows that the species is actually the same as Aspidiotus diffinis Newstead, described earlier by Newstead (1893: 281) from British Guiana (Guyana) and currently known as Hemiberlesia diffinis (Newstead). This species has been illustrated and redescribed in detail by Miller and Davidson (1998). The name Aspidiotus guianensis Lindinger, is here synonymized with Hemiberlesia diffinis (Newstead), syn. n. Some of Newstead's slides discussed here, also contain a few specimens of the species described in Newstead (1917) as Aspidiotus (Chrysomphalus) erythraspidis (Newstead) and again Newstead listed the host plant in error as Erythraspis glauca on which he based the name of the armoured scale. Among Newstead's original slides of Aspidiotus (Chrysomphalus) erythraspidis, there is also one specimen of A. guianensis Lindinger.

Ben-Dov, Y., Stathas, G.J. & Malliarou, J.S. 2003. The pyriform scale, Protopulvinaria pyriformis (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) in Greece. (In Greek; Summary In English). Agrotiki Ereyna 26(2): 89-91. [BenDovStMa2003]
Notes: Protopulvinaria pyriformis (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) is recorded here, for the first time in Greece, found on laurel trees (Laurus nobilis L.) in the city of Kalamata. Since it is considered a potential pest to agricultural crops in Greece, basic information is presented on its morphology, host plants, geographical distribution and economic importance. Preliminary observations (during 15 - 20 October 2003) on L. nobilis in Kalamata (Greece), showed that the populations consisted of about 80% ovipositing females, 15% crawlers and 5% settled first instar nymphs.

Benfatto, D., Lo Giudice, V., Conti, F. & Tumminelli, R. 2002. Spray oil evolution in Italian citrus groves. 419-426 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [BenfatLoCo2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Species discussed include Aonidiella aurantii.

Benziane, T., Abbassi, M. & Bihi, T. 2003. [Evaluation of two IPM methods to control main pests in citrus orchards.] Evaluation de deux méthodes de lutte intégrée contre les ravageurs en vergers d'agrumes. (In French; Summary In English). Journal of Applied Entomology 127(1): 51-63. [BenziaAbBi3000]
Notes: This study aims to consolidate the acquired knowledge regarding integrated pest management (IPM) against the main pests in citrus orchards. One purpose of our work has been the evaluation of two IPM methods: the first one, has been tested in Morocco for three years in areas not exceeding 1.2 ha; the second one originating from Australia, is presently recommended by the Plant Protection Authorities in Morocco. Our results show that the Moroccan method is more efficient in monitoring aphids and citrus leaf miner (CLM) population and leads to the same results while reducing by half the number of the samples inspected. These two methods gave the same results for monitoring population dynamics of California red scale and Mediterranean fruit fly but, fruit infestation at harvest was higher with the Australian method than the method developed locally (70.95% against 74.75 for California red scale and 2.35 against 3.35 for Mediterranean fruit fly).

Benziane, T., Abbassi, M. & Sekkat, A. 2002. [Utilization of auxiliaries and cultural practices as an alternative means of protection against pests in citrus orchards.] (In French; Summary In English). 157-166 In: [Sixth International Conference on Pests in Agriculture. Vol. 1.] Sixième Conférence Internationale sur les Ravageurs en Agriculture. Tome 1.] AGRO, Montpellier, France. 350 pp. [BenziaAbSe2002]
Notes: [Original title: Utilisation des auxiliaires et des pratiques culturales comme moyens alternatifs de protection contre les ravageurs en verger d'agrumes. Conference held 4-6 December 2002 in Montpellier, France.] In order to reduce the negative impact of pesticides in the agrosystem, alternative methods such as the release of auxiliaries and the use of adapted cultural practices, were introduced in an integrated strategy of pest management in citrus orchards. Aonidiella aurantii is among the pests found.

Bernardo, U. & Viggiani, G. 2002. Effects of Oikos (a. i. Azadirachtin A) on the vedalia ladybeetle Rodolia cardinalis (Mulsant) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 25(11): 81-88. [BernarVi2002]
Notes: [Conference: IOBC/WPRS Working Group 'Pesticides and Beneficial Organisms'. Proceedings of the meeting at San Michele All'Adige, Vogt, H. & Heimbach, U. (Eds.), Trento, Italy, 3-6 October, 2001. Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP), Dijon, France.] The effects of Oikos (a.i. Azadirachtin A) on the vedalia ladybeetle Rodolia cardinalis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) were studied. Laboratory trials were carried out on larvae and adults of the predator fed with Oikos- and water-treated egg masses of the cottony cushion scale Icerya purchasi (Homoptera: Margarodidae). Oikos was tested at the recommended rate per ha (1500 ml) x 0.4, which corresponds to the predicted environmental concentration. The ingestion effect was evaluated on the larvae taking into account mortality, presence or absence of deformations and duration of pre-imaginal development. In addition, longevity, egg fertility and progeny were studied on the latter. The ingestion effect was evaluated on adults of R. cardinalis not derived from treated young stages, considering longevity, egg deposition and egg hatchability. In the field trial conducted in Portici, Italy, 5 plants of Pittosporum tobira, naturally infested with Icerya purchasi and with presence of R. cardinalis, were treated with Oikos at 150 ml/hl in water at pH 5.5 until dripping off and other 5 plants in the same conditions were treated with water at pH 5.5. Before the treatment, the larvae of R. cardinalis were counted and pupae and adults removed. At 3-day intervals, the newly formed pupae were collected and the number of derived adults and their state were recorded. Adults obtained from the larvae fed on Oikos-treated plants were paired; in the absence of functional males, individuals obtained from the control were used. Both laboratory and field trials have shown detrimental effects of Oikos on pupal mortality, adult deformation, egg deposition and egg hatchability.

Besheit, S.Y., Abaziad, A.A., Gomaa, A.M.E.S. & El Hamd, A.S.A. 2002. The influence of the infestation by the soft scale insect, Pulvinara tenuivalvata (Newstead), Coccidae, Homoptera, on sugarcane stalk weight, juice quality and sugar yield in upper Egypt. Assiut Journal of Agricultural Sciences 33(4): 17-28. [BesheiAbGo2002]
Notes: The effects of Pulvinaria tenuivalvata [Pulvinaria tenuivalvata] infestation on the yield and quality of plant cane, first-year ratoon, and second-year ratoon crops of sugarcane cv. G.T. 54/9 were studied in El-Ashei, Egypt, in 1998, 1999, and 2000. The reduction in stalk weight, juice extraction percentage, brix (total soluble solid), cane and juice sugar percentage, and juice purity percentage, and sugar yield was more pronounced under severe infestation than under light or moderate infestation. Reducing sugar and glucose ratio, however, increased with the increase in infestation level. Plant cane recorded the highest average stalk weight and juice extraction percentage. First ratoon crops registered the highest brix percentage, sugar yield, and purity percentage, and the lowest reducing sugar content and glucose ratio.

Bhagat, K.C. 2004. Mango mealy bug, Drosicha mangiferae (Green) (Margarodidae: Hemiptera) on Ashwagandha - a medicinal plant. Insect Environment 10(1): 14 pp. [Bhagat2004]
Notes: A preliminary study conducted during 2003 in Gurah Bramana, Kotgarhi, Rakh and Tanda, Jammu and Kashmir, India, on Ashwagandha (Wathonia somnifera [Withania somnifera]) revealed the infestation of mango mealy bug, Drosicha mangiferae on the foliage. An unusual mango mealy bug infestation was observed from February to May 2003 at all locations. However, severe infestation was noted in farmers' field in Rakh near Akhnoor. The pinkish nymphs and female adults were found sucking sap from the twigs, leaf stock and also along the midrib. The number of nymphs recorded in the second fortnight of March varied between 4 and 157 per 10 cm shoot. The highest number of nymphs recorded on the entire individual shoot was 487 and the infestation was mainly concentrated on the terminal part of the shoot. The grubs of Suminus renardi [Sumnius vestita] and two unidentified spider species were found preying upon the mealy bug nymphs infesting the host plant. Adults of Cryptochaetum [Cryptochetum] sp. also recovered from the parasitized nymphs of D. mangiferae.

Bhat, A.I., Devasahayam, S., Sarma, Y.R. & Pant, R.P. 2003. Association of a badnavirus in black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) transmitted by mealybug (Ferrisia virgata) in India. Current Science (India) 84(12): 1547-1550. [BhatDeSa2003]
Notes: The association of a badnavirus with disease-affected black pepper leaf samples collected from Kozhikode (Calicut) and Wyanad districts of Kerala was established on the basis of symptomatology, vector transmission, electron microscopy and serology. The virus induces vein clearing, chlorotic flecks, chlorotic mottling along veins and characteristic curling of leaves leading to reduced vigour and yield. The virus was transmitted from diseased to healthy black pepper plants by grafting and mealybug (Ferrisia virgata). The virus could also be transmitted by mechanical means with difficulty to black pepper, but not to other hosts tested. The virus showed positive serological relationship with Banana streak virus (BSV) and Sugar-cane bacilliform virus (ScBV) in direct antigen-coated enzyme-linked immunoassay (DAC-ELISA) using polyclonal antisera. The exact taxonomic identity of the virus remains to be determined.

Bhattacharya, A., Gupta, T.K. & Chatterjee, N.B. 2002. Host preference in scale insects. Insect and Environment 8(3): 118-119. [BhattaGuCh2002]
Notes: A survey was conducted in Kolkata [Calcutta], India, from 1995 to 2000 to study the host preference of scale insects. Lopholeucaspis excoecariae scale insects were observed on 4 hosts, namely Hibiscus mutabilis, Rosa sp., Murrya [Murraya] sp., and Ptrichosperma [Ptychosperma] sp. L. excoecariae was abundant in June on Hibiscus sp. and on Murrya sp., in July on Ptrichosperma sp., and in September on Rosa sp. The highest L. excoecariae population was observed on P. macarthurii, while the lowest population was observed on Rosa sp.

Bhattacharya, A., Mishra, Y.D., Sushil, S.N., Jaiswal, A.K. & Kumar, K.K. 2003. Relative efficacy of some Trichogramma spp. for management of lepidopteran predators of lac insect, Kerria lacca (Kerr) under field conditions. 301-303 In: Tandon, P.L., Ballal, C.R., Jalali, S.K. & Rabindra, R.J. (Eds.), Biological Control of Lepidopteran Pests. Proceedings of the Symposium of Biological Control of Lepidopteran Pests, July 17-18, 2002, Bangalore, India Society for Biocontrol Advancement, Bangalore, India. iii + 354 pp. [BhattaMiSu2003]
Notes: A study was undertaken in Bihar, India, to evaluate the performance of three egg parasitoids, Trichogramma brasiliense, T. chilonis and T. pretiosum (at 100000, 150000 and 200000 per ha), against two lepidopteran predators (Eublemma amabilis and Pseudohypatopa pulverea) of K. lacca raised on the bushy lac host plant bhalia (Flemingia macrophylla). The results not only indicate significant suppression in predator population under various treatments over the control, but also showed the dose-dependent effect of parasitoid release. The highest suppression was recorded in T. brasiliense at 150000 and 200000 per ha (69.90 and 69.81%, respectively), which was significantly higher than the 100000 per ha rate of T. brasiliense release (47.17%). Suppression was 39.62% in T. pretiosum at 100000 per ha. This reduction in predator population positively affected the yield of lac sticks, which was accordingly reflected in the significant increase of yield ratio.

Binazzi, A., Pennacchio, F. & Francardi, V. 2002. The use of sex pheromones of Matsucoccus species (Homoptera Margarodidae) for monitoring and mass trapping of M. feytaudi Ducasse and for kairomonal attraction of its natural enemies in Italy. (In English; Summary In Italian). Redia 85: 155-171. [BinazzPeFr2002]
Notes: In 1998, the EU Project "PHOCUS" was started in order to control the most important pernicious scales in the Mediterranean area by using a new ecological pest management. In the control of the maritime pine bast scale Matsucoccus feytaudi, three Research Centres were involved including those in France, Portugal and Italy. In Italy, the cited project was carried out by the Forest Entomology Section of ISZA of Florence. Maritime pine stands infested by M. feytaudi were chosen in eastern Liguria near Sestri Levante (Genoa). Three experiments, i.e., monitoring, mass trapping and kairomonal attraction, using the sex pheromone-kairomones, gave good results in the discovery of early infested stands before pines start to decay, as well in the catching of high numbers of males, and the attraction and aggregation of a high numbers of native insect predators in the infested areas. In the investigated areas, these experiments strongly reduced the bast scale population level in the following years but this was also due to the decay of the infested pine stands. Nevertheless, good perspectives are advanced by using these methods for controlling bast scale before the infestations become too heavy.

Bishop, D.B. & Bristow, C.M. 2003. Effects of the presence of the Allegheny mound ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in providing enemy-free space to myrmecophilous aphid and soft scale populations. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 96(3): 202-210. [BishopBr2003]
Notes: We tested whether ant-provided enemy-free space was a possible mechanism to explain the distribution of myrmecophilous aphids and soft scales in jack pine forests of north-central Michigan. Populations of the aphid Cinara banksiana Pepper and Tissot decreased significantly when the Allegheny mound ant, Formica exsectoides Forel, was excluded from their colonies. A combination of inclusion/exclusion experiments indicated that mound ants provided enemy-free space for aphids against mirid predators. In the absence of ants, mirids were a significant source of mortality to aphids. When ants were present, significantly more aphids survived in the presence of mirids than when ants were not present. Additional direct benefits to aphids provided by ant tending were not detected, In contrast, the soft scale, Toumeyella parvicornis (Cockerell), did not gain enemy-free space from the lady-beetle Hyperaspis binotata (Say) in the presence of ants during this study. Lady-beetle larvae increased in number over two years, and consumed large numbers of scales, which resulted in similar decreases of scale populations between ant-absent and ant-present treatments. This study indicates that an ant species can show differential effectiveness in providing enemy-free space to myrmecophilous homopterans.

Blanco, E. 2004. [First record of Chorizococcus caribaeus Williams & Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) from Cuba.] Primer registro de Chorizococcus caribaeus Williams y Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) en Cuba. (In Spanish). Boletín de la Sociedad Entomológica Argentina. Buenos Aires 34: 115-117. [Blanco2004]
Notes: The genus Chorizococcus was recently recorded from Cuba. Its economic importance is shown by the ability of some species within the genus to establish themselves in other geographical regions and damage economic crops. Ch. caribaeus Williams & G. de Willink is included among the species of the genus recorded from the Caribbean, and its distribution comprises the islands of Jamaica and Saint Kitts. Mealybug samples were taken from plants of Eleusine indica L. in Lawton, C. Habana, which were identified by means of the keys provided by Williams and Granara de Willink (1992). The presence of Ch. caribaeus in Cuba was noted for the first time and the variability of some taxonomic characters was compared with the data provided in the bibliography. The symbiosis of Ch. caribaeus with colonies of Solenopsis geminata Fabricius was observed for the first time. Also, oviparous habits were confirmed in the mealybug species by observing ovisacs on the affected plants.

Bogo, A. 2003. New group of oligosaccharides excreted in honeydew from scale insects Stigmacoccus sp. and Coccus hesperidium L. Ciencia Rural 33(4): 593-599. [Bogo2003]
Notes: The honeydew from the scale insects Stigmacoccus sp. and Coccus hesperidum were analysed using paper chromatography, FAB-MS and GC-MS. Paper chromatography showed the presence of tri-, tetra- and pentasaccharides. The molecular masses of permethylated tri-, tetra- and pentasaccharides confirmed that they were all hexose polymers with molecular ions of 658, 862 and 1067 m/z, respectively, in FAB-MS. The oligosaccharides in Stigmacoccus sp. honeydew appeared identical to the analogous components of C. hesperidum honeydew. A systematic increase in the proportion of 1,4-glucopyranose to 2-fructofuranose and 1-glucopyranose with each unitary increase in the number of monosaccharides was observed. Linkage analysis by GC-MS fragment for both Stigmacoccus sp. and C. hesperidum oligosaccharides showed fructofuranose linked in the 2 position, glucopyranose linked in both 1 and 4 positions and glucopyranose linked in the 1 position. The structures and common names, such as stigmatriose, stigmatetraose and stigmapentose, were proposed for the oligosaccharides (initially found in Stigmacoccus sp. honeydew).

Bogran, C.E., Heinz, K.M. & Ciomperlik, M.A. 2002. Interspecific competition among insect parasitoids: Field experiments with whiteflies as hosts in cotton. Ecology 83(3): 653-668. [BogranHeCi2002]
Notes: Aonidiella aurantii and Phenacoccus manihoti are mentioned.

Bokonon-Ganta, A.H., Neuenschwander, P. & de Groote, H. 2003. Biological control of the mango mealybug, Rastrococcus invadens (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) in Africa. 437 In: Van Dreische, R.G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Washington D.C.. 573 pp. [BokonoNeDe2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002.] This paper presents results of a successful biological control project in which the International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA), CABI Bioscience, The Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) in Togo, the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), and several African biological control programs were involved.

Bolu, H. 2002. Investigations on the fauna of insects and mites in pistachio areas in South Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey. Turkiye Entomoloji Dergisi 26(3): 197-208. [Bolu2002]
Notes: A faunal survey was conducted in pistachio areas in Adiyaman, Batman, Madin, Siirt and Sanliurfa, in the southeastern Anatolia region, Turkey. A total of 70 harmful insect species belonging to 33 families and 7 orders, 3 harmful mite species belonging to 3 families, and 47 beneficial insect species were found. Eight economic pests were recorded, namely Kermania pistaciella, Sulamicerus stali, Suturaspis pistaciae, Chaetoptelius vestitus [Acrantus vestitus], Agonoscena pistaciae, Pistaciaspis pistaciae, Megastigmus pistaciae and Capnodis cariosa.

Bongiorni, S. & Prantera, G. 2003. Imprinted facultative heterochromatization in mealybugs. Genetica 117(2-3): 271-279. [BongioPr2003]
Notes: In lecanoid coccids, or mealybugs, the male development is accompanied by the facultative heterochromatization of the entire, paternally derived, haploid chromosome set. This epigenetic phenomenon occurs in all the cells of mid-cleavage male embryos. Consequently, the coccid chromosome system offers a powerful tool for gaining insights into the structure of facultative heterochromatin, and into the epigenetic mechanisms of its imprinted, developmentally regulated formation. This paper will present new data and summarize recent studies on genomic imprinting and facultative heterochromatization in mealybugs. First, the existence and the possible role of DNA methylation as an epigenetic modification that fulfills the requisites of the imprinting process in mealybugs will be considered. The second part of this paper will focus on proteins involved in the facultative heterochromatization process. In particular, the involvement of an HP-1-like protein in the silencing of the paternally derived haploid chromosome set and its interaction with the lysine 9 methylated isoform of histone H3 will be discussed.

Bongiorni, S., Fiorenzo, P., Pippoletti, D. & Prantera, G. 2004. Inverted meiosis and meiotic drive in mealybugs. Chromosoma. Berlin 112(7): 331-341. [BongioFiPi2004]
Notes: In the males of lecanoid coccids, or mealybugs, an entire, paternally derived, haploid chromosome set becomes heterochromatic after the seventh embryonic mitotic cycle. In females, both haploid sets are euchromatic throughout the life cycle. In mealybugs, as in all homopteran species, chromosomes are holocentric. Holocentric chromosomes are characterized by the lack of a localized centromere and consequently by localized kinetic activity. In monocentric species, sister chromatid cohesion and monopolar attachment play a pivotal role in regulating chromosome behaviour during the two meiotic divisions. Both these processes rely upon the presence of a single, localized centromere and as such cannot be properly executed by holocentric chromosomes. Here we furnish further evidence that meiosis is inverted in both sexes of mealybugs and we suggest how this might represent an adaptation to chromosome holocentrism. Moreover, we reveal that at the second meiotic division in males a monopolar spindle is formed, to which only euchromatic chromosomes become attached. By this mechanism the paternally derived, heterochromatic, haploid chromosome set strictly segregates from the euchromatic one, and it is then excluded from the genetic continuum as a result of meiotic drive.

Borbón, M. de, Gracia, O. & Gómez Talquenca, G.S. 2004. Mealybugs and grapevine leafroll-associated virus 3 in vineyards of Mendoza, Argentina. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 55(3): 283-285. [BorbonGrGo2004]
Notes: Possible vectors of grapevine leafroll-associated virus three in Mendoza, Argentina, were studied from 2000 to 2002. Mealybugs were not detected in the mid-south province, whereas some farms in the north were infested. The sole species present was Planococcus ficus. The increase of virus-infected plants in four experimental parcels and the transmission of a domestic isolate of GLRaV-3 by P. ficus strongly suggest the natural spread of the disease.

Borer, E.T., Briggs, C.J., Murdoch, W.W. & Swarbrick, S.L. 2003. Testing intraguild predation theory in a field system: does numerical dominance shift along a gradient of productivity? Ecology Letters 6(10): 929-935. [BorerBrMu2003]
Notes: Although ecological theory exists to predict dynamics in communities with intraguild predation (IGP), few empirical tests have examined this theory. IGP theory, in particular, predicts that when two competitors interact via IGP, with increasing resource productivity: (1) the IG predator will increase in abundance as the IG prey declines, and (2) increasing dominance of the IG predator will cause resource density to increase. Here, we provide a first test of these predictions in a field community consisting of a scale insect and its two specialist parasitoids, Aphytis melinus (the IG predator) and Encarsia perniciosi (the IG prey). The shared resource, California red scale (Aonidiella aurantii), is a pest of citrus, and its productivity varies across a threefold range among citrus cultivars. We examined both absolute and relative densities of parasitoids along this natural gradient of scale productivity in three citrus cultivars (orange, grapefruit and lemon). Although both parasitoid species were found in all three cultivars, their abundance reflected those predicted by IGP theory: the IG prey species dominated at low productivity and the IG predator dominated at high productivity. This relationship was caused by an increase in Aphytis density with productivity. In addition, the density of the scale increased with the dominance of the IG predator. These results from a field system demonstrate the important dynamic outcomes for food webs with IGP.

Borer, E.T., Murdoch, W.W. & Swarbrick, S.L. 2004. Parasitoid coexistence: Linking spatial field patterns with mechanism. Ecology 85(3): 667-678. [BorerMuSw2004]
Notes: Coexistence of resource specialists can be maintained through various spatial mechanisms, each potentially inducing different resource dynamics. We used observational data to suggest plausible spatial coexistence mechanisms for Aphytis melinus and Encarsia perniciosi, two parasitoids of California red scale. Aphytis consistently produced more progeny from scale insects on leaves, and Encarsia produced progeny equally from scale insects on leaves and stems. To investigate the mechanism inducing this pattern, we performed field experiments to test two possible explanations. In the absence of substrate choice and at a given abundance of scale, the number of progeny produced by each species was the same on stems as on leaves. When given a choice, Encarsia had no substrate preference, while Aphytis preferred scale insects on leaves, producing results qualitatively similar to the field observations. Ecological theory suggests that this form of habitat preference may facilitate coexistence. Although this mechanism of coexistence is clearly compatible with biological control by multiple natural enemies in the red scale-system, theory dealing with this type of interaction has not thoroughly examined the predictions for resource dynamics.

Borges, C.A.M. & Cruz, J.D. da 2004. [Agrotoxical selectivity to Oxystyla pulchella, a predator mollusk of Orthezia praelonga.] Selectividad de plaguicidas a Oxystyla pulchella, molusco depredador de Orthezia praelonga. (In Spanish; Summary In English). Manejo Integrado de Plagas y Agroecología NO. 71: 85-91. [BorgesCr2004]
Notes: Field (in an orange orchard in Fiera de Santana, Bahia, Brazil) and laboratory trials were carried out to evaluate the effect of different pesticides on populations of Oxystyla pulchella. The results show that the tested chemicals can be adopted by integrated pest management strategies involving O. pulchella as a biological control agent in citrus plantations.

Borges, L.R., Lázzari, S.M.N. & Lázzari, F.A. 2003. [Occurrence and population fluctuation of insects on native and dense cropping systems of maté, Ilex paraguariensis St. Hil.] (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Revista Brasileira de Entomologia 47(4): 563-568. [BorgesLaLa2003]
Notes: [Original title: Comparação dos sistemas de cultivo nativo e adensado de erva mate, Ilex paraguariensis St. Hil., quanto à ocorrência e flutuação populacional de insetos.] This research was carried out to compare the occurrence of insects in two maté cultivation systems, native and high tree density. It was performed from August 2000 to September 2001 in a private property in São Mateus do Sul county, in Paraná State, Brazil. Visual inspections of trees and light traps were used to evaluate insect populations in both areas. Among the species observed are nymphs and adults of Ceroplastes grandis (Hemiptera, Coccidae) on the branches, with population peak between April and June for the nymphs and from September to November for the adults. It should be considered that despite higher insect incidence in the dense area compared to the native area, the first presents higher yield, and that with a good pest management programme the insect problems can be minimized.

Botton, M., Scoz, P.L. & Arioli, C.J. 2002. IPM on peaches in Brazil: actual situation and future trends. Acta Horticulturae No. 592: 655-658. [BottonScAr2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of the 5th International Peach Symposium, Davis, California, 8-11 July, 2001. Volume 2. Scott Johnson, R. & Chrisosto, C.H. (Eds.)] Peaches (Prunus persica), being one of the most important temperate fruits, are grown in nearly 20000 ha in Brazil. Production is concentrated mainly in the Southern Region and fruits are destined for internal market, with 50% for fresh consumption and 50% for canning industry. The major pests of peaches are Oriental Fruit Moth Grapholita molesta and South American Fruit Fly Anastrepha fraterculus which causes 100% damage in non-treated orchards. Secondary pests include mites (Tetranychus urticae and Panonychus ulmi) and the white peach scale Pseudaulacaspis pentagona. Actual pest management is based on 4-6 pesticide applications per season (dimethoate, fenitrothion, fenthion and trichlorfon) to control G. molesta and A. fraterculus. As a result of this treatment programme, growers need to control P. pentagona and mites after harvest, resulting in additional spraying. Mating disruption is not available for pest management in the country. To reduce chemical insecticides in peaches, an integrated fruit production programme is being conducted, to produce fruits with high quality and low residue levels. To employ this new production system, pest monitoring is based on the use of pheromones and food lures establishing threshold levels. New compounds were evaluated including insect growth regulators for G. molesta and etofenprox and spinosad for preharvest treatments. Also, neonicotinoids insecticides are being developed for White Peach Scale control in localized applications. The goal of this programme is to reduce organic phosphate compounds and hence, the amount of chemicals and human health risk, preserve natural control and produce fruits with low residue levels.

Boyero, J.R., Pascual, F., Rodríquez, N. & Moreno, R. 2002. [Tactical decision support system for the protection against orange crop pests. II. Sampling design to estimate the diaspine incidence (Homoptera, Diaspididae).] (In Spanish; Summary In English). Boletín de Sanidad Vegetal, Plagas 28(4): 623-637. [BoyeroPaRo2002]
Notes: [Original title: Sistema de ayuda a la toma de decisiones tácticas en protección fitosanitaria de plantaciones de naranjo. II. Establecimento del diseño muestral para estimar la incidencia de diaspinos (Homoptera, Diaspididae) en parcela.] Results are presented of a study using the two-stage sampling for the estimation of Aonidiella aurantii incidence in diye orange orchards, two of Navelate, one of Navel Lane Late and one of Valencia Late, in Spain.

Briceño Vergara, A. 2002. [Current list of forest insect of Venezuela.] Lista de insectos de importancia forestal en Venezuela. (In Spanish; Summary In English). Revista Forestal Venezolana 46(1): 27-34. [Bricen2002]
Notes: A checklist of the main forest insect pests, which include the introduced species, from Venezuela is presented. Some main forest insect pests such as Thyrenteina arnobia in Eucalyptus spp., Arsenura armida in Bombacopsis quinata, Eulepte gastralis and Rhabdotalera signata in Tabebuia rosea, Xyleborus biseriatus in Cedrela odorata, Hypsipyla grandella in Meliaceae and Stigmacoccus aster in Cassia siamea, are described.

British Crop Protection Council 2002. The BCPC Conference: Pests and diseases, 2 vols. British Crop Protection Council (BCPC), Farnham, U.K.. 1042 pp. [BCPC2002]
Notes: [Conference held at the Brighton Hilton Metropole Hotel, Brighton, UK, 18-21 November 2002.] This proceedings contains 157 papers dealing with plant pests and diseases and their control. The potential role of transgenic crops in sustainable and durable pest and disease management is discussed, as well the role of functional biodiversity in managing pests and diseases. Some of the control measures discussed are the biological and chemical control methods, including the use of seed treatment. Discussion on pesticide resistance of pests and pathogens is also included. The objectives of the British Crop Protection Council are: (1) to examine current and developing issues in the science and practice of crop protection; (2) to promote improved, environmentally-sensitive crop protection practices to produce wholesome food; (3) to foster and support crop protection science and practice through conferences, symposia and publications and through the presentation of its views to government and other organizations; and (4) to present independent information to the general public on the place of crop protection in agriculture and horticulture and to encourage and contribute to education and training. Scale species are discussed in he paper Spirodiclofen: a broad-spectrum acaricide with insecticidal properties: efficacy on Psylla pyri and scales Lepidosaphes ulmi and Quadraspidiotus perniciosus (Maeyer et al.).

Broufas, G.D., Koveos, D.S. & Georgatsis, D.I. 2002. Overwintering sites and winter mortality of Euseius finlandicus (Acari: Phytoseiidae) in a peach orchard in northern Greece. Experimental & Applied Acarology 26(1-2): 1-12. [BroufaKoGe2002]
Notes: In peach orchards of northern Greece Euseius finlandicus Oudemans overwinters in various sites on the trees, usually in groups of 5-15 females. Overwintering females were mostly found in bark crevices near the hibernation cocoons of the peach moth Adoxophyes orana (Fischer von Rosslerstamm), and also in small crevices of the bark and in pedicels left after fruit harvesting. Empty scales of dead diaspidids and dead coccids, cocoons of lacewings and mummies of parasitized aphids sporadically found on trees, were less common overwintering sites for females of the mite. In two successive years, mortality of overwintering females was very low, approximately 4 and 4.5% which could be due to the mild climate of northern Greece and the high cold tolerance of the mite.

Buitenhuis, R., McNeil, J.N., Boivin, G. & Brodeur, J. 2004. The role of honeydew in host searching of aphid hyperparasitoids. Journal of Chemical Ecology 30(2): 273-285. [BuitenMcBo2004]
Notes: Foraging in many insect parasitoids is mediated by chemicals associated with hosts. For example, honeydew, the feces of feeding aphids, induces and/or prolongs searching behavior of aphid parasitoids. In the laboratory, we tested if aphid hyperparasitoids, which belong to a higher trophic level, also rely on aphid honeydew to locate their hosts. We used the potato aphid, Macrosiphum euphorbiae, the primary parasitoid, Aphidius nigripes, and four hyperparasitoids, Asaphes suspensus, Dendrocerus carpenteri, Alloxysta victrix, and Syrphophagus aphidivorus that possess different biological attributes and host ranges. We determined if foraging hyperparasitoid females could discriminate between (i) honeydew from a host and a non-aphid host (the potato aphid and the soft brown scale, Coccus hesperidum), and (ii) honeydew from healthy aphids and those parasitized by A. nigripes. These results indicate that hyperparasitoids may use aphid honeydew, a conspicuous cue from the second trophic level, as an infochemical to locate their hosts.

Burban, C. & Petit, R.J. 2003. Phylogeography of maritime pine inferred with organelle markers having contrasted inheritance. Molecular Ecology 12(6): 1487-1495. [BurbanPe2003]
Notes: Range-wide variation of maritime pine was studied at maternally inherited and paternally inherited markers (mitochondrial DNA and chloroplast DNA). While chloroplast DNA exhibits the highest diversity, phylogeographic inferences from this marker are blurred by homoplasy and extensive pollen flow. In contrast, the only three mitochondrial haplotypes found provide a clear picture of nonoverlapping areas colonized from different refugia, with no single population having a mixed composition (GST=1). Comparison of the genetic structure inferred from both organelle genomes allows the investigation of differential seed and pollen dispersal, pointing to pollen, but not seed, dispersal across the Strait of Gibraltar (from Morocco into Iberia). A comparison with already available genetic information, especially that of one of the maritime pine's most threatening insect pests, the bast scale Matsucoccus feytaudi, further completes the picture.

Burnett, P.A. & Kawchuk, L.M. 2002. Insect-vectored crop diseases. 407-409 In: Pimentel, D. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Pest Management. Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York. 929 pp. [BurnetKa2002]
Notes: Among the insect vectors mentioned are Coccoidea and Pseudococcoidea.

Bustamente, J.A. 2002. Production, transformation and sales of cochineal products made in Chile. CACTUSNET NEWSLETTER (FAO International Technical Cooperation on Cactus) No. 7: 21-23. [Bustam2002]
Notes: This paper reviews the local cochineal production of Chile and the favorable climate for export.

Bustamento, J.A. 2002a. [Carmin as a commodity.] El carmín como commodity. (In Spanish). 26-27 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 pp. [Bustam2002a]
Notes: Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This paper discusses the economic environment of carmin production.

Byrne, D.N., Hendrix, D.L. & Williams, L.H. 2003. Presence of trehalulose and other oligosaccharides in Hemipteran honeydew, particularly Aleyrodidae. Physiological Entomology 28(2): 144-149. [ByrneHeWi2003]
Notes: Production by a bacterium of the disaccharide trehalulose was reported 30 years ago. The association between the fabrication of trehalulose and Insecta was found more recently. It was initially discovered in the honeydew, excreta, of the whitefly Bemisia tabaci feeding on Euphorbia pulcherrima where it was the predominant sugar. In the present study, B. tabaci-produced trehalulose was again found in honeydew at significant levels, this time when the whitefly fed on 10 different plants. In seven of ten Bemisia/host combinations, trehalulose accounted for more than 30% of the total carbohydrates found in their honeydew and was the principal oligosaccharide. Trehalulose constituents, glucose and fructose, were also present at lower levels, as were other oligosaccharides such as melezitose. Feeding by B. tabaci on the three other plant hosts also resulted in the production of trehalulose at relatively high levels (6.1-16.5%). Other whitefly species examined had little (e.g. B. afer and Aleurothrixus spp.), or no trehalulose (e.g. Trialeurodes spp. and Siphoninus phillyreae), in their honeydew. Trehalulose was also found in the honeydew of two aphid and one scale insect species. In insects whose honeydew had low levels or no trehalulose, sucrose, its constituents, or larger sugars predominated. The trisaccharide bemisiose was also found in the honeydew of half the whitefly species examined. Bemisiose was discovered here for the first time in the honeydew of three aphid species and three species of scale insects. Reasons for the production of trehalulose are often linked to high levels of dietary sucrose in whiteflies. This is probably true in our case because cotton and cucurbits, at least, are known to contain a great deal of sucrose. Although other functional possibilities were explored, the data suggest that trehalulose, being less susceptible to hydrolysis than sucrose, is involved in osmoregulation.

CAB International. 2002a. Rhizoecus hibisci Kawai & Takagi. Hemiptera. Coccoidea. Pseudococcidae. Distribution Maps of Pests Map no. 631: 2 pp. [CABI2002a]
Notes: Published in the U.K. by the International Institute of Entomology, an agency of CAB International; map showing distribution of this sp. worldwide; countries listed with references to records; attacks the roots of ornamental plants, e.g. Hibiscus, Cuphea, Pelargonium, Nerium and Phoenix spp.

Calatayud, P.A., Polania, M.A., Guillaud, J., Munera, D.F., Hamon, J.C. & Bellotti, A.C. 2002. Role of single amino acids in phagostimulation, growth, and development of the cassava mealybug Phenacoccus herreni. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 104(2/3): 363-367. [CalataPoGu2002]

Campos Figueroa, M. & Llanderal Cazares, C. 2003. Greenhouse production of cochineal insect Dactylopius coccus(Homoptera: Dactylopiidae). Agrociencia (Agrociencia) Texcoo 37(2): 149-155. [CamposLl2003]
Notes: A greenhouse was designed for the production of the cochineal Dactylopius coccus Costa on cut cladodes of Opuntia ficus-indica. The greenhouse has an area of 8x5.4 m and is made of roof and walls of rigid plastic, as well as zenithal and lateral ventilation with mesh protection. The interior has three levels at 50 cm of distance among them, with a total capacity for 2180 cut cladodes. The design allows a minimum handling of temperature, relative humidity and ventilation; and also avoids the entrance of competitors and natural enemies of the cochineal, providing appropriate conditions for the production of the insect. Three forms of cladode accommodation were evaluated: hanging cladode in the usual position, inverted hanging cladode and cladode supported in a raffia net. The registered variables were the number of females per cladode and their fresh weight. Significant differences (p=0.05) were found only in the number of females per cladode, where the inverted hanging cladode was superior to the cladode in raffia net. In this greenhouse it is possible to produce at least 50 kg of cochineal per year in four generations, including one of winter, which is not possible to obtain at open field.

Campos, J.M., Martínez-Ferrer, M.T. & Ripollés, J.L. 2003. Host and parasitoid densities influence on progeny and sex ratio of Anagyrus pseudococci (Girault) and Leptomastix dactylopii Howard Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae); two Planococcus citri (Risso) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) parasitoids. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): 139-147. [CamposMaRi2003]
Notes: [Integrated control in citrus fruit crops. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002. Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.) Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP).] The effects of different P. citri, A. pseudococci and L. dactylopii densities on progeny, parasitization and sex ratio were investigated under controlled laboratory conditions. L. dactylopii progeny numbers increased significantly as did host density until the host:parasitoid ratio was 80:1. Thereafter, the progeny numbers began to decline. The numbers of A. pseudococci progeny slightly increased as the host density increased. Parasitism percentages for the two parasitoids decreased as the host density increased. A. pseudococci and L. dactylopii attained optimum levels for mass production when the host:parasitoid ratios were 10:1 and 80:1, respectively. The numbers of A. pseudococci progeny increased with increasing parasitoid densities (2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 females) when the host density was held stable (480 P. citri). L. dactylopii only showed this trend at the lower parasitoid densities. The number of A. pseudococci progeny per female was not affected by parasitoid density, although the number of L. dactylopii progeny per female decreased as the parasitoid density increased. The sex ratios of A. pseudococci and L. dactylopii were unaffected by the modifications to parasitoid densities.

Cannard, M.P., Spooner-Hart, R.N. & Milner, R.J. 2002. Pathogenicity of water and oil based suspensions of Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff) Sorokin and Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) vuillemin to citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). General and Applied Entomology 31: 75-79. [CannarSpMi2002]
Notes: Laboratory bioassays compared the pathogenicity of five isolates of M. anisopliae (FI-1248, FI-1218, FI-0023, FI-1186 and FI-0985) and one isolate of B. bassiana (FI-1312) against second instar citrus mealybugs (P. citri) under conditions of 26 plus or minus 1 deg C and 85 plus or minus 1% RH in a 24-h dark period. All isolates exhibited pathogenicity. M. anisopliae isolate FI-1248 was the most virulent isolate in both water and oil suspensions with LC50 values of 6.4 x 105 and 3.4 x 104 conidia/ml, respectively. M. anisopliae isolate FI-0985 was found to be the least virulent.

Canyon, D., Speare, R., Naumann, I. & Winkel, K. 2002. Environmental and economic costs of invertebrate invasions in Australia. 45-66 In: Pimentel, D., Biological Invasions: Economic and Environmental Costs of Alien Plant, Animal, and Microbe Species. CRC Press, Boca Raton et al.. 369 pp. [CanyonSpNa2002]
Notes: Species listed in a table estimating the economic costs of production losses due to pests include two major pests imported into Australia, Aulacaspis tegalensis and Phenacoccus parvus.

Cardoso, G.D., Barreto, A.F., Araújo, E., Almeida, F.A. de & Carvalho, R.A.G. de 2003. [Ethiology [Etiology] and progress of the pestalotiopsis leaf spot in coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) plantations at the district of São Gonçalo, Sousa, Paraíba state.] (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura 25(2): 335-336. [CardosBaAr2003]
Notes: [Original title: Etiologia e progresso da mancha de pestalotia do coqueiro (Cocos nucifera L.), em São Gonçalo, Paraíba.] Coconut cultivation has been spreading in Paraíba State, Brazil, mainly in the Alto Piranhas micro-region. The aim of this research was to determine the etiology and spread of a coconut hybrid foliar disease observed in the district of São Gonçalo, Sousa, Paraíba State. Observations on disease progress in coconut plantations were made monthly to determine disease incidence, severity and infection rates. 100% incidence was recorded. Greater severity was associated with the presence of mites and coccids. A Pestalotiopsis sp. was isolated and disease symptoms developed when the isolate was inoculated on wounded coconut leaves. The symptoms presented by the leaves either naturally and artificially infected were similar to those described in the literature for coconut leaf spot caused by Pestalotiopsis guepinii.

Carot, J.M., García-Marí, F., Laborda, R., Peña, J., Román, A. & Ibáñez, V. 2003. Methods of estimating degree-days of scales in citrus. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): 103-106. [CarotGaLa2003]
Notes: [Conference proceedings: 'Integrated control in citrus fruit crops'. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, held in Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002 Published by International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP), Dijon, France, Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.)] One of the most important factors to achieve a good control of citrus armoured scales is the timing of pesticide application, which is related to the percentage of immature stages in the population. The average daily temperature and sampling data from seven citrus orchards in València, Spain were analysed to develop a predictive equation, with accumulated degree-days, for the first maximum of immatures of the citrus red scale Aonidiella aurantii. The descriptive analysis showed a sigmoidal trend in the graphic result. By correlating accumulated degree-days with accumulated percentage of immatures (expressed as probability units or "probits"), a linear model was obtained, with the possibility of comparing significant differences between orchards.

Causton, C.E. 2003. Ensuring compatibility of biological control of Icerya purchasi Maskell with conservation in the Galapagos: Development of a procedure to evaluate risk. 448-457 In: Van Dreische, R.G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Washington D.C.. 573 pp. [Causto2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002.] The methods described in this risk assessment were considered to be sufficiently rigorous to demonstrate the costs and benefits of introducing a biological control agent into an area of high conservation value. In practice, however, the lack of baseline data on the flora and fauna of the Galapagos and economic constraints limited the research that was carried out. The decision of whether to extend the project was ultimately defined by how long the GNPS was prepared to permit trials to continue at the risk of losing some species endangered by I. purchasi. Acquiring additional information on the ecology of invertebrate predators and other nontarget species would have required several years of further research, as would the physiological trials on plants to quantify I. purchasi damage in the field. Notwithstanding, the final conclusion reached by the GNPS was that the research demonstrated that a large number of endangered plant species are at risk from I. purchasi and that the use of classical biological control is unlikely to have significant negative impacts on this protected area.

Causton, C.E., Lincango, M.P. & Poulsom, TGA. 2004. Feeding range studies of Rodolia cardinalis (Mulsant), a candidate biological control agent of Icerya purchasi Maskell in the Galápagos islands. Biological Control 29(3): 315-325. [CaustoLiPo2004]
Notes: The immediate threat of the cottony cushion scale, Icerya purchasi Maskell (Homoptera: Margarodidae), to the conservation of endangered flora in the Galapagos islands prompted conservation groups to assess the risks associated with the introduction of its natural enemy, Rodolia cardinalis (Mulsant) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Although R. cardinalis has been widely used for controlling this exotic pest, little information was found to confirm its presumed narrow feeding range. Consequently, studies were deemed necessary to determine whether the introduction of R cardinalis would harm the island's native invertebrate fauna, in particular rare or threatened species. Using no-choice trials, we tested neonate and third instar larvae of R. cardinalis against 16 and 11 potential prey species, respectively. Adults with prior feeding experience on I. purchasi were tested against eight non-target species and naive adults (those that had not fed on I. purchasi) were tested against six. These trials included up to 35% of the Homoptera species of conservation value presumed to have the highest risk of being preyed upon by R. cardinalis. To maximize the range of species exposed to R. cardinalis, feeding trials were also carried out with some introduced species representative of groups containing potential non-target species that were not located for testing. P. cardinalis was unable to complete its life cycle on any of the test prey species and only fed on Margarodes similis Morrison (Homoptera: Margarodidae), a species closely related to the cottony cushion scale. M. similis, however, is subterranean and in its natural habitat is not at risk from foraging by R. cardinalis. Based on these trials, we believe that immature stages of R. cardinalis will have no impact on the non-target invertebrate fauna of the Galapagos islands because they specialize on Margarodidae. Although the limited nature of our testing prevents us from reaching a definitive conclusion about the prey range of R. cardinalis adults, our results indicate that it is also narrow. According to our field and laboratory studies, niche overlap with native predators of Homoptera will be minimal and intraguild predation should not occur.

Ceballo, F.A. & Walter, G.H. 2004. Life history parameters and biocontrol potential of the mealybug parasitoid Coccidoxenoides peregrinus (Timberlake) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae): asexuality, fecundity and ovipositional patterns. Biological Control 29(2): 235-244. [CeballWa2004]
Notes: Properties relevant to the ovipositional activity and lifetime productivity of Coccidoxenoides peregrinus (Timberlake) were assessed in the laboratory, to determine the potential of this species as a biocontrol agent against the citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso). In general, this species has not performed well in orchards, except for a few localities on different continents. The mode of reproduction of C. peregrinus is almost entirely thelytokous, with males produced sporadically and at low frequency. The females have both pro-ovigenic and synovigenic traits, which raises questions of the utility of this distinction. The females have a high reproductive potential with 10-20 eggs per day available within the first two days (after a short (12 h) pre-oviposition period), and 80-150 eggs per day thereafter until death at about eight days. Mean lifetime fecundity was 239.2 ± 34.3 eggs. C. peregrinus oviposits across a range of P. citri instars, but productivity relies predominantly on second instar hosts. Second stage (N2) hosts received most eggs in choice (about 52%) and no-choice (about 50%) tests. Most eggs deposited into N2 hosts (82%) reached adult stage whereas only a few of those deposited into N1 and N3 (about 5% each) developed successfully. The haemolymph of parasitised reproductive mealybugs contained granular structures and no parasitoid eggs were found 24 h after exposure to ovipositing wasps. Also, no wasps emerged from parasitised adult hosts that were kept alive. Parasitoid eggs deposited into adult hosts were presumed encapsulated and destroyed, as control mealybugs (not exposed to female wasps) had no granular structures in their haemolymph. Wasps exposed to an abundance of hosts soon started ovipositing, but only for a relatively short time each day (about 2.5 h out of a 7 h exposure). They stopped ovipositing despite eggs judged to be mature in their ovaries. The reproductive output of C. peregrinus is discussed in relation to the ecological factors that could influence this output, and the implications for biocontrol are discussed.

Ceballos, M.R. 2003. [New bio-regulator for Antonina graminis (Maskell) (Homoptera: Coccoidea) in Cuba.] Nuevo biorregulador para Antonina graminis (Maskell) (Homoptera: Coccoidea) en Cuba.) (In Spanish). Revista de Protección Vegetal (Cuba) 18(1): 65-66. [Ceball2003]
Notes: Neodusmetia sangwani, a parasite of A. graminis, is reported for the first time in Cuba.

Cebeci, H. & Selmi, E. 2004. The Coccidae species of Turkey. Orman Fakültesí Dergísí/Review of the Faculty of Istanbul 54(1): 207-228. [CebeciSe2004]
Notes: This paper provides scientific names, syononymy, distributions and host plants of 45 Coccidae species recorded in Turkey. Five subfamilies are represented in Turkey, Ceroplastinae, Coccinae, Eulecaniinae, Eriopeltinae and Filippiinae.

Chapman, S.K., Hart, S.C., Cobb, N.S., Whitham, T.G. & Koch, G.W. 2003. Insect herbivory increases litter quality and decomposition: An extension of the acceleration hypothesis. Ecology 84(11): 2867-2876. [ChapmaHaCo2003]
Notes: Herbivore alteration of litter inputs may change litter decomposition rates and influence ecosystem nutrient cycling. In a semiarid woodland at Sunset Crater National Monument, Arizona, long-term insect herbivore removal experiments and the presence of herbivore resistant and susceptible pinyon pines (Pinus edulis) have allowed characterization of the population- and community-level effects of herbivory. Here we report how these same two herbivores, the mesophyll-feeding scale insect Matsucoccus acalyptus and the stem-boring moth Dioryctria albovittella alter litter quality, dynamics, and decomposition in this ecosystem. We measured aboveground litterfall, litter chemical composition, and first-year litter decomposition rates for trees resistant and susceptible to both herbivores and for susceptible trees from which herbivores had been experimentally removed for 16-18 years. Both herbivores significantly increased nitrogen concentration and decreased lignin:nitrogen and carbon:nitrogen ratios of aboveground litter. Herbivory by scale insects also increased litter phosphorus concentration and annual needle litterfall mass. Consistent with its increased chemical quality, litter from herbivore-susceptible trees decomposed more rapidly in the first year. These results suggest that herbivory may increase nutrient cycling rates in this system by altering the chemical quality of litter, a mechanism that augments the nutrient acceleration hypothesis. The distribution of trees resistant and susceptible to the two herbivores at our site, and their associated variation in litter quality and decomposition, likely creates a mosaic of litter quality and nutrient cycling rates at the landscape scale. Further, because the differences in litter quality are associated with tree resistance and susceptibility traits, our findings are among the first to establish that intraspecific genetic variation may affect ecosystem function.

Charles, J.G. & Henderson, R.C. 2002a (2001). The exotic armoured scale insects in New Zealand. Bollettino di Zoologia Agraria e di Bachicoltura (Milano) 33(3): 503. [CharleHe2002a]
Notes: [Special Issue: Proceedings of the ISSIS IX International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies held at The University of Padua, Italy, Sept. 2-8, 2001.] [abstract of poster] Historical literature and curated collections were examined and reviewed to provide an up-to-date list of the exotic Diaspididae present in New Zealand at May 2001. 26 species of exotic Diaspididae are known to be established in the country.

Charles, J.G., Allan, D.J. & Zydenbos, S.M. 2002. An ecological perspective to host-specificity testing of biocontrol agents. New Zealand Plant Protection 55: 37-41. [CharleAlZy2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held at the Quality Hotel in Palmerston North, New Zealand in 2001. Published by the New Zealand Plant Protection Society, Rotorua, New Zealand.] Classical biological control programmes have historically been viewed positively, but in the new social context of "all new invaders are bad", the perceived environmental threats from new natural enemies are regarded by some as unacceptable. Host-specificity testing of proposed biocontrol agents is required to provide environmental safety assurances, but laboratory methods are likely to be flawed and cannot mimic the reality of nature. It is proposed that analysis of the realised host-range of long-established exotic parasitoids may help to predict the impacts of proposed, new biocontrol agents and supplement laboratory testing. This approach was used in 1999 when applying to New Zealand's Environmental Risk Management Authority for approval to release the parasitoid Pseudaphycus maculipennis (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) against the obscure mealybug, Pseudococcus viburni (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). The data from New Zealand and elsewhere indicate that new encyrtid parasitoids of mealybugs have shown no propensity to attack native species over time.

Chassagnard, M.T. & Tsacas, L. 2003. [The Oriental and Australian species of the subgenus Cacoxenus (Gitonides) Knab (Diptera: Drosophilidae).] Les espèces orientales et australiennes du sous-genre Cacoxenus (Gitonides) Knab (Diptera: Drosophilidae). (In French; Summary In English). Annales de la Société Entomologique de France 39(3): 271-286. [ChassaTs2003]
Notes: Seven new species are described in the subgenus Gitonides of the genus Cacoxenus: six from India (C. campsiphallus sp. nov. on cotton mealy bug, C. orientalis sp. nov., C. pachyphallus sp. nov. predatory on Trionymus sacchari [Saccharicoccus sacchari] on sugarcane, C. paulodentatus sp. nov. larvae preying on mealybugs on sugarcane, C. ripersiae sp. nov. larvae preying on Ripersia oryzae [? Brevennia rehi] and C. oxyphallus sp. nov.) and one from Australia (C. australicus sp. nov. on Pseudococcus sp. on passionfruit vine). A key for the identification of these species is given. C. punctatus, previously known as a synonym of C. perspicax is now rehabilitated. Twenty-two species and one subspecies belong at present to the subgenus Gitonides and they are distributed in five biogeographical regions: Palaearctic, Afrotropical, Oriental, Australian and Ocean. One species, C. perspicax, is distributed in more than one biogeographical region. The subgenus is missing from the Nearctic and the Neotropical regions. An analysis of the problem of the identity of C. perspicax and the reasons of its erroneous interpretation was attempted. The consequences of this problem with respect to the systematics and the distribution of the subgenus are also discussed.

Chávez Moreno, C.K. & Tecante Colonel, A. 2002. [Extraction of red cochineal (Dactylopius coccus) by means of a solvent: characterized by separation and transference of mash.] (In Spanish). 124-136 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 pp. [ChavezTe2002]
Notes: [Original title of paper: Extracción con disolvente del colorante rojo de la cochinilla (Dactylopius coccus): caracterización de la separación y la transferencia de masa. Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This paper explains a technique used to extract the red dye contents of cochineal.

Chen, S.J. 2003. Bionomics of Parlatoria oleae and its control. (In Chinese; Summary In English). Entomological Knowledge 40(3): 266-267. [Chen2003]
Notes: P. oleae is the major pest of the Kurle fragrant pear in Xinjiang, China, where it appears to be a local dominant species of Diaspididae. This pest heavily attacks the branches, leaves and fruits of its host. It produces 2 generations per year and overwinters as impregnated female adults. The middle of May is the crucial period for the control of this pest on Kurle.

Chen, S.P. & Chen, C.N. 2003. New species and new record of Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) from Taiwan. (In English; Summary In Chinese). Formosan Entomologist 23(3): 239-244. [ChenCh2003]
Notes: Two species of Encyrtidae were reared from nymphs and female adults of Antonina graminis and Pseudococcus longispinus, respectively, in Taiwan. Among them, Anagyrus thailandicus is recorded in Taiwan for the first time. Cryptanusia taiwanus sp. nov. is new to science. Anagyrus thailandicus is listed with figures, and the new species is described and illustrated with figures.

Chen, Y.Q., Chen, X.M. & Li, K. 2002. [A discussion on indexes and methods of economic evaluation of lac insect.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Forest Research 15(5): 531-536. [ChenChLi2002]
Notes: Comprehensive methods and formulas of lac insect evaluation were proposed in this paper based on such indexes from lac insect cultivation and production. These formulas could be shown as follows: 1) E=eXpX(1-m)X(1-s) for seed lac; 2) I=(Nt+1)/Nt=PI (si)cntdotpfemalecntdotF for production and 3) E=pX(1-m)X(1-s)Xd for host trees. It is more objective and reasonable for judging the insect on its seed lac, production and host tree adaptability by ways of comprehensive evaluation than by traditional methods.

Chen, Y.Q., Chen, X.M. & Li, K. 2003. [A probe into the mortality of lac insect population and improvement of the mortality formula.] (In Chinese). Forest Research 16(2): 135-140. [ChenChLi2003]
Notes: Field research was conducted on 7 host tree species and lac insect (Kerria lacca) population dynamic of lac insect during estival generation. The results are as follow: Different host tree has different growing speed, the increment of the area of branch without lac insect is up to 30%-50% among different host trees at the end of lac insect life history, otherwise, the increment of the area of branch with lac insect is up to 15%-40%; the branch has different growing speed in different orientation, the longitude growth is five times faster than transverse growth; the host trees of lac insect grow slowly at the beginning of lac insect life history, but grow fast during lac insect adult period. Differently aged branches of the same host tree have different growing speed. Younger branches grow faster than older ones. Host tree of lac insect grows slower during winter than that during estival. Lac insect has higher mortality in larvae stage, and the total mortality of lac insect is more than 90%. Former formula for lac insect mortality M = (d - d')/d, ignores that host tree growth has influence on the statistical result of lac insect population. According to the truth that host tree of lac insect grows continuously during the whole life cycle of lac insect, an improved new formula to count mortality of lac insect M = (d - Cd')/d is proposed.

Chen, Y.Q., Chen, X.M., Li, K., Shi, L. & Chen, Z.Y. 2004. [Preference of lac insect to host branch in foraging.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Forest Research 17(2): 159-166. [ChenChLi2004]
Notes: A study was conducted to determine the characteristics of lac foraging behaviour of Kerria lacca and its preference to host branch in foraging. Results showed that K. lacca hardly hosted on branches over two years old and the distribution of lac insects on branches had no relation to orientation. The diameter of hosted branches ranged from 0.47-1.60 cm. On erect branches, K. lacca was distributed around the branch but on most declining branches, K. lacca only settled on the shaded parts. Comparison anatomy showed that the periderm and cortex of two-year-old branches were thicker than those of one-year-old branches. Furthermore, the layer of sclereids and fibres in two-year-old branches was thicker than that in one-year-old branches by 27 micro m. The distance from periderm to phloem of 2-year-old branches was farther than that of one-year-old branches. The periderm and cortex of the upper parts of the branches were thinner than the basic parts of the branch. The phloem of parts reached by sunlight was thinner than the shaded parts. Furthermore, the keratinization of host tree suberin and tinsel on the epiderm also inhibited K. lacca foraging.

Chen, Y.Q., Chen, X.M., Li, K., Shi, L. & Chen, Z.Y. 2004a. [A study on the relationship between amino acid content of host trees and Kerria lacca.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Forest Research 17(3): 362-367. [ChenChLi2004a]
Notes: This study describes the relationship among the amino acids (viz., aspartic acid, threonine, serine, glycine, alanine, isoleucine, tyrosine, valine, leucine, phenylalanine, methionine, histidine, lysine, arginine and tryptophan) in the unhosted and hosted branches of Schleichera oleosa by Kerria lacca, and its biological characteristics.

Chen, S.P., Chen, C.N. & Wong, C.Y. 2002. [New record of a pest - Phenacoccus solani Ferris (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) in Taiwan.] Journal of Agricultural Research of China 51(2): 79-82. [ChenChWo2002]
Notes: The mealybug, P. solani, endangering many hosts, was found in Taiwan in 2002. Some comments on morphological characteristics, geographical distribution, parasitoid and host plants of the insect are described.

Chen, X.F., Liu, Y.S., Bei, S.G. & Dai, W.C. 2004. Influence of temperature on development and reproduction of Dactylopius coccus Costa. (In Chinese; Summary In English). Journal of Shandong Agricultural University 35(2): 301-303. [ChenLiBe2004]

Chen, G.H., Tao, M., Yang, B.L. & Chen, F.S. 2003. Study on the population dynamics of Chilocorus rubidux Hope and its predacious function. (In Chinese; Summary In English). Journal of Yunnan Agricultural University 18(2): 136-139. [ChenTaYa2003]
Notes: From March to September 2001, a field survey of the population dynamics of Chilocorus rubidux [Chilocorus rubidus] was carried out in a plum orchard in Chenggong, Kunming, China. In this orchard, Didesmococcus koreanus caused severe damage to the trees and no chemical control measures were applied. A laboratory experiment was also carried out to observe the predacious function of C. rubidus as the natural enemy of D. koreanus. C. rubidus showed the largest population in mid-April and mid- to late July. Simulation of the predacious role of C. rubidus with the mathematical models of Holling-II and Holling-III demonstrated that the optimum seeking density of adults, fourth- and third-instar larvae was 76.31, 35.61 and 32.24, respectively. The seeking efficiency of the ladybird decreased with an increase in the population density of the prey. The seeking efficiency of adults was greatest, followed by that of 4th- and 3rd-instar larvae.

Chen, G.H., Tao, M., Yang, B.L. & Zhu, L.G. 2003a. Studies on spatial distribution of parasitic wasps population of Parlatoria pergandii Comstock. (In Chinese; Summary In English). Southwest China Journal of Agricultural Sciences 16(4): 82-84. [ChenTaYa2003a]
Notes: The spatial distribution of parasitic wasps infesting P. pergandii (average of 12% infestation rate) in apple fields in Kunming, Yunnan, China is discussed. The parasitic species are: Aphytis proclia, Coccophagus hawaiiensis, Encarsia berlesei, Marietta carnesi, Anicetus sp., Teleterebratus perversus and Microterys clauseni. Parasitization was higher in upper plant parts than in mid-low parts, and in the western and northern parts of the apple field than the eastern and southern.

Chen, Y.Q., Xu, T., Chen, X.M. & Li, K. 2003. [Study on comparative anatomy of bark of seven host tree species of Kerria lacca (Kerr.) and its parasitic characteristics.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Forest Research 16(4): 411-417. [ChenXuCh2003]
Notes: Bark anatomy was studied in seven host species of Kerria lacca, i.e., Albizia lucida, Koelreuteria paniculata, Acacia montana [Paraserianthes lophantha], Ziziphus mauritiana, Ficus racemosa, Flemingia macrophylla and Schleichera oleosa. Bark on all the host tree species consists of periderm, cortex and secondary phloem but their layer structures differed. The periderm of F. macrophylla was the thinnest among the seven and the cortex of Albizia lucida was the thinnest. In the periderm of K. paniculata and Acacia montana, the phellem was remarkably thick in certain places. However, the phellem of Z. mauritiana had keratin distributed as dots. Furthermore, the layer of sclereids of Z. mauritiana was the thickest with four layers but they were not as continuous as the layers found in F. macrophylla and A. montana. A. montana had the thinnest layer of phloem while F. macrophylla had the thickest. A. montana had the smallest sieve tube density. F. macrophylla, K. paniculata and Z. mauritiana were observed to have simple column rays while S. oleosa and Ficus racemosa had simple, double and several columns of ray. The effects of these host tree species on the adhesion density and mortality of Kerria lacca are discussed.

Chi, D., Yan, S.C., Zhao, X.H. & Wen, Z.H. 2003. The taxis of chalcid parasitoids to their host and analysis of the volatile from fixed first instar nymphs of Quadraspidiotus gigas (Thiem & Gerneck). Journal of Northeast Forestry University 31(2): 20-22. [ChiYaZh2003]
Notes: Four armed olfactory instrument was used to test the taxis of the parasitoids Encarsia gigas and Pteroptrix longiclava [Pteroptrix longiclava] to the body, to the scale, or to both the body and scale of the fixed first instar nymph of Quadraspidiotus gigas. The scale and the combination of both the body and scale were more attractive to the parasitoids than that of the body alone. Analysis of the chemical components of the volatiles from the body or scales using GC-MS method showed the presence of 9 compounds.

Chi, D.F., Ocete, R.R., Yan, S.C., Zhang, D.D. & Wen, Z.H. 2002. Foraging behavior of parasitoid chalcid to the essential oil from bark of Populus pseudo-simoniiXP. nigra and Quadraspidiotus gigas. Journal of Forestry Research 13(4): 255-259. [ChiOcYa2002]
Notes: Four-armed airflow olfactometer was used to determining the foraging behavior of Pteroptrix longgiclava (Girault) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) and Encarsia gigas (Tshumakova) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) to the essential oils which emitted from the healthy bark of Populus pseudo-simoniiXP. nigra, the infested bark injured by Quadraspidiotus gigas (Thiem AMP; Gerneck), the body and scale of fixed 1st-instar-nymph of Q. gigas. The results from these experiments showed that the volatile oils produced from the injured bark and from the scale of fixed 1st-instar-nymph had a higher attractive ability to female adults of the two species of wasps. The essential oil produced from the scale of the pest at dosages of 3-7muL and the essential oil emitted by injured bark at dosages of 5-9 muL had a stronger alluring effect on the host searching behavior of Pteroptrix longgiclava. The essential oil from the body of fixed 1st-instar-nymph of Q. gigas also had certain effect on the host locating effort of Pteroptrix longgiclava and Encarsia gigas. Those two wasps did not show any reaction to the essential oil produced by the healthy bark of poplar.

Chi, D.F., Rubio, R.O., Yan, S.C., Zhang, D.D. & Wen, Z.H. 2002. Foraging behavior of parasitoid chalcid to the essential oil from bark of Populus pseudo-simonii x P. nigra and Quadraspidiotus gigas. Journal of Forestry Research 13(4): 255-259. [ChiRuYa2002]
Notes: Four-armed airflow olfactometer was used to determine the foraging behavior of Pteroptrix longgiclava (Girault) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) and Encarsia gigas (Tshumakova) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) to the essential oils which emitted from the healthy bark of Populus pseudo-simonii x P. nigra, the infested bark injured by Quadraspidiotus gigas (Thiem & Gerneck), the body and scale of fixed first-instar-nymph of Q. gigas. The results from these experiments showed that the volatile oils produced from the injured bark and from the scale of fixed first-instar-nymph was more attractive to female adults of the two species of wasps. The essential oil produced from the scale of the pest at dosages of 3-7 micro L and the essential oil emitted by injured bark at dosages of 5-9 micro L had a stronger alluring effect on the host searching behavior of Pteroptrix longgiclava. The essential oil from the body of fixed 1st-instar-nymph of Q. gigas also had certain effect on the host locating effort of Pteroptrix longgiclava and Encarsia gigas. Those two wasps did not shown any reaction to the essential oil produced by the healthy bark of poplar.

Chiappini, E. & Negri, F. 2004. Flagellar sensilla of Quadraspidiotus perniciosus Comstock (Rhynchota: Diaspididae) male. Micron 35(7): 597-605. [ChiappNe2004]
Notes: The flagellar sensory structures of Quadraspidiotus perniciosus Comstock (Rhynchota: Diaspididae) male have been investigated, using scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Five categories of sensilla have been identified: three types of sensilla trichodea, a sensillum coeloconicum and a sensillum basiconicum. The possible function of sensilla is discussed, considering their location, morphology and ultrastructure. No gustatory sensilla have been detected. All the setae (sensilla trichodea) present on the flagellomeres, except for the three 'knobbed' ones that are mechanosensilla, are cuticular components of olfactory structures. These olfactory sensilla are of two distinct types, having fluted or smooth hairs; furthermore, the fluted ones present different typologies for a varied number of dendrites. They are conceivably used for perceiving female sexual pheromone. It might be that each of the different components of the female sexual pheromone is perceived by a specific sensillum. Two types of supposed thermo-hygroreceptors have been found, one sensillum coeloconicum and two sensilla basiconica.

Childers, C.C. 2002. Practical use of horticultural mineral oils in integrated pest and disease management programs and their impact on natural enemies. 332-348 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [Childe2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Species mentioned include Aonidiella aurantii, Ceroplastes destructor, C. rubens and Unaspis yanonensis.

Chimenos, J.M., Fernandez, A.I., Villalba, G., Segarra, M., Urruticoechea, A., Artaza, B. & Espiell, F. 2003. Removal of ammonium and phosphates from wastewater resulting from the process of cochineal extraction using MgO-containing by-product. Water Research 37(7): 1601-1607. [ChimenFeVi2003]
Notes: The wastewater produced by the cochincal extract process to obtain the carminic acid colouring pigment (carmin red E120) has high concentrations of phosphates and ammonium. A batch process has been proposed for the removal of ammonium and phosphates from wastewater obtained in cochineal extracts processing, previously to biological treatment to diminish the COD.

Chong, J.H., Oetting, R.D. & Van Iersel, M.W. 2003. Temperature effects on the development, survival, and reproduction of the Madeira mealybug, Phenacoccus madeirensis Green (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), on chrysanthemum. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 96(4): 539-543. [ChongOeVa2003]
Notes: The Madeira mealybug, Phenacoccus madeirensis Green (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), has become an increasingly damaging pest in greenhouse ornamental production. Current management tactics of P. madeirensis require a regular chemical application schedule targeting the immature stages. Knowledge of the life cycle of P. madeirensis is important to the success of its management program. We investigated the effects of constant temperature (15, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40 degrees C) on the development, survival, and reproduction of P. madeirensis on chrysanthemum (Dendrathema x grandiflora Kitam.). We failed to establish colonies at 30-40 degrees C. Between 15 and 25 degrees C, the duration of development of all developmental stages were shortened at higher temperatures. The total duration of development of female mealybugs was approximate to 30 d at 25 degrees C, 46 d at 20 degrees C, and 66 d at 15 degrees C. Developmental time of males was 3-9 d longer than females. Survival rates of individual instars ranged between 88 and 100% and were not influenced by temperature. Overall, >75% of eggs completed development to adulthood. Female mealybugs made up 50% of the adult populations in all temperature treatments. Adult longevity at 25 degrees C was approximate to 3 and 20 d for males and ovipositing females, respectively. Females at 20 degrees C produced the highest number of eggs (491 +/- 38 eggs/female).

Chong, J.H., Van Lersal, M.W. & Oetting, R.D. 2004. Effects of elevated carbon dioxide levels and temperature on the life history of the Madeira mealybug (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). Journal of Entomological Science 39(3): 387-397. [ChongVaOe2004]
Notes: Atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations and temperatures are increasing and, thus, the interactions between insect herbivores and their host plants in environments of elevated CO2 concentration and temperature must be examined. We investigated the combined effects of elevated atmospheric CO2 concentration (400 and 700 micro mol mol-1) and temperature (20, 25 and 30 deg C) on the development, survival and reproduction of two generations of the Madeira mealybug, Phenacoccus madeirensis, and the chemical composition of chrysanthemum, Dendranthema x grandiflora [Chrysanthemum morifolium, syn. [Dendranthema morifolium]], leaves. The development of the mealybugs was temperature-driven and was not influenced by the CO2 level or the number of generations. At higher temperatures, the duration to egg eclosion and the developmental time of adult females and males were significantly shortened. More eggs survived to adulthood at higher temperatures. Temperature had no influence on the egg eclosion percentage. The reproductive period of females was shortest at 30 deg C, while fecundity was highest at 20 deg C. There was a significantly higher proportion of females at the end of the experiment at lower than at higher temperatures. Elevated CO2 level and temperature did not change the chemical composition (nitrogen and carbon concentrations, and carbon-nitrogen ratio) of the host plants. Relative water content of the leaf tissues was higher at 30 deg C than other temperature treatments. Our results show that the effects of temperature on the biology of the Madeira mealybug were stronger than that of the elevated CO2 concentration.

Ciampolini, M. & Guarnone, A. 2003. Proliferation of Parthenolecanium corni in vineyards. Informatore Agrario 59(17): 81-85. [CiampoGu2003]
Notes: The morphology, life cycle and reproductive behaviour of P. corni have been widely studied and described. It thrives on a wide variety of plants in temperatures of 21-27 deg C and 60-70% humidity. It has been confirmed as a vector of grapevine leaf roll associated virus (GLRaV-1). Surveys in 2000 and 2001 in Italy showed that the females laid large numbers of eggs in May and again in late August, so avoiding the high summer temperatures. Many potential parasitoids and predators of P. corni exist, the presence of different species being dependent on varying environmental conditions (climate, host plants, etc.). The insect is sensitive to a wide range of insecticides which must be chosen in relation to the crop, local legal restrictions and environmental considerations.

Ciampolini, M., Lunghini, D. & Mocetti, G. 2003. [Pseudococcus viburni, an insidious enemy of fruit production.] Insidioso nemico della frutticoltura: Pseudococcus viburni. (In Spanish; Summary In English). Informatore Agrario 59(1): 57-60. [CiampoLuMo2003]
Notes: The plant pest P. viburni (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) is discussed in relation to: (1) systematic position and geographical distribution; (2) biology; (3) host plants and damage; and (4) control measures. Chemical control experiments conducted in 2002 in the Viterbo area of Italy on apples are briefly reported.

Claps, L.E. 2002. [The cochineals (Insecta: Hemiptera: Coccoidea) associated with Cactaceae in Argentina.] Las "cochinillas" (Insecta: Hemiptera: Coccoidea) asociadas a Cactaceae en la República Argentina. (In Spanish). 71-72 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 p. [Claps2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] Species known to be associated with cactus in Argentina include Abgrallaspis cyanophylli, Aonidomytilus albus, Dactylopius austrinus, D. ceylonicus, D. coccus, D. confertus, D. salmianus, D. zimmermanni, Diaspis boisduvalli, D. echinocacti, Hypogeococcus festerianus and H. pungens.

Claps, L.E. & Dos Santos Wolff, V.R. 2003. [Diaspididae (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) frequently found on plants of economic importance in Argentina and Brazil.] Cochinillas Diaspididae (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) frecuentes en plantas de importancia económica de la Argentina y Brasil. (In Spanish). Publicación Especial de la Sociedad Entomológica Argentina (3): 58 pp. [ClapsDo2003]
Notes: Thirty one species of scale insects on ornamentals, forest trees, fruit, etc. are registered for Argentina and Brazil. A key to the genera, as well as the characterization and illustration of all species are also included. Data on economic importance and host plants are provided, and an alphabetical list of host plants associated with the scales, are given.

Cloyd, R.A. 2003. Effect of insect growth regulators on citrus mealybug [Planococcus citri (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)] egg production. HortScience 38(7): 1397-1399. [Cloyd2003]
Notes: Greenhouse trials were conducted during 2000-01 to evaluate the indirect effects of insect growth regulators, whether stimulatory or inhibitory, on the egg production of female citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri). Green coleus plants (Solenostemon scutellarioides) were infested with 10 late third instar female citrus mealybugs. The insect growth regulators kinoprene, pyriproxyfen, azadirachtin, buprofezin, and novaluron were applied to infested plants at both the high and low manufacturer recommended rates. Beginning two days after treatments were applied, plants were monitored daily to determine when female mealybugs began to oviposit. The individual mealybugs were removed from plants, placed into glass vials containing 70% isopropyl alcohol when female mealybugs started to oviposit, and dissected to determine the number of eggs. Overall, there were no consistent patterns to suggest that the insect growth regulators and different rates tested had any effect on the egg production of citrus mealybug females. Although, in one instance, the insect growth regulators kinoprene and pyriproxyfen actually lowered citrus mealybug egg production. In addition, the insect growth regulator buprofezin numerically increased female citrus mealybug egg production.

Cock, M.J.W. 2003. Risks of non-target impact versus stakeholder benefits in classical biological control of arthropods: selected case studies from developing countries. 25-33 In: Van Dreische, R.G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Washington D.C.. 573 pp. [Cock2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002.] Species discussed include Maconellicoccus hirsutus and Orthezia insignis.

Colombini, M.P., Bonaduce, I. & Gautier, G. 2003. Molecular pattern recognition of fresh and aged shellac. Chromatographia 58(5/6): 357-364. [ColombBoGa2003]
Notes: Two GC-MS procedures for the characterization of shellac, a resin from Kerria lacca widely used in the field of art, were developed. One procedure was based on pyrolysis assisted by the hexa-methyldisilazane reaction on-line with GC-MS and the other on the saponification of the sample assisted by microwave followed by GC-MS analysis. The former is a rapid and valuable method for resin identification and the latter gives a more in depth understanding of its composition. Butolic, aleuritic and its derivative acids together with typical sesquiterpenoid compounds were the main molecules identified and used as markers for the molecular pattern recognition of the resin in fresh and old samples (19th century shellac from the Salvemini Collection and gilding samples from the 15th century frescoes of the Duomo of Monza).

Constant, P.B.L., Stringheta, P.C. & Sandi, D. 2002. [Food colorants.] Corantes alimentícios. (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Boletim do Centro de Pesquisa e Processamento de Alimentos 20(2): 203-220. [ConstaStSa2002]
Notes: This paper deals with the concern of the food industry sector on issues related to the application of food colourants for making foods more attractive to consumers. The advantages and disadvantages of natural colourants and the types of colourants commonly used in the food industry (anthocyanins, annatto, cochineal carmin, curcumin, betalains) are presented.

Conway, G. & Toenniessen, G. 2003. Science for African food security. Science 299(5610): 1187-1188. [ConwayTo2003]
Notes: Phenacoccus manihoti is among the pest species discussed.

Cook, L.G. 2003. Apiomorpha gullanae, sp. n., an unusual new species of gall-inducing scale insect (Hemiptera: Eriococcidae). Australian Journal of Entomology 42(4): 327-333. [Cook2003]
Notes: An unusual new species of the gall-inducing scale insect genus Apiomorpha Rubsaamen is described from Queensland. The adult female, its gall, and the first-instar nymph (crawler) are illustrated, and relationships of the new species are estimated using mitochondrial COII data. Adult females induce cigar-shaped galls on leaves of several eucalypts in section Adnataria of subgenus Symphyomyrtus. The bilobed anal lobes of the adult female differ from those of all other Apiomorpha species (single lobe) and the first-instar nymph possesses features, such as broad frontal tubercles and dorsal stripes, that are not present in crawlers of other Apiomorpha species. However, DNA sequence data confirm that the new species falls within Apiomorpha, rather than representing a sister group, and indicate that the new species is not closely related to the A. pharetrata (Schrader) species-group, the only other group within Apiomorpha that induces cigar-shaped galls on leaves. The systematic affiliations of A. gullanae sp. n. are currently not known. Females only are known and there is some indication that reproduction in the new taxon is parthenogenetic. This represents the first putative case of parthenogenesis in Apiomorpha.

Cook, L.G. & Gullan, P.J. 2004. The gall-inducing habit has evolved multiple times among the eriococcid scale insects (Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea: Ariococcidae). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 83: 441-452. [CookGu2004]
Notes: The habit of inducing plant galls has evolved multiple times among insects but most species diversity occurs in only a few groups, such as gall midges and gall wasps. This phylogenetic clustering may reflect adaptive radiations in insect groups in which the trait has evolved. Alternatively, multiple independent origins of galling may suggest a selective advantage to the habit. We use DNA sequence data to examine the origins of galling among the most speciose group of gall-inducing scale insects, the eriococcids. We determine that the galling habit has evolved multiple times, including four times in Australian taxa, suggesting that there has occurred on Myrtaceae, we found that lineages feeding on Myrtaceae are no more likely to have evolved the galling habit than those feeding on other plant groups. However, most gall-inducing eriococcid species occur on Myrtaceae, we found that lineages feeding on Myrtaceae are no more likely to have evolved the galling habit than those feeding on other plant groups. However, most gall-inducing species-richness is clustered in only two clades (Apiomorpha and Lachnodius + Opisthoscelis), all of which occur exclusively on Eucalyptus s.s. The Eriococcidae and large genus Eriococcus were determined to be non-monophyletic and each will require revision.

Cooper, D.D. & Cranshaw, W. 2004. Seasonal biology and associated natural enemies of two Toumeyella spp. in Colorado. Southwestern Entomologist 29(1): 39-45. [CooperCr2004]
Notes: Observations were made during 1994 and 1995 on the life history and associated natural enemies of two Toumeyella spp. of soft scale which recently have become established as important pests in several Colorado communities. Observed host plants of the striped pine scale, Toumeyella pini (King), included Pinus sylvestris, Pinus mugo, Pinus edulis and Pinus nigra; observed hosts of the pine tortoise scale, Toumeyella parvicornis (Cockerell), were Pinus contorta and P. sylvestris. Both species were observed to have only a single generation per year. Crawler emergence of T. pini began in Denver on 1 June in 1994 and 21 June in 1995. This was close to that observed with T. parvicornis in Loveland and Greeley, 27 May in 1994 and 21 June in 1995. Crawlers were present for about one month. No parasitoids were recovered from T. pini, but predators of early instar stages included the coccinellids Hippodamia convergens (Guerin-Meneville), Coccinella septempunctata L. and a predatory lampyrid, Lucidota sp. Conversely, an Aphytis sp. aphelinid wasp may be important on populations of P. parvicornis.

Cozzi, G., Stornelli, C., Moretti, A., Logrieco, A. & Porcelli, F. 2002. Field evaluation of Fusarium larvarum formulations in the biocontrol of Saissetia oleae on olive in Apulia. Acta Horticulturae 586: 811-814. [CozziStMo2002]
Notes: The efficacy of field strains of F. larvarum (ITEM 2135 and ITEM 2139), isolated from adults of the almond scale insect Suturaspis archangelskyae, was evaluated in Apulia (southern Italy) from 1993 to 1998 as biological control agents against populations of Saissetia oleae. Assays were conducted using a solid formulation obtained by growing fungal cultures on rice at 25 deg C for 4 weeks. Suspensions of the fungal formulations were spread on olive branches infested by S. oleae. Significant insecticidal effect was observed. At 7 days after treatment, the formulations reduced S. oleae populations by 65 to 70%, regardless of the rate of colony forming unit used. After 30 days, a significant control of crawlers and second instar larvae was obtained except with ITEM 2135 with the lowest CFU, indicating that the insecticidal activity was significantly reduced with time. Nevertheless, the insecticidal activity of the formulations was evident even after 80 days.

Cruz Hernández-Hernández, F. de la, García-Gil de Muñoz, F., Rojas-Martínez, A., Hernández-Martínez, S. & Lanz-Mendoza, H. 2003. Carminic acid dye from the homopteran Dactylopius coccus hemolymph is consumed during treatment with different microbial elicitors. Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology 54(1): 37-45. [CruzHeGaRo2003]
Notes: The activation of Dactylopius coccus (Costa) hemolymph with microbial polysaccharide molecules was studied. Hemolymph incubated in the presence of laminarin, zymosan, and N-acetyl glucosamine produced a dark fibrillar precipitate, and the red pigment (carminic acid) was consumed (measured spectrophotometrically at 495 nm). Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) did not induce any response. The reaction was inhibited with millimolar concentrations of serine and cysteine protease inhibitors, EGTA and phenyl thiourea. It was also diminished by prostaglandin synthesis inhibitors: dexamethasone, acetylsalicylic acid, and indomethacin. However, Mg2+ chelator EDTA did not inhibit hemolymph activation. Hemolymph proteins were depleted from soluble phase during treatment with laminarin, but a group of around 34 kDa remained unmodified. These results showed that D. coccus hemolymph is activated by microbial elicitors, its activation depends on eicosanoids, and suggest participation of a prophenoloxidase (PPO)-like activation system that could consume carminic acid. We are currently dissecting the molecular factors involved in D. coccus hemolymph activation to determine homologies and differences with other arthropod immune response pathways.

Cuervo, M., Calatayud, P., Fernando Múnera, D., Belloti, A. & Calvert, L.A. 2002. Molecular Identification of Cassava Mealybugs. Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Cali, Colombia. [CuervoCaFe2002]
Notes: [Poster] Photographs, results of RAPD PCR, cloning and sequence analysis of a region of the 16S mitrochondrial DNA and discussion are displayed on a full-color poster, downloaded from the CIAT website. (http://www.ciat.cgiar.org/ipm/pdfs/mealbugs.pdf)

Cullen, J. & Sands, D. 2003. Douglas Frew Waterhouse -- a dedication. 17-22 In: Van Dreische, R.G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Washington D.C.. 573 pp. [CullenSa2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002.] The biological control of passion fruit scale, Pseudaulacaspis pentagona, was an early successful project in Samoa.

Cziklin, M., Schweigert, A. & Makó, S. 2003. [Protection of plums.] (In Hungarian). Növényvédelem 39(6): 263-278. [CzikliScMa2003]
Notes: Species mentioned include Diaspidiotus perniciosus, Epidiaspis leperii, Parthenolecanium corni, Pseudaulacaspis pentagona and Sphaerolecanium prunastri.

Daane, K.M., Malakar-Kuenen, R., Guillén, M., Bentley, W.J., Bianchi, M. & González, D. 2003. Abiotic and biotic pest refuges hamper biological control of mealybugs in California vineyards. 389-398 In: Van Dreische, R.G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Washington D.C.. 573 pp. [DaaneMaGu2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002.] Species discussed include Planococcus ficus, Pseudococcus longispinus, P. maritimus and P. viburni.

Daane, K.M., Malakar-Kuenen, R.D. & Walton, V.M. 2004. Temperature-dependent development of Anagyrus pseudococci (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) as a parasitoid of the vine mealybug, Planococcus ficus (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Biological Control 31(2): 123-132. [DaaneMaWa2004]
Notes: The influence of temperature on Anagyrus pseudococci (Girault) development and overwintering was investigated to improve biological control of the vine mealybug, Planococcus ficus (Signoret), in California vineyards. At a constant 32 deg C, egg development required two days, larval development ranged from 0.7 plus or minus 0.1 (second instar) to 1.9 plus or minus 0.1 (fifth instar) days, and pupal development was 3.9 plus or minus 0.1 days. Under eight constant temperatures (12, 14, 17, 22, 27, 32, 34, and 36 deg C), A. pseudococci completed development (egg to adult eclosion) from 14 to 34 deg C. Development times ranged from 79.1 plus or minus 1.0 days (14 deg C) to 10.2 plus or minus 0.3 days (34 deg C). We determined optimal, maximum and minimum development temperatures to be 24.7, 36.0 and 11.6 deg C, respectively, and the thermal constant is 223.5 degree-days. We compared these laboratory-derived temperature relationships to A. pseudococci field-monitored populations from March through November. Laboratory-data suggests there are seven to eight A. pseudococci generations during this period, two generations to each vine mealybug generation. Overwintering studies show that A. pseudococci emergence was concentrated over a 15 day period in early May, regardless of when vine mealybugs were exposed (October 2001 to March 2002). Results suggest that cues other than temperature are used to synchronize overwintered A. pseudococci adult emergence with field availability of vine mealybug.

Daane, K.M., Mills, N.J. & Tauber, M.J. 2002. Augmentative controls. 36-38 In: Pimentel, D. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Pest Management. Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York. 929 pp. [DaaneMiTa2002]
Notes: Aonidiella aurantii and mealybugs are mentioned as targets of augmentative release programs.

Dabiré, R.A., Somda, I., Traore, N.S. & Ouédraogo, S.N. 2002. [Diagnostic study on the principal pests of mango tree in Burkina Faso.] Étude diagnostique sur les principales attaques parasitaires du manguier, Mangifera indica L., au Burkina Faso. (In English; Summary In French). 287-293 In: [Sixth International Conference on Pests in Agriculture. Vol. 1.] Sixième Conférence Internationale sur les Ravageurs en Agriculture. Tome 1.] AGRO, Montpellier, France. 350 pp. [DabireSoTr2002]
Notes: [Conference held 4-6 December 2002 in Montpellier, France.] Rastrococcus invadens has become a serious problem on mango in Burkina Faso, depending to some extent on parameters such as variety, type of soil and exact location.

Dang, X.D. & Wang, H.Z. 2002. Eleven new species of Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera) from Shaanxi Province, China. (In Chinese; Summary In English). Entomotaxonomia 24(4): 289-300. [DangWa2002]
Notes: This paper describes 11 new species from Shaanxi, China, namely, Anagyrus pergandei sp. nov., A. nesticoccus sp. nov., Copidosoma dioryctria sp. nov., C. hanzhongenum sp. nov., C. malacosoma sp. nov., Echthrodryinus aphidius sp. nov., Metaphycus eriococcus sp. nov., M. phenacoccus sp. nov., M. qinlingensis sp. nov., M. shaanxiensis sp. nov., and Trichomasthus quadraspidiotus sp. nov. Their respective hosts are: Phenacoccus pergandei, Nesticoccus sinensis, Dioryctria pryeri, noctuid larvae, Malacosoma neustria, Aphidus sp., Eriococcus kaki [Acanthococcus kaki], Pulvinaria sp., Lecanium [Coccus] sp., Lecanium sp. and Quadraspidiotus perniciosus [Diaspidiotus perniciosus].

Danoff-Burg, J.A. & Bird, S. 2002. Hemlock woolly adelgid and elongate hemlock scale: partners in crime? 254-268 In: Onken, B., Reardon, R. & Lashomb, J. (Eds.), Proceedings: Hemlock Woolly Adelgid in the Eastern United States Symposium. Hemlock Woolly Adelgid Infestations 2002. N.J. Agricultural Experiment Station, the State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick. 403 pp. [DanoffBi2002]
Notes: [Symposium on the Hemlock Woolly Adelgid in Eastern North America, conference held February 5-7, 2002, East Brunswick, New Jersey.] The increased mortality of the eastern hemlock in North America has been primarily attributed to the invasion of the hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA). However, in parts of the range of eastern hemlock, the elongate hemlock scale (EHS) (Fiorinia externa), another introduced Asian insect, also infests stands and weakens trees. An important step towards achieving the goal of reducing eastern hemlock mortality is to understand how these two exotic insects impact hemlock stands. To address this question, we estimated levels of infestation of HWA and EHS found on 153 trees along the length of an eastern hemlock stand in the Black Rock Forest, Orange County, New York. We also estimated the relative abundance of each of these insects and the levels of needle loss and new growth on these hemlock trees. Using these data, we then determined that both HWA and EHS abundance was significantly correlated with the early stages of hemlock decline, as indicated by the suppression of new growth in infested trees. However, an advanced stage of hemlock health decline, as indicated by needle loss, was significantly correlated with EHS abundance but not HWA abundance. We suggest that HWA and EHS at least contribute equally to the decline of hemlocks at our field site, but that damaging outbreaks of EHS may be enabled by HWA feeding.

Danzig, E.M. 2003. Mealybugs of the genus Phenacoccus Ckll. (Homoptera, Pseudococcidae) of the fauna of Russia and adjacent countries. (In Russian; Summary In English). Entomologicheskoe Obozrenye 82(2): 327-361. [Danzig2003]
Notes: This paper presents a key to 19 species with descriptions of all species except for the recently described Phenacoccus loiki Danzig. Lectotypes of 10 nominal species are designated. The following new synonymies are revealed: Phenacoccus Cockerell, 1893 (=Densispina Ter-Grigorian, 1964, syn.n.); Phenacoccus hordei (Lindeman, 1886) (=avetianae Borchsenius, 1949, syn.n.); P. aceris (Signoret, 1875) (=gorgasalicus Hadzibejli, 1960, syn.n.); P. karaberdi Borchsenius et Ter-Grigorian, 1956 (=affinis Ter-Grigorian, 1963; =gramineus Ter-Grigorian, 1964; =sogdianicus Nurmamatov et Bazarov, 1987, syn.n.).

Danzig, E.M. 2004. [A review of species of the mealybug genus [Phenacoccus Ckll. (Homoptera, Coccinea, Pseudococcidae) associated with firs with a discussion of the polymorphism in Ph. piceae (Loew).] (In Russian; Summary In English). Entomologicheskoe Obozrenye 83(3): 530-537. [Danzig2004]
Notes: A group of closely related species of the genus Phenacoccus living on different species of Picea is revised. This group consists from one Nearctic and five Palaearctic species. Phenacoccus piceae in contrast to other Palaearctic species is characterized by intraspecific variation in the number of circuli and presence of dorsal multiocular pores. Polymorphism of Ph. piceae is probably explained by its wide Euro-Siberian distribution and association with two different species of host plants, Picea abies in Europe and P. obovata in Siberia.

Dauphin, P. & Matile-Ferrero, D. 2003. [The presence of Ceroplastes sinensis Del Guercio (Homoptera: Coccidae) on Baccharis halimifolia L. (Asteracea) in Gironde.] Présence de Ceroplastes sinensis Del Guercio (Homoptera: Coccidae) sur Baccharis halimifolia L. (Astéracées) en Gironde. (In French). Bulletin de la Société Linnéenne de Bordeaux 31(4): 261-263. [DauphiMa2003]
Notes: New data on host plants of Ceroplastes sinensis in France.

Davies, A.P., Ceballo, F.A. & Walter, G.H. 2004. Is the potential of Coccidoxenoides perminutus, a mealybug parasitoid, limited by climatic or nutritional factors? Biological Control 31(2): 181-188. [DaviesCeWa2004]
Notes: The encyrtid Coccidoxenoides perminutus is a widely distributed parasitoid of citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri). Worldwide, it has been implicated in successful biocontrol in only a few widely separated localities. C. perminutus contributes little to control P. citri in field situations in southeast Queensland, Australia, but invades insectary cultures and reduces mealybug populations considerably under these controlled conditions. This discrepancy between poor field performance and good performance under controlled conditions was investigated to establish whether climatic factors inhibit the field performance of this species in the biological control of P. citri. Subsequent laboratory examination of the influence of varied humidities and temperatures on the activity levels and survival of C. perminutus revealed a low tolerance for high saturation deficits (i.e., low % RH at high T deg C) with reduced reproductive output. The influence of different food sources on adult survival and reproduction was also quantified, to establish if the adverse effects of climate could be overcome by supplementing adult diet. Neither honeydew from their mealybug hosts nor nectar from Alphitonia flowers significantly enhanced parasitoid survival. A subsequent test of five nectar species revealed a significant difference in their influence on C. perminutus survival and reproduction, with only Alpinia zerumbet proving to be as suitable as honey. The floral species that proved suitable in the laboratory need to be checked for their attractiveness to C. perminutus in the field and for their ability to enhance the survival and reproductive output of parasitoids. This information suggests that the prevailing dry conditions in southeast Queensland citrus-growing areas apparently impede successful biological control of P. citri by C. perminutus, but possibilities are available for habitat manipulation (by providing suitable nectar sources for adult parasitoids) to conserve and enhance C. perminutus activity in the field.

Davoodi, A., Talebi, A.A., Rajabi, G.R. & Fathipour, Y. 2002. The first report of Microterys hortulanus (Hym.: Encyrtidae) from Iran. (In English; Summary In Persian). Journal of Entomological Society of Iran 22(1): Pe85-Pe86. [DavoodTaRa2002]
Notes: Studies were carried out to determine parasitoid wasps of soft scale insects (Coccidae) in Tehran, Iran, in 2002. Samples of Eulecanium coryli [E. tiliae] collected from prune trees in different orchards were held in insect cages at room conditions. Emerged wasps were preserved in 75% ethyl alcohol. Among the samples, some parasitoid wasps of M. hortulanus were observed. According to the literature, M. hortulanus is a new record from Iran. Some morphological characters of the adult female are as follows: metallic dark brown dorsal surface of body but light brown to orange ventral surface and head; 11-segmented antennae; forewing with two dark regions; the length of the abdomen less than that of the thorax and with three long setae on each side.

Davoodi, A., Talebi, A.A., Rajabi, G.R. & Fathipour, Y. 2002a. Report of Metaphycus angustifrons Compère (Hym.: Encyrtidae), parasitoid of Coccus hesperidum (L.) (Hom.: Coccidae) from Iran. Journal of Entomological Society of Iran 22(2): 79-80. [DavoodTaRa2002a]
Notes: In 2002, a survey was carried out to determine parasitoid wasps of soft scale insects (Coccidae) in Tehran province, Iran. Some samples of Coccus hesperidum were collected from locust and mulberry trees in Karaj between late September and mid-November. The samples were held in insect cages at room temperature. Among the emerged wasps, some parasitoid wasps of Metaphycus angustifrons Aphycus angustifrons] were observed and identified. According to literature, M. angustifrons is a new record from Iran. Some morphological characters of females are as follows: 1.0- to 1.2-mm body length; light brown dorsal surface of body but yellow to white ventral surface; 11-segmented antennae; hyaline forewing. Some morphological characters of males are as follows: 0.9- to 1.1-mm body length; 9-segmented antennae; pale yellow abdomen ventral surface, but other morphological characters are similar to those of females.

De Groote, H., Ajuonu, O., Attignon, S., Djessou, R. & Neuenschwander, P. 2003. Economic impact of biological control of water hyacinth in Southern Benin. Ecological Economics (Amsterdam) 45(1): 105-117. [DeGrooAjAt2003]
Notes: Mealybugs are mentioned.

Del Río Dueñas, I.J. 2002. [The importance of carmine cochineal in Mexican independence.] La importancia de la grana del carmín or cochinilla fina en la independencia mexicana. (In Spanish). 62 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal 7 Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 p. [DelRio2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This paper discusses the value of the dye produced from Dactylopius coccus on the historical events leading to Mexico's independence.

Demeyere, A. 2004. [Little cherry virus: a new threat for cherry cultivation?] Little cherry virus: een nieuwe bedreiging voor de kersenteelt? (In Dutch). Fruitteelt 17(10): 18-19. [Demeye2004]
Notes: Distribution of this virus (LChV1, LChV2 and LChV3) in Europe is discussed and symptoms are described. The vector in Canada for LChV3 is Phenacoccus aceris and Canadian insect control measures are outlined. Detection and control of the vector in Belgium are briefly discussed.

Deng, Y.Y. & Li, Q.W. 2002. Preliminary report on several pesticides control of Kermes nawae Kuwana. Journal of Jiangsu Forestry Science and Technology 29(5): 33-34. [DengLi2002]
Notes: Seven pesticides were applied to control Kermes nawae, primary pest damaging Castanea mollissima. Methidathion was sprayed at 0.04% solution.

Denmark, H.A. 2004. Regulatory entomology and biological control: A tribute to Reece Sailer. Florida Entomologist 87(2): 244-249. [Denmar2004]
Notes: Biographical information is presented about this entomologist. Among the species he worked with are Chrysomphalus aonidum, Fiorinia theae and Icerya purchasi.

de Silva, D.P.P., Jones, P. & Shaw, M.W. 2002. Identification and transmission of Piper yellow mottle virus and Cucumber mosaic virus infecting black pepper (Piper nigrum) in Sri Lanka. Plant Pathology 51(5): 537-545. [deSilvJoSh2002]
Notes: Sri Lankan black pepper with symptoms of yellow mottle disease contained a mixture of viruses: Piper yellow mottle virus (PYMV) particles (30 x 130 nm), cucumber mosaic virus (CMV, 30 nm diameter isometric particles), and unidentified, isometric virus-like particles (30 nm diameter). An effective purification procedure is described for PYMV. Immunosorbent and conventional electron microscopy successfully detected badnavirus particles only when at least partially purified extracts were used. PYMV was confirmed as the cause of the disease, with the other two viruses apparently playing no part in producing symptoms. PYMV was transmitted by grafting, by the insect vectors citrus mealy bug (Planococcus citri) and black pepper lace bug (Diconocoris distanti), but not by mechanical inoculation or through seeds. The CMV isolate was transmitted to indicator plants by mechanical inoculation and by the vector Aphis gossypii, but not by Myzus persicae; but neither mechanical nor insect transmission of CMV to black pepper was successful. A sensitive polymerase chain reaction assay was developed to detect PYMV in black pepper.

Deyton, D.E., Sams, C.E. & Pless, C.D. 2002. Soybean oil delays peach tree flowering, thins fruit, and kills key arthropod pests of deciduous fruit trees. 410-418 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [DeytonSaPl2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Species discussed include San José scale and terrapin scale.

Dezhakam, M. & Soleyman-nejadian, E. 2002. Fauna of symbiotic ants with the southern mealybug Nipaecoccus viridis new.(Hom.: Pseudococcidae), on citrus in Khuzestan. The Scientific Journal of Agriculture Shahid Chamran Univ. Press (Iran Islamic Republic) 24(2): [DezhakSo2002]
Notes: Symbiotic ants with Nipaecoccus viridis New. were collected on citrus trees in Khuzestan, a southern province of Iran. A total of 16 species from 12 genera and 3 subfamlies were collected from which 9 species were the first record for Iran.

Dill, M. 2002. III. Taxonomy of the migrating herdsmen species of the genus Dolichoderus Lund, 1831, with remarks on the systematics of other Southeast Asian Dolichoderus. (In English; Summary In German). 17-113 In: Dill, M., Williams, D.J. & Maschwitz, U. (Eds.), Herdsmen Ants and their Mealybug Partners, Band 557 Abhandlungen der Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, . 373 pp. [Dill2002]
Notes: Dolichoderus is the largest and morphologically most diverse genus of the subfamily Dolichoderinae. The genus occurs in the Neotropical, Nearctic, Palearctic, Oriental, and Australian regions, and is most diverse in the tropical forests of the New World and the Oriental region. The geographical distribution matches distribution of the mealybug tribe Allomyrmococcini, which comprises the specific trophobiotic partners of the herdsmen ants. The majority are arboreal. Associated mealybug species include Archeomyrmococcus dolichoderi, Bolbococcus oresbius, B. sabahanus, Borneococcus bauensis, Cataenococcus hispidus, Coccus viridis, Dicranococcus, Doryphorococcus lentiginosus, Dysmicoccus brevipes, Drepanococcus sp., Hippeococcus wegneri, H. rappardi, Kerria? sp., Lecanium sp., Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Malaicoccus sp., Paramyrmococcus chiengraiensis, Planococcus lilacinus, Promyrmococcus dilli, P. wayi, Pseudococcus crotonis, P. cryptus, P. dorsospinosus, P. elisae (P. jackbeardsleyi), Rastrococcus vicorum, Steatococcus sp., and Thaimyrmococcus daviesi.

Dill, M. & Maschwitz, U. 2002. II. The migrating herdsmen symbioses of Southeast Asia: Overview and geographical distribution. (In English; Summary In German). 9-15 In: Dill, M., Williams, D.J. & Maschwitz, U. (Eds.), Herdsmen Ants and their Mealybug Partners, Band 557 Abhandlungen der Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, . 373 pp. [DillMa2002]
Notes: The migrating herdsmen lifestyle proved to be a common and widely distributed phenomenon in Southeast Asia. In addition to the first known herdsmen system, the association of Dolichoderus cuspidatus with several Malaicoccus species in Peninsular Malaysia, this report substantiates, or at least makes plausible, the herdsmen lifestyle of numerous Southeast Asian species. Mealybug species listed include Allomyrmococcus acariformis, Archeomyrmococcus dolichoderi, Bolbococcus oresbius, B. sabahanus, Borneococcus bauensis, B. calvescens, B. pastorius, Diacranococcus apiensis, D. storki, Doryphorococcus lentiginosus, Hippeococcus wegneri, H. rappardi, Malaicoccus cameronensis, M. clavulatus, M. eastopi, M. formicarii, M. khooi, M. kubahensis, M. maschwitazi, M. moundi, M. pilulosus, M. poringensis, M. riouwensis, M. sabahensis, M. sarawakensis, M. sumatranus, M. takhashii, M. tapahensis, M. tiomanensis, Paramyrmococcus chiegraiensis, Promyrmococcus dilli, P. wayi and Thaimyrmococcus daviesi.

Dill, M. & Maschwitz, U. 2002a. V. Biology of the migrating Herdsmen symbioses. (In English; Summary In German). 183-339 In: Dill, M., Williams, D.J. & Maschwitz, U. (Eds.), Herdsmen Ants and their Mealybug Partners, Band 557 Abhandlungen der Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, . 373 pp. [DillMa2002a]
Notes: This chapter discussed localities, colony size, colony structure, queen number, nesting behaviour, trail systems, activity patterns, trophobiotic partner species of herdsmen Dolichoderus, species-specificity of herdsmen mutualism and mutual interdependence of the herdsmen partners, food plants of the Allomyrmococcini, distribution of the trophobions within the Dolichoderus colony, behaviour of the trophobiotic partners at the trophobiotic partners at the trophobiosis sites, transport of the trophobiotic partners, colony relocation, non-trophobiotic nutrition of herdsmen Dolichoderus, nutrition of herdsmen, transport of trophobiosis partners, trophobiosis partners in the ants' nest, nesting mode and nest relocation behaviour and evolutionary aspects. Species discussed include Allomyrmococcus acariformis, Archeomyrmococcus dolichoderi, Bolbococcus sabahanus, B. oresbius, Borneococcus bauensis, B. calvescens, B. pastorius, Dicranococcus sabahensis, D. storki, Doryphorococcus lentiginosus, Hippeococcus montanus, H. rappardi, H. wegneri, Malaicoccus cameronensis, M. clavulatus, M. eastopi, M. formicarii, M. khooi, M. kubahensis, M. maschwitzi, M. moundi, M. pilulosus, M. poringensis, M. riouwensis, M. sarawakensis, M. sumatranus, M. tapahensis, M. tiomanensis, Paramyrmococcus chiengraiensis, P. vietnamensis, Promyrmococcus dilli, P. wayi and Thaimyrmococcus daviesi.

Dill, M. & Maschwitz, U. 2002b. VI. A paradox: herdsmen without herdsmen's partners - preliminary stage to herdsmen lifestyle or secondary loss of the specific partners. (In English; Summary In German). 341-354 In: Dill, M., Williams, D.J. & Maschwitz, U. (Eds.), Herdsmen Ants and their Mealybug Partners, Band 557 Abhandlungen der Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, . 373 pp. [DillMa2002b]
Notes: Topics discussed include discovery of colonies of herdsmen {Dolichoderus} without Allomyrmococcini partners, Taxonomic status of herdsmen {Dolichoderus} without Allomyrmococcini, Investigations of behaviour and lifestyle of herdsmen {Dolichoderus} without Allomyrmococcini, and experimental offering of Allomyrmococcini. Species mentioned include {{Allomyrmococcus acariformis, Bolbococcus oresbius, B. sabahanus, Malaicoccus formicarii, M. khooi, M. maschwitzi} and {Paramyrmococcus chiengraiensis}.

Dill, M., Williams, D.J. & Maschwitz, U. (Eds.) 2002. (In English; Summary In German). In: Herdsmen Ants and their Mealybug Partners, Band 557 Abhandlungen der Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, . 373 pp. [DillWiMa2002]
Notes: Herdsman symbiosis is a highly complex obligate and widely species-specific trophobiosis, consisting of various Dolichoderus ant species and many mealybug species, all belonging to the pseudococcid tribe Allomyrmococcini. The ants keep their Allomyrmococcini partners within their bivouac nests and transport them to freshly growing parts of various host plants. If the changing feeding sites are too far away from the nest the whole colony moves to a new nesting site nearby. Reproduction of the colonies is performed by fission. The symbiosis complex is found in Sundaland in tropical Asia reaching from Sumatra, Borneo and Malay Peninsula to Java and then northern Thailand; according to museum specimens extending north possibly to Sikkim, east to Vietnam and west to the Mentawai Islands. The centre of diversity is Borneo. In a few mountainous regions of the Malay Peninsula and northern Thailand, some subpopulations of two herdsmen ant species secondarily have lost their Allomyrmococcini partners. 36 species of mealybugs are included of which 25 are described as new. Through the highly integrated and well synchronized biology of both partners, the extremely high degree of mealybug polyphagy correlated with high mobility, transport behaviour and effective recruitment abilities of the ants, herdsmen symbiosis appears to be an extremely efficient strategy for exploitation of its moist rain forest habitat. Herdsmen are optimally adapted to use the extremely high plant diversity with its great special heterogeneity and its complex time growth dynamics as a nutritional resource: the honeydew excreted by the mealybugs feeding on freshly growing plant parts, especially rich in essential nutrients. Taxonomic and ethological results are discussed concerning co-evolution and co-cladogenesis of both partner groups and possible scenarios of herdsmen evolution are suggested.

Ding, X.Y. 2003. The occurrence regularity of plum mulberry scale and its control. China Fruits 4: 9-11. [Ding2003]
Notes: During 1998-2000 observations were carried out in a plum orchard in China. Results showed that the mulberry white scale (Pseudaulacaspsis pentagona) [Pseudaulacaspis pentagona] has 4 generations a year in Gutian area. The adult females hibernate on the branches and start egg-laying when the mean daily temperature reaches 17 deg C. The peak periods of the young scales are in mid-April, early to mid-July, early-mid September and mid-late October. Spraying a 1000 times solution of 40% omethoate or a 1000 times solution of 40% Supracide [methidathion] in the vegetative period achieved good control. Spraying Bordeaux mixture + 0.3% sodium pentachlorophenate in the dormant period after pruning is also effective.

Ding, X.Y. 2003a. Biology and control of Pseudaulacaspis pentagona on oil nane. Entomological Knowledge 40(3): 264-265. [Ding2003a]
Notes: White peach scale, P. pentagona, is one of the major insect pests of oil nane tree [Prunus salicina]. It has four generations per year and overwinters as impregnated adult female on the branches of oil nane under the conditions of Gutian country, Fujian province, China. The female begins to lay eggs when the mean temperature is 17 deg C. The peak of the larval population for each generation occurs separately at the early and middle parts of April, July and September, and the last part of October. Generations begin to overlap starting at the second generation. The population of the first generation is higher than that of others. The control of P. pentagona by various methods, including winter clipping, pesticide application and natural enemy release, is presented.

Domenech Carbo, A., Domenech Carbo, M.T., Suari Peris, M.C., Gimeno Adelantado, J.V. & Bosch Reig, F. 2003. Electrochemical identification of anthraquinone-based dyes in solid microsamples by square wave voltammetry using graphite/polyester composite electrodes. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 375(8): 1169-1175. [DomeneDoSu2003]
Notes: [Conference title: European Conference on Analytical Chemistry (Euroanalysis 12) held in Dortmund, Germany, Sep 08-13, 2002.] An electrochemical method for identifying anthraquinone-type dyes in microsamples from works of art, based in the voltammetry of microparticles approach, is reported. Upon attachment onto graphite/polyester composite electrodes, natural pigments aloe, henna, cochineal red, madder lake, kermes, shellac, and alizarin and purpurin taken as reference materials can be identified from their square wave voltammetric profiles in MeCN (0.10 mol L-1 Bu4NPF6) and aqueous (0.25 mol L-1 acetic acid+0.25 mol L-1 sodium acetate) electrolytes. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available for this article if you access the article at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00216-002-1742-8. A link in the frame on the left on that page takes you directly to the supplementary material.

Domínguez, J., Pina, T. & Verdú, M.J. 2003. Effects of the mineral oil Sunspray UltrafineR on California red scale parasitoids Aphytis chrysomphali, A. lingnanensis, Comperiella bifasciata and Encarsia perniciosi. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): 117. [DomingPiVe2003]
Notes: ['Integrated control in citrus fruit crops'. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002. Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.) Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP)] California red scale, Aonidiella aurantii, is a major pest of citrus worldwide. Parasitoids, such as the native species Aphytis chrysomphali, play a fundamental role in the control of the pest. Aphytis lingnanensis, C. bifasciata and E. perniciosi have been recently introduced to implement the biological control of red scale. Laboratory experiments were carried out on the larvae and pupae of the natural enemies to determine the effects of mineral oils used against citrus pests. Oil was applied to parasitoid populations at the recommended dosage (1.5%). The mortality of larvae and pupae were recorded. The mortality of the larvae and pupae of the ectoparasitoids Aphytis chrysomphali and Aphytis lingnanensis was 98%. The mortality of pupae of the endoparasitoids C. bifasciata and E. perniciosi was 85%. The lack of persistence and the absence of resistance mechanisms on target arthropods, make the use of mineral oils safer to the natural enemies than the conventional insecticides.

Domínguez, J., Vidal, E., Zarzo, M., Pina, T. & Verdú, M.J. 2003. Efficacy of the mineral oils Sunspray UltrafineR and Ivenol-GR on California red scale Aonidiella aurantii. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): 119. [DomingViZa2003]
Notes: [Integrated control in citrus fruit crops. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002. Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.) Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP).] Mineral oils are considered, mainly, contact insecticides. They penetrate a short distance into the main tracheal trunks and kill the insect by interference with respiration. They have been recommended against scale insects for years, with their use limited only by the risk of phytotoxicity. Sunspray Ultrafine is a paraffinic mineral oil (85% p/v), while Ivenol-GR is a white oil (72% p/v). Spray applications were conducted with Potter equipment at different volumes, 1.5% oil concentration and 0.5 bar air pressure. California red scale is a citrus pest of great economic importance, and resistance to organophosphate insecticides has been documented. Oil treatments are recommended when a biological control programme is established in the area. Oils were applied to lemons in València, Spain, infested with the following red scale stages: pupa-prepupa, moult II, young female and gravid female. Efficacy was positively correlated with the volume increase and negatively correlated with the red scale size. Sunspray Ultrafine was more effective in all aspects than Ivenol-GR.

Dorn, B., Mattiacci, L., Bellotti, A.C. & Dorn, S. 2003. Effects of a mixed species infestation on the cassava mealybug and its encyrtid parasitoids. Biological Control 27(1): 1-10. [DornMaBe2003]
Notes: The two encyrtid endo-parasitoids, Aenasius vexans Kerrich and Acerophagus coccois Smith, are biological control agents of the cassava mealybug, Phenacoccus herreni Cox and Willliams, in Latin America. Parasitoids used as biological control agents are released in agro-ecosystems in which plants are typically attacked by various herbivore species. We studied the effects of a mixed species infestation by cassava mealybug and cassava green mite, Mononychellus tanajoa Bondar, or whitefly, Aleurotrachelus socialis Bondar, on the mealybug pest and its encyrtid parasitoids. Development, distribution and reproduction of the cassava mealybug as well as the post-alighting behavior and reproduction of the two parasitoid species were analyzed in a mixed species infestation as compared to an infestation by cassava mealybug only. Results show that developmental time of cassava mealybug females was altered when an additional herbivore species was feeding on the same plant. The duration of the third larval instar was significantly shorter when cassava green mite was present. In contrast, the duration of this instar was longer when whitefly was present. Reproduction of cassava mealybug was not affected, nor was the ratio of its distribution on the adaxial and the abaxial surface of the cassava leaf. Our findings on altered developmental time of phloem feeding cassava mealybug in mixed species infestations suggest that the desiccation of leaves caused by the cell sap feeding cassava green mite accelerated mealybug development. In contrast, the interaction with the similarly phloem feeding whitefly retarded it. The post-alighting behavior of the specialist parasitoid A. vexans differed between the two mixed species infestations as compared to the infestation with the cassava mealybug only. The preference of females for the adaxial leaf surface observed in the infestation with cassava mealybug only was not found in either of the mixed species infestations. In contrast, the post-alighting behavior of the generalist parasitoid A. coccois was similar in the mixed species infestations as in the infestation by cassava mealybug only. These results indicate a more robust behavior of the generalist, but the altered behavior of the specialist remained without consequences on parasitism rate under the conditions of this study.

Dorn, B., Mattiacci, L., Bellotti, A.C. & Dorn, S. 2003a. Host specificity and daytime activity of parasitoids of the Latin American cassava mealybug, Phenacoccus herreni (Sternorrhyncha: Pseudococcidae). (In German; Summary In English). Mitteilungen der Schweizerischen Entomologischen Gesellschaft 76(3/4): 293-300. [DornMaBe2003a]
Notes: The two encyrtid endoparasitoids, Aenasius vexans and Acerophagus coccois are important natural antagonists of the cassava mealybug, Phenacoccus herreni in Latin America. The cassava mealybug is a major Latin American pest of cassava (Manihot esculenta). Host specificity of the two parasitoids was determined in seven mealybug species. Results demonstrated that in the cassava agroecosystem, A. vexans is a specialist for P. herreni, while A. coccois is a generalist on the first and second trophic level. Daytime activity of the two parasitoid species was studied to estimate a release time for the biological control agents. During daytime, the two species differed in both their activity and their activity pattern. Both species increased their walking activity over the observed time period compared to standing. The host handling activity decreased for A. coccois over the course of the experiment, while it remained similar for A. vexans. In general, A. vexans was less active than A. coccois. For efficient field application, we suggest releasing A. vexans and A. coccois late in the morning during its period of increased activity.

Downie, D.A. & Gullan, P.J. 2004. Phylogenetic analysis of mealybugs (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae) based on DNA sequences from three nuclear genes, and a review of the higher classification. Systematic Entomology 29(2): 238-259. [DownieGu2004]
Notes: Mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) are small, plant-sucking insects which comprise the second largest family of scale insects (Coccoidea). Relationships among many pseudococcid genera are poorly known and there is no stable higher level classification. Here we review previous hypotheses on relationships and classification and present the first comprehensive phylogenetic study of the Pseudococcidae based on analysis of nucleotide sequence data. We used three nuclear genes, comprising two noncontiguous fragments of elongation factor 1 (EF-1 5' and EF-1 3'), fragments of the D2 and D10 expansion regions of the large subunit ribosomal DNA gene (28S), and a region of the small subunit ribosomal DNA gene (18S). We sampled sixty-four species of mealybug belonging to thirty-five genera and representing each of the five subfamilies which had been recognized previously, and included four species of Puto (Putoidae) and one species each of Aclerda (Aclerdidae) and Icerya (Margarodidae), using Icerya as the most distant outgroup. A combined analysis of all data found three major clades of mealybugs which we equate to the subfamilies Pseudococcinae, Phenacoccinae and Rhizoecinae. Within Pseudococcinae, we recognize the tribes Pseudococcini (for Pseudococcus, Dysmicoccus, Trionymus and a few smaller genera), Planococcini (for Planococcus and possibly Planococcoides) and Trabutinini (represented by a diverse range of genera, including Amonostherium, Antonina, Balanococcus, Nipaecoccus and non-African Paracoccus), as well as the Ferrisia group (for Ferrisia and Anisococcus), some ungrouped African taxa (Grewiacoccus, Paracoccus, Paraputo and Vryburgia), Chaetococcus bambusae and Maconellicoccus. The 'legless' mealybugs Antonina and Chaetococcus were not closely related and thus we confirmed that the Sphaerococcinae as presently constituted is polyphyletic. In our analyses, the subfamily Phenacoccinae was represented by just Phenacoccus and Heliococcus. The hypogeic mealybugs of the Rhizoecinae usually formed a monophyletic group sister to all other taxa. Our molecular data also suggest that the genera Pseudococcus, Dysmicoccus, Nipaecoccus and Paracoccus are not monophyletic (probably polyphyletic) and that Phenacoccus may be paraphyletic, but further sampling of species and genes is required. We compare our phylogenetic results with published information on the intracellular endosymbionts of mealybugs and hypothesize that the subfamily Pseudococcinae may be characterized by the possession of -Proteobacteria (primary endosymbionts) capable of intracellular symbiosis with -Proteobacteria (secondary endosymbionts). Furthermore, our data suggest that the identities of the secondary endosymbionts may be useful in inferring mealybug relationships. Finally, cloning polymerase chain reaction products showed that paralogous copies of EF-1 were present in at least three taxa. Unlike the situation in Apis and Drosophila, the paralogues could not be distinguished by either the presence/absence or position of an intron.

Dula, B., Voigt, E., Szendrey, L. & Makó, S. 2004. [Protection of grapes II.] A szolo védelme II. (In Hungarian). Növényvédelem 40(5): 251-263. [DulaVoSz2004]
Notes: Species from the Coccidae and Pseudococcidae families are discussed, including Parthenolecanium, and Phenacoccus spp.

Dungan, R.J. & Kelly, D. 2003. Effect of host-tree and environmental variables on honeydew production by scale insects (Ultracoelostoma sp.) in a high elevation Nothofagus solandri forest. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 27(2): 169-177. [DunganKe2003]
Notes: Honeydew excreted by phloem-sap sucking scale insects (Ultracoelostoma sp.) living in the bark of beech (Nothofagus solandri) trees growing at a high elevation (900 m) site in the Craigieburn range of Canterbury, New Zealand, was measured over four days during 1-10 May 1996. Average standing crop of honeydew sugar was 3.1 mg m(-2), and ranged from 0.4 to 5.5 mg m(-2). Daily production of honeydew sugar ranged from 0.2 to 1.5 mg insect(-1) 24 h(-1), and 4.1 to 45.9 mg m(-2) 24 h(-1). Honeydew production varied significantly between trees, and trees with the highest mean individual rates of production (mg sugar insect(-1) 24 h(-1)) tended to be those with the highest numbers of insects per unit bark area. Air temperature averaged over the 24 hours preceding each production sample explained 65% of the variability in 3-hourly honeydew production, showing that honeydew production is controlled by environmental and host-tree variables. Using this data, together with previously published estimates of carbon uptake and seasonal variability in honeydew standing crop, it was estimated that carbon contained in honeydew is equivalent to 1.8% of net primary production of beech trees at Craigieburn. Determining the effects of environmental variables on tree and insect physiology will allow formulation of an environmentally-driven process-based model of honeydew production.

Dunkelblum, E., Zada, A., Gross, S., Fraistat, P. & Mendel, Z. 2002. Sex pheromone and analogs of the citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri: synthesis and biological activity. IOBC/WPRS Bulletin 25(9): 213-220. [DunkelZaGr2002]
Notes: [IOBC/WPRS Working Group 'Use of Pheromones and Other Semiochemicals in Integrated Control'. Pheromones and other biological techniques for insect control in orchards and vineyards. Proceedings of the working group meeting, Samos, Greece, September 25-29, 2000. Publishers: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP)] The citrus mealybug, is a cosmopolitan pest and affects many crops. The female sex pheromone has been identified by Bierl-Leonhardt et al., in 1981 as (+)-1R)-cis-2,2-dimethyl-3-isopropenylcyclobutanemethanol acetate 1. Several groups including this team, have synthesized the pheromone. A number of analogs have also been prepared in order to study the structure-activity relationship. This report includes a modified synthetic route for the pheromone, preparation of some analogs and the biological activity of these compounds.

Dwivedi, S.C., Singh, S.M.K. & Katiyar, R.R. 2003. Seasonal incidence of insect-pests associated with mango crop. Annals of Plant Protection Sciences 11(1): 159-160. [DwivedSiKa2003]
Notes: Investigations were carried out during 1997-98 at Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India to monitor the seasonal incidence of insect pests of 20-year-old mango trees in relation to mean temperature and humidity. The population of mealy bug (Drosicha mangiferae) was highest (84.6) at the base of the tree trunk in February and lowest (0.58) in December. Leaf hopper (Amritodus atkinsoni) appeared in March and reached its peak (87.9/10 leaves) in June. The incidence of (Inderbella quadrinatala) ranged from 1.2 (July) to 8.6 ribbons/plant (January). Gall formation by Apsylla cistellata started in July and gradually increased during August, September and October. Fruit fly (Dacus dorsalis [Bactrocera dorsalis]) was first observed in April with 3% infestation, gradually increased in May (8.2%) and June (9.8%) and slightly declined in July (8.3%). The maggots fed on fruit pulp, resulting in premature fruit falling.

Dzhuvinov, V. & Kutinkova, H. 2003. Integrated plant protection of apple in Bulgaria. (In English; Summary In Lithuanian). Sodininkyste ir Darzininkyste 22(1): 55-61. [DzhuviKu2003]
Notes: Trials were conducted in Bulgaria during 1998-2001 in high-density plantations of 24 apple cultivars and Golden Delicious (control) to study their response to scab [Venturia inaequalis] attack and powdery mildew [Podosphaera leucotricha] and to monitor codling moth and leaf miner occurrence. The pests in the region included Laspeyresia pomonella [Cydia pomonella], Leucoptera scitella [Leucoptera malifoliella], Lithocolletis blancardella [Phyllonorycter blancardella], Lithocolletis corylifoliella [Phyllonorycter corylifoliella], Pandemis heparana, Archips rosanus, Adoxophyes reticulana [Adoxophyes orana], Hoplocampa testudinea, Anthonomus pomorum, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus [Diaspidiotus perniciosus] and Panonychus ulmi. Among the natural enemies of the fruit tree red spider mite (Panonychus ulmi) appearing in the orchards in the region, the most important was the predatory mite Amblyseius andersoni. Chitin synthesis inhibitors (diflubenzuron, teflubenzuron, chlorpyrifos-methyl, bensultap, pirimicarb, phosalone and paraffin oil) were used to control these pests. Mostly fungicides of the DMI group (difenoconazole, hexaconazole, kresoxim-methyl, separately or in combination with zineb) were used. Integrated plant protection of apples is based on: using cultivars practically resistant to scab and powdery mildew; using lightly toxic pesticides, but ones having a longer post-effect during the first months of the vegetation period to protect the beneficial fauna; using pheromone traps for monitoring important pests; using the pesticide of "green" and "yellow" list. Using the integrated plant protection of apple will bring the control to a modern level in terms of obtaining ecological products and achieving environment preservation in accordance with the requirements of the European standards for integrated fruit production.

Dziedzicka, A. & Karnkowski, W. 2002. [How should specimens of Diaspididae (Homoptera) be prepared for identification?] W jaki sposób prawidlowo wykonac preparaty tarczników (Homoptera: Diaspididae) do oznaczania?). (In Polish). Ochrona Roslin 46(10): 20-22. [DziedzKa2002]
Notes: Of the many insect pests imported incidentally with fruit and plant material from warmer countries, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus [Diaspidiotus perniciosus] is subject to compulsory notification in Poland. A number of other imports includes Selenaspidus articulatus on oranges from Cuba and Pseudaulacaspis pentagona on kiwi fruit from Greece and jasmine plants from Egypt. Properly prepared specimens of the pests aid their accurate identification; collection of the individual life-stages, their treatment and slide preparation is described in detail.

Dziedzicka, A. & Karnkowski, W. 2003. Occurrence of the bamboo scale Kuwanaspis pseudoleucaspis (Kuwana) (Homoptera, Coccoidea, Diaspididae) on bamboo plants imported into Poland. Ochrona Roslin 47(7/8): 5-7. [DziedzKa2003]
Notes: In July 2002, K. pseudoleucaspis was detected in bamboo plants imported into Poland from Italy. Its development stages are described. Its natural enemies include Encyrtidae, Chilocorus kuwanae and Telsimia sp.

Dziedzicka, A. & Karnkowski, W. 2003a. [How to identify scale insect specimens (Homoptera: Diaspididae)?] Foreign Title: W jaki sposób oznaczac tarczniki (Homoptera: Diaspididae)? (In Hungarian; Summary In English). Ochrona Roslin 47(1): 15-16. [DziedzKa2003a]
Notes: A detailed description of the male and female diaspidid scale is given and both sexes are illustrated. Instructions are given for the preparation and identification of scale insect specimens, i.e. coding of the number of lobes and segments, colour of eggs and larvae, preferred host plants and parts of plants most frequently attacked.

Eastwood, R. 2004. Successive replacement of tending ant species at aggregations of scale insects (Hemiptera: Margarodidae and Eriococcidae) on Eucalyptus in south-east Queensland. Australian Journal of Entomology 43(1): 1-4. [Eastwo2004]
Notes: Scale insects generally display enhanced survival rates in the presence of tending ants, but studies of ant and scale-insect interactions typically examine a single tending ant species. This study investigated the successive changes in tending ant species during the lifespan of two species of scale aggregations, a monophlebine margarodid and an Eriococcus sp. (Eriococcidae) on the Plunkett mallee, Eucalyptus curtisii. Scale aggregations also subject to an ant-exclusion experiment to quantify the degree to which ants increased the survival rates of both scale insect species. Tending ants assorted to two categories, dominant and secondary, with a significant bias according to the chronological age of the scale aggregation. Secondary ant species (opportunists and subordinates) tended juvenile-scale aggregations. These were replaced by a dominant species of Iridomyrmex (Dolichoderinae), which almost exclusively tended larger (mature) aggregations until the senescent stages of the infestation when secondary ant species returned. Exclusion of the primary tending Iridomyrmex ant increased mortality of both species of scale insects by 96% relative to controls.

Eizaguirre, M., Arenas, N., Lumbierres, B. & Pons, X. 2002. [Pests of Palaeococcus fuscipennis Burm (Homoptera: Margarodidae) in pines and cypresses in the parks of Lleida.] Daños de Palaeococcus fuscipennis Burm (Homoptera: Margarodidae) en pinos y cipreses de los parques de Lleida. (In Spanish; Summary In English). Boletín de Sanidad Vegetal, Plagas 28(2): 199-205. [EizaguArLu2002]
Notes: During the first 2 weeks of April 2001, a severe outbreak of {Palaeococcus fuscipennis} was detected on { {Pinus pinea} and {Pinus halepensis} in public (urban) parks in Lleida, Spain. At that time, some specimens of {Cupressus sempervirens} were also attacked by the pest. Results are presented of studies on the evolution of the margarodid in treated and untreated trees during the season, the differences between the infestation of {P. pinea} and {P. halepensis}, and the presence of natural enemies (predators).

Eke, I. 2002. Current status and history of biological control in Hungary. ix-xiii In: Melika, G. & Thuróczy, C. (Eds.), Parasitic Wasps: Evolution, Systematics, Biodiversity and Biological Control. Agroinform, Budapest. xx + 480 pp. [Eke2002]
Notes: The biological control of mulberry scale (Pseudaulacaspis pentagona) was discussed. Quadraspidiotus perniciosus was mentioned as host for Encarsia perniciosi in experimental trials in 1964.

El-Hakim, A.M., Hanna, S.K. & Mosallam, A.M.Z. 2003. Ecological studies on some important insect pests of olive trees in El-Fayoum Governorate, Egypt. (In English; Summary In Arabic). Egyptian Journal of Agricultural Research 81(2): 563-571. [ElHakiHaMo2003]
Notes: The inter-relationships between the population density of both Leucaspis riccae and Palpita unionalis on olive trees in El-Fayoum Governorate, Egypt, and three climatic factors (temperature, relative humidity and sunshine hours) were studied in 1999 and 2000. The population of L. riccae had four peaks and was insignificantly correlated with the three climatic factors during both years of investigation. However, the relative humidity significantly affected the population fluctuations of P. unionalis larvae which recorded two and three peaks during 1999 and 2000, respectively. The highest mean numbers of larvae were recorded during spring months, while the lowest ones were recorded during summer months throughout the two years.

El Kaoutaria, I., Guirroub, Z., Chemseddinea, M. & Boumezzougha, A. 2004. [The role of Aphytis melinus (DeBach) in biological control of Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) in Moroccan citrus orchards.] Rôle d'Aphytis melinus (DeBach) dans le contrôle naturel d'Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) en verger d'agrumes au Maroc. (In French; Summary In English). Fruits 59: 169-179. [ElKaouGuCh2004]
Notes: In Morocco, the parasitoid A. melinus is the most effective agent of biological control against the propagation of A. aurantii or California red scale, a very harmful insect to Moroccan citrus-fruit cultivation. Now, this hymenopteran is naturally present in the Tadla area, an important region for citrus cultivation in the centre of Morocco (325 295 ha). Thus, the integrated protection of citrus fruits against A. aurantii could constitute a possibility of a promising control compared with methodical chemical control. Our study was a precondition to the implementation of an integrated control strategy in citrus orchards in the Tadla area by the monitoring of A. aurantii and its principal parasite, A. melinus. Our experiments were carried out during the years 2000 and 2001 in an untreated orchard, made up of a mixture of citrus fruit varieties. The evolution of the A. aurantii population dynamic and of A. melinus was followed, and the abundance periods of the pest receptive stages coinciding with the activity periods of its parasitoid were located. In the Tadla area, the California red scale presented four generations per annum, a spring generation (April-May), a summer generation (June-July) and two autumnal generations (October and November-December). Pest stages that could be parasitised by A. melinus were observed throughout the year. Two periods (spring and autumnal) particularly suitable for the parasitoid female spawning were observed. A. melinus populations appeared to be significant from the very start of the autumn and until the end of the following spring. The release of A. melinus carried out during the autumn, winter and spring could thus be effective.

Elliott, H.J., Bashford, R., Jarman, S.J. & Neyland, M.G. 2002. Foliage insect diversity in dry eucalypt forests in eastern Tasmania. Papers and Proceedings, Royal Society of Tasmania 136: 17-34. [ElliotBaJa2002]
Notes: Species numbers and composition of the insect fauna occurring on trees and shrubs were studied in dry eucalypt forests in eastern Tasmania over nine years. In all, 1164 named and putative species representing 17 orders and 157 families were collected. The bulk of the species belonged to the orders Coleoptera (28%), Hymenoptera (25%), Hemiptera (18%), Lepidoptera (14%) and Diptera (10%). Of the species collected, 388 - about one-third - were identified at least to genus or species level. These included 21 named species not previously listed in the Tasmanian insect fauna and 90 undescribed species. A list of 22 host plants for 171 insect species was compiled from records of 132 insect species observed feeding during the study and from previous records of insect/host plant associations for 39 insect species found on the study plots. Most insects were feeding on eucalypts (127 insect species) and acacias (38 species). The most widely distributed and commonly collected species includes Eriococcus coriaceous (Hemiptera: Eriococcidae).

Empresa de Assistência Técnica e Extensão Rural do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul 2003. (In Portuguese). [Recommendations for management of fungal diseases and insect pests of grapes.] EMATER/RS, Porto Alegre, Brazil. 67 pp. [EmpresAsTe2003]
Notes: [Original title: Recomendações para o manejo das doenças fúngicas e insetos pragas da videira.] Methods of control of fungal diseases on grapes are listed, including evasion, exclusion, eradication, regulation, resistant varieties, and protection and therapy using fungicides. Notes are given on the use of phosphorus fertilizers for the control of mildew, winter treatments and the use of copper. The main arthropod pests of grapes in Brazil are the margarodid Eurhizococcus brasiliensis, the phylloxerid Daktulosphaira vitifoliae [Viteus vitifoliae], the coccids Parthenolecanium persicae, the margarodid Icerya schrottkyi, diaspidids, Aethalion reticulatum, the tarsonemid Polyphagotarsonemus latus, Tetranychus urticae, chrysomelids, the tephritid Anastrepha fraterculus, wasps and bees, and Formicidae. Brief notes are given on the control of each of these taxa.

European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. 2004. Unaspis citri. Bulletin OEPP 34(2): 299-301. [EMPPO2004]
Notes: Unaspis citri is a serious pest widely distributed on citrus throughout the main citrus-growing areas of the world. It is often detected on consignments of citrus fruits in international trade. It has been reported to attack plants of 12 different genera belonging to 9 families, but it seems to prefer Rutaceae. Other hosts include: Annona muricata, Musa paradisiaca, Cocos nucifera, Psidium guajava, Ananas comosus, Artocarpus heterophyllus and Tillandsia usneoides. The origin of U. citri is in South-East Asia and it is now present in Australia, North, Central and South America, Pacific Islands, Egypt, Syria and China. Topics covered include synonymy, taxonomic position, detection, identification, and comparisons to similar species.

European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization. 2004c. Citrus. Bulletin OEPP 34(1): 43-56. [EMPPO2004c]
Notes: The principal citrus pests considered include armoured scales. Due to their great reproductive capacity, survival ability, and the difficulty of insecticide control, armoured scale insects (Diaspididae) are highly destructive pests of citrus. Apart from the newly hatched larvae and the adults which are mobile, all other stages are sessile, feeding on shoots, leaves or fruits. Sap sucking results in direct damage in the form of defoliation. Indirect damage includes depreciation of fruits, due to reduced size, green spots on the mature fruit at places where the scales were fixed, remains of scales. Aonidiella aurantii, Aspidiotus nerii and Lepidosaphes beckii are discussed in some detail. Among soft scales (Coccidae), the black scale Saissetia oleae is the most damaging, while the citrus brown soft scale Coccus hesperidum only causes occasional problems. Direct damage is caused by feeding which restricts the flow of assimilates to the fruits. The scales also secrete honeydew, on which sooty mould develops, reducing the vigour of the tree, causing defoliation, and suppressing flowering and fruiting on affected trees. S. oleae overwinters as larvae. Under Mediterranean conditions, there are two generations per year but this varies with climatic conditions. Other species discussed are Pseudococcus citri, Icerya purchasi and Unaspis yanonensis.

Fallahzadeh, M., Hesami, S. & Moghaddam, M. 2002. The first record of Coccophagus pseudococci (Hym.: Aphelinidae) parasitoid of mealybugs (Hom.: Pseudococcidae) in Iran. (In English; Summary In Persian). Journal of Entomological Society of Iran 22(1): Pe81-Pe82. [FallahHeMo2002]
Notes: During a natural enemies study of Nipaecoccus viridis on citrus and Maconellicoccus hirsutus on mulberry in Jahrom, Fars province, Iran throughout 2001-02, several parasitoids were collected and further identified. Coccophagus pseudococci was reported for the first time in Iran.

Farias, A.R.N. 2002. [Pests of cassava.] Pragas da mandioca. (In Portuguese). 169-189 In: Otsubo, A.A., Mercante, F.M. & Souza Martins, C. de (Eds.), Aspectos do cultivo da mandioca em Mato Grosso do Sul, I e II seminários sobre a cultura da mandioca em Mato Grosso do Sul. Embrapa Agropecuária Oeste, Dourados, Brazil. [Farias2002]
Notes: The main arthropod pests of cassava in Brazil are Erinnyis ello, Mononychellus tanajoa, Tetranychus urticae, Vatiga illudens, Aleyrodidae and Pseudococcidae. These taxa are listed, with notes on control methods.

Fassotte, C. 2003. [The oystershell scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi L.) reappears in integrated fruit cultivation.] De kommaschildluis (Lepidosaphes ulmi L.) duikt opnieuw op in de geïntegreerde fruitteelt.) (In Dutch). Fruitteelt Nieuws 16(10): 24-29. [Fassot2003]
Notes: The life cycle, natural enemies, control methods, and monitoring of insect populations in pome fruit orchards in Belgium are described.

Fassotte, C. 2003a. [Oystershell scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi L.), a resurgent pest in integrated fruit crops.] La cochenille virgule (Lepidosaphes ulmi L.), un ravageur résurgent en culture fruitière intégrée. (In French). Fruit Belge 71(502): 60-67. [Fassot2003a]
Notes: Notes are given on the systematics, importance, damage and biology of Lepidosaphes ulmi. Natural enemies are discussed, as well as cultural, biological, and chemical control methods.

Feng, J.N., Wang, P.M., Li, L.M. & Chou, I. 2004. [Two new species of the Family Diaspididae (Homoptera: Diaspidoidea) from China. (In Chinese; Summary In English). Entomotaxonomia 26(1): 19-22. [FengWaLi2004]
Notes: Two new species of the Family Diaspididae from China are described, i.e. Pinnaspis pseudotuberculatus sp. nov. from Abutilon theophrasti and Duplachionaspis yunnanensis sp. nov. from Ficus carica. All of the type specimens are deposited in the Entomological Museum of the Northwest Sci-Tech University of Agriculture and Forestry.

Ferreira, C.A., Ferreira, R.L.C., Santos, D.C. dos, Santos, M.V.F. dos, Silva, J.A.A. da, Lira, M. de A. & Molica, S.G. 2003. [Use of multivariate techniques in genetic divergence evaluation among cactus forage (Opuntia ficus-indica Mill.) clones.] (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Revista Brasileira de Zoologia 32(6): 1560-1568. [FerreiFeSa2003]
Notes: [Original title: Foreign Title: Utilização de técnicas multivariadas na avaliação da divergência genética entre clones de palma forrageira (Opuntia ficus-indica Mill.] The phenetic divergence among 19 clones of cactus forage was evaluated in Caruaru, Pernambuco, Brazil using multivariate techniques. The infestation percentage by cochineal was considered a characteristic of susceptible plants.

Ferrero, D.M. & Pellizzari, G. 2002. Contribution to the knowledge of the scale insects (Hemiptera Coccoidea) from the Aosta Valley (Italy). Bollettino di Zoologia Agraria e di Bachicoltura (Milano) 34(3): 347-360. [FerrerPe2002]
Notes: The paper presents the results of a survey on the scale insect fauna carried out over different years in the Alpine Aosta Valley (Italy). A total of 54 species have been collected in this Italian region. Of these, 7 are new for the Italian fauna: Neomargarodes festucae, Chaetococcus sulci, Peliococcus marrubii, Rhodania porifera, Eriococcus placidus [Acanthococcus placida], Rhizopulvinaria saxatilis and R. spinifera. Two other species previously recorded from the Aosta Valley, Rhizoecus caesii and Mirococcopsis nagyi, proved their pertinence, respectively, to Rhizoecus pratensis and Volvicoccus volvifer. The opportunity is taken to synonymize Antoninella inaudita syn. nov. with Antoninella parkeri comb. nov. The peculiar climate of the Aosta Valley allows the establishment of several thermophilous or xerophilous species, some of which are considered rare species, such as Neomargarodes festucae, Antoninella parkeri, Chaetococcus sulci, Rhizoecus albidus, Rhodania porifera, Peliococcus marrubii, Volvicoccus volvifer, Cerococcus cycliger, Rhizopulvinaria artemisiae, Rhizopulvinaria spinifera and Quadraspidiotus labiatarum [Diaspidiotus labiatarum].

Fiedler, Z. 2003. [Trials of integrated pest control in the protection of ornamentals in Poznan Palm House.] (In Polish). Ochrona Roslin 47(6): 12-13. [Fiedle2003]
Notes: Principles of integrated pest control are briefly stated and the experience of the system, gained in the Poznan Palm House, is described. During regular inspections of the House, conducted in 2001, the following pests were found most frequently: Trialeurodes vaporariorum, Frankliniella occidentalis, Bradysia paupera, Coccus hesperidium [Coccus hesperidum], Tetranychus urticae, T. cinnabarinus, Rhodobrum porosum, Microlophium evansi [Microlophium carnosum]. Of those, Trialeurodes vaporariorum caused most damage and Macrolophus caliginosus and Verticillium lecanii were introduced as biological control agents. The two agents are described together with their effect on the pest, and pest counts before and after the introduction of the control are presented in tables.

Field, L.M., Lyko, F., Mandrioli, M. & Prantera, G. 2004. DNA methylation in insects. Insect Molecular Biology 13(2): 109-115. [FieldLyMa2004]
Notes: Cytosine DNA methylation has been demonstrated in numerous eukaryotic organisms and has been shown to play an important role in human disease. The function of DNA methylation has been studied extensively in vertebrates, but establishing its primary role has proved difficult and controversial. Analysing methylation in insects has indicated an apparent functional diversity that seems to argue against a strict functional conservation. To investigate this hypothesis, we here assess the data reported in four different insect species in which DNA methylation has been analysed more thoroughly: the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, the cabbage moth Mamestra brassicae, the peach-potato aphid Myzus persicae and the mealybug Planococcus citri.

Flanagan, P.T. 2003. Efficacy of a systemic insecticide in reducing populations of black pineleaf scale (Nuculaspis californica). Journal of Arboriculture 29(5): 303-305. [Flanag2003]
Notes: In 2001, 66 ponderosa pines (Pinus ponderosa) infested with black pineleaf scale (Nuculaspis californica) near Leavenworth, Washington, U.S., were selected for an insecticide trial. Twenty-two pines were injected with a systemic insecticide in October 2001; in March 2002, an additional 22 pines were similarly injected. The remaining 22 pines served as a control. Branches were collected in October 2002, and scale density per meter of foliage was compared among the fall treatment, spring treatment, and control trees. Both spring and fall treatments significantly reduced scale densities on 2002 and 2001 foliage. The spring treatment was more effective than the fall treatment.

Flores Flores, V. 2002a. [Physical/chemical characterization of zones producing the cochineal Dactylopius coccus Costa in departments of the Andean Trapecio Huancavelica, Ayacucho and Apurimac, Peru.] (In Spanish). 37-45 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 p. [Flores2002a]
Notes: [Original title of paper: Caracterización físico-químico de zonas productoras de cochinilla Dactylopius coccus Costa en departamentos del trapecio Andino: Huancavelica, Ayacucho y Apurimac, Perú; Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.]

Flores Flores, V.I. 2002. Physical-chemical characterization of cochineal Dactylopius coccus Costa producer areas in the Andean Trapeze Bar Departments: Huancavelica, Ayacucho and Apurimac, Peru. CACTUSNET NEWSLETTER (FAO International Technical Cooperation on Cactus) No. 7: 16-20. [Flores2002]
Notes: The most favorable soils for the establishment of cactus pear plantations are those of loamy and clayish-oozy texture, with pH neutral to lightly neutral and a capacity of cationic exchange half to high. These soils should contain high to very high calcium to form an important part of the chemical constitution of cladodes. The production areas with the highest percentage values of EX and FR cochineal are located in the highest altitudes.

Foldi, I. 2003. [The scale insects of Corsica (Hemiptera, Coccoidea).] Les cochenilles de Corse (Hemiptera, Coccoidea). (In French; Summary In English). Bulletin de la Societe Entomologique de France 108(2): 147-156. [Foldi2003]
Notes: The species diversity and composition of scale insect populations, covering all ecosystems from littoral to high mountains, is analysed. The total number of species currently known is 99, including 11 endemic species and 17 new records for Corsica. Each species record is accompanied by biological and biogeographical data. New records for Corsica are Atrococcus melanovirens, A. palidinus, Diaspidiotus bavaricus, D. lenticularis, Eriococcus cistacearum, E. helichrysi, Hemiberlesia lataniae, Heterococcus biporus, Lichtensia viburni, Nidularia pulvinata, Phenacoccus asphodeli, P. graminicola, Planchonia arabidis, Planococcus ficus, P. vovae, Rhizoecus albidus and Rhizopulvinaria maritima.

Foldi, I. 2003a. [Scale insects: Part 1.] Les cochenilles: 1ère Partie. (In French). Insectes No. 129: 3-7. [Foldi2003a]
Notes: Scale insects are formidable enemies of agricultural crops. This report reviews the place of scales in the world of insects, a general description, illustrations, means of reproduction and defense. Species mentioned include Chionaspis salicis, Kuwania sp., Matsucoccus sp., Neosteingelia texana, Parlatoria sp., Pulvinaria sp., Saccharicoccus sacchari and Xylococcus sp.

Foldi, I. 2003b. [Scale insects: Part 2.] Les cochenilles: 2ère Partie. (In French). Insectes No. 130: 27-30. [Foldi2003b]
Notes: These formidable insects have been exploited for dye materials and nourishment for 3000 years. Examples are given from the Middle East, Mexico, the Mediterranean, Poland and China. Species mentioned include Antonina graminis, Dactylopius austrinus, D. ceylonicus, D. coccus, D. opuntiae, Dysmicoccus brevipes, Heliococcus bohemicus, Kermes vermilio, Llaveia axin, Neopulvinaria innumerabilis, Parthenolecanium corni, Phenacoccus aceris, Planococcus citri, Pulvinaria vitis and Trabutina mannipara.

Foldi, I. 2003c. [Some aspects of the eco-ethology of scale insects (Hemiptera, Sternorhyncha, Coccoidea).] Quelques aspects de l'éco-éthologie des Cochenilles (Hemiptera, Sternorhyncha, Coccoidea). (In French). 265-275 In: Fabre, J.H. (Ed.), Un Autre Regard sur l'Insecte. In Actes du Colloque International sur l'Entomologie, 18-19 octobre 2002, Micropolis, la Cité des insectes. Conseil General de l'Aveyron, . [Foldi2003c]
Notes: Topics discussed include scale-host relationships, defense strategies, trophobiosis, endosymbionts, and phylogeny and evolution. Species mentioned include Dactylopius coccus, Hippeococcus sp., Kermes ilicis, K. roboris, K. vermilio, Margarodes vitis, Orthezia urticae, Parthenolecanium corni, Phenacoccus piceae, Physokermes hemicryphus and P. piceae.

Foldi, I. & Van Harten, A. 2004. Scale insects of the family Margarodidae in Yemen (Hemiptera, Coccoidea). (In English; Summary In French). Bulletin de la Societe Entomologique de France 109(1): 79-82. [FoldiVa2004]
Notes: Scale insects belonging to the family Margarodidae were studied in Yemen as part of an inventory of the arthropod diversity, particularly of arthropod crop pests and their real or potential natural enemies. At least nine species of margarodids were recorded, six at specific level and three or more, identified only at generic level. Of those, Icerya, Pseudaspidoproctus and Neomargarodes represent a potential danger to date palm, citrus, grapevine and other cultivated plants. Data are given on the biology, host plant distribution in Yemen, and economic importance of the recorded species.

Follett, P.A. 2004. Generic vapor heat treatments to control Maconellicoccus hirsutus(Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 97(4): 1263-1268. [Follet2004]
Notes: Vapor heat treatments were developed against life stages of the mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Treatments tested were 47 degrees C for 5-50 min in 5-min increments and 49 degrees C for 3, 5, 8, 10, and 12 min. All tests were conducted with mixed age M. hirsutus on Chinese pea, Pisum sativum L. Treatment at 47 degrees C required 45 min to kill all M. hirsutus, whereas treatment at 49degreesC required 10 min. The adult female and nymphal stages were the most heat tolerant at 47 degrees C, but the egg stage was the most heat tolerant at 49 degrees C. Use of the vapor heat treatments on other commodities will require achieving or exceeding the proper temperature and duration at all locations on the host where M. hirsutus may reside.

Forrester, J.A., McGee, G.G. & Mitchell, M.J. 2003. Effects of beech bark disease on aboveground biomass and species composition in a mature northern hardwood forest, 1985 to 2000. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 130(2): 70-78. [ForresMcMi2003]
Notes: We examined changes in species composition and aboveground biomass of a maturing, Adirondack northern hardwood forest in New York, USA, over a 15-year period in order to assess the potential effects of beech bark disease, which is caused by a complex of beech scale, Cryptococcus fagisuga and fungi Nectria spp. on Fagus grandifolia, on the structure and nutrient cycling processes of the stand. Aboveground biomass of living and dead stems, and annual litter production were estimated in 1985 and 2000 within a 1.96 ha area using total stem inventories (more than or equal to 5 cm dbh). A comparison of species composition and biomass of the forest, as well as mortality and growth rates between the two sampling years are presented. The aboveground biomass of living stems decreased from 209.8 tonnes ha-1 in 1985 to 195.7 tonnes ha-1 in 2000. Acer rubrum was the only species to increase in biomass. Fagus grandifolia and Acer saccharumwere the most important species in 1985 and 2000, although F. grandifolia increased in importance while A. saccharum decreased in importance during this time. Large stems of F. grandifolia experienced high mortality rates, but were balanced by ingrowth of smaller stems. In 2000, 58% of F. grandifolia exhibited no to minor signs or symptoms of beech bark disease, while 28 and 13% displayed moderate and high signs of infection, respectively. Ninety-nine percent of the uninfected stems were <15 cm dbh. Although total aboveground biomass decreased during the 15-yr period, annual litter production remained constant. Furthermore, the increase in F. grandifolia importance value did not substantially alter the lignin content of litter. We conclude that the presence of BBD is hastening the onset of uneven-aged conditions in this second-growth stand but may not lead to large changes in forest nutrient cycling processes based on the lack of change in total lignin content of the leaf litter layer. Currently it appears the canopy will continue to be dominated by shade tolerant species, although the importance of F. grandifolia and A. saccharum are changing especially with respect to the relative importance of different size classes.

Fowler, S.V. 2004. Biological control of an exotic scale, Orthezia insignis Browne (Homoptera: Ortheziidae), saves the endemic gumwood tree, Commidendrum robustum (Roxb.) DC. (Asteraceae) on the island of St. Helena. Biological Control 29(3): 367-374. [Fowler2004]
Notes: St. Helena is a small South Atlantic island with a highly degraded, but internationally significant, terrestrial flora. The 2500 remaining gumwoods, Commidendrum robustum, are an important part of this remnant flora. In 1991, a South American scale insect, Orthezia insignis, was identified attacking the gumwood trees. By 1993, severe infestations had killed over 100 trees. If the number of dead trees had continued to increase exponentially, all 2500 trees would have died by 1995. This outcome was likely given abundant alternative host plants, and lack of natural enemies of O. insignis. Host range tests showed that the other members of the endemic genus Commidendrum were also at risk. The coccinellid predator, Hyperaspis pantherina, was released on St. Helena in 1993. H. pantherina numbers increased from 1994, coinciding with a 30x decrease in scale numbers. Scale outbreaks have not been reported on St. Helena since 1995, and culturing of H. pantherina was discontinued because insufficient O. insignis prey could be found in the field. Extensive blackening from sooty molds on the surviving trees in 1995 suggested that the predator was effective just in time to prevent death of most trees. H. pantherina appears to have saved the field population of a rare endemic plant from extinction.

Franco R., A., Cárdenas M., R., Montoya, E. C. & Zenner de Polanía, I. 2003. Ants associated with sucking insects in the aerial part of the coffee tree. Revista Colombiana de Entomología 29(1): 95-105. [FrancoCaMo2003]
Notes: Ants are found isolated from or associated with other insects directly or indirectly affecting the coffee plants. In order to clarify some of these associations, studies were conducted in <3-year-old coffee plantations. Ants and associated homopteran insects were collected and identified, the relationships between them were described. A field guide for identification of the formicids was elaborated. The study was carried out in seven experimental substations of Cenicafé (Colombia). The data obtained from the field records were analysed using descriptive statistics. A total of 114 different associations were recognized; 30 ants species of the Formicinae, Myrmicinae, Dolichoderinae and Ponerinae subfamilies associated with 12 homopteran of the Coccidae, Pseudococcidae, Aphididae, Ortheziidae, Aethalionidae and Membracidae families were found. The sucking insects most common on the coffee plants were: Coccus viridis, Saissetia coffeae, Planococcus citri, Toxoptera aurantii and Orthezia sp. Three types of relationships were identified: mutualism (95.11%), commensalism (4.57%) and depredation (0.32%). The highest number of ants and associated sucking species were registered at the Supia (Caldas) and Libano (Tolima) sites. The ants indirectly protect the homopteran colonies against natural enemy attack through cleaning and covers, however, they do not exercise a direct action against fungi, parasites and predators that act as natural control agents and regulate the homopteran population.

Franco, J.C., Suma, P., Borges da Silva, E. & Mendel, Z. 2003. Management strategies of mealybug pests of citrus in Mediterranean countries. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): p. 137. [FrancoSuBo2003]
Notes: [Integrated control in citrus fruit crops. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002. Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.) Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP).] Six mealybug species are reported as citrus pests in the Mediterranean basin: the citrus mealybug Planococcus citri, the citriculus mealybug Pseudococcus cryptus, the long-tailed mealybug Pseudococcus longispinus, the citrophilus mealybug Pseudococcus calceolariae, the obscure mealybug Pseudococcus viburni and the spherical mealybug Nipaecoccus viridis. Some of these species were recently introduced in the region and are still expanding their distribution, e.g., N. viridis. Mealybugs are usually occasional or potential pests of citrus. However, some species are considered key pests in certain situations. Pest status may change with pest management systems and/or other ecological alterations. Management strategies of mealybug populations in citrus orchards have been generally based on biological control (mostly as classical biological control and to a lesser extent as augmentative releases). However, chemical controls are widely used mainly due to low adaptation of the principal natural enemies to the climatic conditions in the Mediterranean. The application of pheromones is still restricted to the monitoring of the citrus mealybug, whose sex pheromone is commercially available. Mass trapping and mating disruption should be considered for use in IPM programmes as an alternative to the supplementary chemical control. Enhancement of biological control through the management of ant populations is another possible control measure. The management strategies of mealybug pests of citrus and the possible levels of integration of different tactics based on the pest status are discussed.

Furniss, M.M. 2004. Observations on an introduced bud scale, Physokermes hemicryphus (Homoptera: Coccidae), infesting Norway spruce in Idaho. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 34(6): 1348-1352. [Furnis2004]
Notes: An introduced bud scale on Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst. (Pinaceae)) in Idaho, formerly thought to be Physokermes piceae Schrank (Homoptera: Coccidae), is identified as Physokermes hemicryphus (Dalman). Secondary lateral branches of infested Norway spruce become pendent as a result of growing abnormally in length relative to diameter. The scale reproduces by parthenogenesis in North America; no male is known there. Mature females in situ resemble a branch bud. An average of 2.2 females occurred per infested node. They grew larger in late May, at which time they protruded visibly from beneath branch bud scales of the previous year and became immersed in their secreted honeydew. At maturity, females contained a prolific number of eggs (290-858). The eggs hatched into nymphs within the rigid exoskeleton of the dead female in late June. Nymphs emerged during July and migrated distally along a branch. They overwintered as second (final) instars attached to needles or beneath bud scales at the branch node from which the current-year terminal emanated. Four species of hymenopterous parasites were reared from adult scales. Of these, Americencyrtus sp. (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) was most abundant. It parasitized a majority of first instar nymphs but allowed them to develop to maturity the following spring before destroying their embryonic eggs and emerging in synchrony with appearance of nymphs of unparasitized females.

Fusu, L. & Popescu, I.E. 2003. New contributions to the study of Romanian encyrtid wasp (Hymenoptera, Encyrtidae) fauna. Analele Stiintifice ale Universitatii "Al I Cuza" din Iasi. (Serie Noua) Sectiunea I Biologie Animala 159: 87-93. [FusuPo2003]
Notes: [http://internt.nhm.ac.uk/perthMedia/chalcidoids/pdf/FusuPo2003.pdf] 15 Encyrtid wasps are presented. Hosts include Ceroplastes floridensis, Drepanococcus cajani, Eriococcus greeni, Eriopeltis festucae, E. lichtensteini, Eulecanium tiliae, Kermes quercus, K. roboris, Lecanopsis formicarum, Luzulaspis luzulae, Parafairmairia sp., Parthenolecanium corni, P. fletcheri, P. persicae, P. pomeranicum, P. rufulum, Pulvinaria vitis, Rhizococcus agropyri, Rhodocochus (Rhodococcus?) perornatus, Saissetia oleae and Sphaerolecanium prunastri.

Fusu, L., Andriescu, I. & Popescu, I. 2002. Contributions to the study of Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea) from the David's Valley Meadows Reserve. 95-101 In: Memoriam 'Professor Dr. Doc. Vasile Gh. Radu'. Babes-Bolyai University, Dept. of Zoology, Presa Universitaria, Clujana, Romania. [FusuAnPo2002]
Notes: [http://internt.nhm.ac.uk/perthMedia/chalcidoids/pdf/FusuAnPo2002.pdf.] This article analyzes 28 species of Encyrtidae found in David's Meadows Reserve. The known hosts include Acanthococcus obscurus, Aclerda subterranea, Chaetococcus phragmitis, Coccus hesperidum, Eriopeltis festucae, Heterococcus pulverarius, Lecanopsis formicarum, Luzulaspis frontalis, Parafarmairia sp., Parthenolecanium corni, Sphaerolecanium prunastri and Trionymus perrisii.

Gaimari, S.D. & Raspi, A. 2002. The species of Leucopis, subgenus Leucopella Malloch (Diptera: Chamaemyiidae), from northeastern Africa and Yemen. African Entomology 10(2): 241-264. [GaimarRa2002]
Notes: The chamaemyiid subgenus Leucopis (Leucopella) Malloch differs from all other Leucopinae in the presence of one to several small setae along the posterior edge of the anepisternum. As far as was known previously, members of this subgenus were larval predators attacking mealybugs (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), but current evidence suggests they attack other coccoids as well.

Gantner, M., Golan, K. & Gawlowska, J. 2003. Effectiveness of action of plant protection products containing paraffin oil in controlling the European fruit lecanium on hazel. Ochrona Roslin 47(4): 12-13. [GantneGoGa2003]
Notes: Of a number of paraffin oil products tested against Parthenolecanium corni on hazelnut in Poland in 2000-2002, Promanal 60 EC at 2 litres/100 litres water was the most effective, reducing the larval population by 80% on average.

Gantner, M., Jaskiewicz, B. & Golan, K. 2004. Occurrence of Parthenolecanium corni (Bouché) on 18 cultivars of hazelnut. (In English; Summary In Polish). Folia Horticulturae 16(1): 95-100. [GantneJaGo2004]
Notes: The susceptibility of 18 hazelnut cultivars to P. corni was determined in a field experiment conducted in Poland during 2000-02. Alongside this, the efficacy of Promanal 60 EC, applied at 2 litres/100 litres water during the early spring in controlling the pest was determined. Nottingham recorded the lowest, whereas Negrett recorded the highest number of P. corni larvae (22.2 and 153.9, respectively). Early spring application of Promanal 60 EC reduced the number of P. corni by 80%.

García-Gil de Muñoz, F., Lanz Mendoza, H., Hernández Martínez, S., Del Río Dueñas, I. & Hernández-Hernández, F. 2002. [Identifying and describing the coagulation activity and prophenoloxidase system in Dactylopius coccus (Homoptera).] Identificación y descripción de las actividades de coagulación y sistem de la profenoloxidasa en Dactylopius coccus (Homoptera). (In Spanish). 73-74 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 p. [GarciaLaHe2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.]

Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.) 2003. 'Integrated control in citrus fruit crops'. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): xii + 225 pp. [Garcia2003]
Notes: [Conference proceedings: held in Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002 Published by International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP), Dijon, France.] These proceedings contain 26 papers and 15 posters on the integrated control of pests of citrus fruit crops, specifically on citrus leaf miner (Phyllocnistis citrella) and Mediterranean fruit fly (medfly; Ceratitis capitata) and their control measures (using parasitoids, nematodes or fungi, insect growth regulators, and traps); on coccid scales (including Aonidiella aurantii and Planococcus citri), their parasitoids, population dynamics and sensitivity to mineral oil; on thrips, and their integrated pest management strategy and Thrips flavus incidence; on mites, their population dynamics and control; and on the identification and sampling of beneficial organisms. Numerous papers include scale information.

Gardener, G.C. 2002. Persistence and Spread of Cryptococcus fagisuga, the Initiating Agent in Beech Bark Disease (Fagus grandifolia). State University of New York, Albany, . 132 pp. [Garden2002]
Notes: [Ph.D. Thesis; George Robinson, Advisor.] Pathogens and parasites play important roles in ecological communities and their influence is meaningful when they represent a newly arrived invader. At geographic scales, invading tree pests have caused major disruptions of terrestrial ecosystems. The bark disease of American beech (Fagus grandifolia Ehrl.) is an example of a disease invasion that has had a major impact on forest composition throughout Northeastern, North America in the past 50 years. The combined infestation of the European beech scale insect Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind. and the subsequent invasion of fungi (Nectria spp.) have substantially altered the structure of American beech populations. Because the scale insect must precede the fungus, it is the key component of disease spread. Despite this, there is little ecological research in North America on the beech scale insect. I examined the population and local dispersal dynamics of the beech scale insect on American beech populations in continuous forest inventory plots within the Edmund Niles Huyck Preserve in Eastern New York State. Fecundity and dispersal behavior were examined on the basis of insect population density on host trees. Weekly sampling was performed to determine fecundity and trap cards were used to determine percent wind dispersal. Outer bark cores were also taken to assess host resource quality. Range maps of the insect's dispersal were re-interpreted, using demographic patterns, to model the diffusive spread of the beech scale insect. Results indicate that density of infestation has no measurable effect on scale fecundity or dispersal and that quality of host resources may play a large role in determining the level of scale insect infestation for the American beech. Growth rate, measured as the increase in density of scale colonies and transmission frequency, measured as probability of infection, indicate that there is little resistance to local dispersal. Geographic dispersal does fit a diffusion model, however estimated velocity was less than expected, and leads to a prediction of a two stage invasion sequence in the northern range of American beech, with slower expansion to the south.

Gary, R.E. & Foster, W.A. 2004. Anopheles gambiae feeding and survival on honeydew and extra-floral nectar of peridomestic plants. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 18(2): 102-107. [GaryFo2004]
Notes: It is widely believed that the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae Giles (Diptera: Culicidae) rarely or never feeds on sugar in nature. If so, the need for supplemental blood-feeding may be increased and this would help to explain why it is such an efficient malaria vector. Nonetheless, both sexes of this mosquito species readily imbibe and digest sugar solutions, and sugar is a staple of laboratory colonies. In this study, we investigated whether An. gambiae will feed on the extra-floral nectar of three common peridomestic plants in Africa, and on honeydew of the mealybug Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni-Tozetti) (Hemiptera: Homoptera: Pseudococcidae), and how this affects survivorship. We found that both males and females of An. gambiae provided with vegetative parts of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) survived as well ((x) over bar = 26.3 and 19.2 days, respectively) as they did on 50% sucrose solution ((x) over bar = 29.7 and 24.3 days, respectively) and much longer than they did on water alone ((x) over bar = 1.8 days, both sexes). Females provided with mealybug honeydew also lived substantially longer ((x) over bar = 16.5 days) than those on water alone. Anthrone tests of females after one night of exposure to these potential energy sources confirmed that they obtained fructose from cassava, from mealybug honeydew, and from non-flowering castorbean, but not from lantana or from castorbean lacking its petiolar nectaries.

Gaskin, R.E., Bradley, S.J., Manktelow, D.W.L. & Zabkiewicz, J.A. 2002. Enhancement of plant- and petroleum-derived spray oils with alkylsilicone surfactants. 56-61 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [GaskinBrMa2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Pseudococcus viburni (=P. affinis) and P. longispinus are discussed in the section on the effect of modified oil adjuvants on the activity of insecticides. Hemiberlesia sp. is also mentioned.

Gautam, R.D. 2003. Fumigation of fresh agricultural produce with magnesium phosphide for quarantine security. Indian Journal of Entomology 65(2): 193-201. [Gautam2003]
Notes: In an experiment, conducted at the Caribbean Agricultural Research and Development Institute Field Demonstration Center in Grenada, the use of magnesium phosphide at 5 g/barrel (100 x 58 cm) with the exposure period of 10-24 h was found to be the most effective in providing 100% mortality to all the stages of pink mealy bug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, besides a dozen of other associated insect species with the fumigated commodities under prevailing conditions of 26-31 deg C. Interestingly, no phytotoxicity after fumigation with magnesium phosphide was observed on 100 fresh agricultural produce, except for ginger lily [Alpinia purpurata] flowers. The shelf-life of these produce (including cut flowers, fresh fruits, vegetables, salad and seasonings, and planting materials) and other quality parameters like taste, colouration and flavour of the fruits were also not affected.

Gautam, R.D. & Cooper, B. 2003. Insecticidal dip of some tropical cut flowers for quarantine security against pink hibiscus mealy bug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus. Indian Journal of Entomology 65(2): 259-263. [GautamCo2003]
Notes: Studies on the effect of 5-minute insecticidal dips with pirimiphos-methyl (Actellic 50 EC at 10 mg/litre), deltamethrin (Decis 2.8 EC at 5.0 ml/litre), and chlorpyriphos+dimethoate (Salut at 5.0 ml/litre) on pink hibiscus mealy bug, M. hirsutus, infesting four species of tropical commercial cut flowers, i.e. ginger lily (Alpinia purpurata), Heliconia psittacorum, Anthurium andraeanum and orchids (Laeliocattleya canhamianaalba), revealed 100 per cent kill of all stages of the pest within six hours. However, on the 7th day after treatments medium phytotoxicity was observed on flowers dipped in deltamethrin and chlorpyriphos+dimethoate while slight (2.1 to 3.0 score at phytotoxicity scale of 1-5) in pirimiphos-methyl. The shelf-life of these flowers treated with pirimiphos-methyl was not affected as these could be utilized for 7-10 days at par with the control at 27-31 deg C. Interestingly, none of the insecticides affected shelf-life of A. andraeanum while other flowers suffered a lot. Hence, dipping of these cut flowers with pirimiphos-methyl was recommended as a quarantine security for the resumption of inter and intra regional trade in the Caribbean which suffered due to accidental introduction of the mealy bug.

Gavrilov, I.A. 2003. Legless mealybugs (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) from Russia and neighbouring countries. Annales Zoologici (Warsaw) 53(3): 205-209. [Gavril2003]
Notes: Keys and annotated lists of species of genera Chaetococcus Maskell, Porisaccus Hendricks et Kosztarab and Antonina Signoret from Russia and neighbouring countries are reported. A new species, Antonina evelynae sp. nov., is described from Sochi (Black Sea coast of Russian Caucasus). Lectotypes of Antonina vera Borchsenius and Chaetococcus turanicus Borchsenius are designated.

Gavrilov, I.A. 2003a. [On the fauna and systematics of scale insects (Homoptera, Coccinea) of the middle zone of European Russia.] (In Russian; Summary In English). Entomologicheskoe Obozrenye 82(1): 106-115 [Gavril2003a]
Notes: A list of 58 species is given, one species is described as new to science. Longicoccus divnogoricus, sp.n., differs from the congeners in the presence of dorsal conical setae and the convex, sclerotized circuli. The taxonomy and biology of some species are discussed. A new synonymy is established: Trionymus perrisli (Signoret, 1875) = T. implicatus (Borchsenius, 1975), syn. n.

Gavrilov, I.A. 2004. [Scale insects (Homoptera, Coccinae) of the Volga area.] (In Russian; Summary In English). Entomologicheskoe Obozrenye 83(3): 523-529. [Gavril2004]
Notes: An annotated list of 45 species is given. 29 species from this list are noted as new for the region and one species is described as new to science. Perystrix gen. n. differs from the similar genus Phenacoccus Cockerell in the presence of long thin setae in cerarii instead of conical setae and the presence of pairs of lands (1 tubular duct + 1 multilocular disc pore) on dorsum. The type species of this monotypic genus, Perystrix ulmaria sp. n., has been collected in Volgograd Province from a trunk of Ulmus sp.

Germain, J.F. 2002 (2001). Scale insects (Homoptera: Coccoidea) from import interception in France (1997-2001). Bollettino di Zoologia Agraria e di Bachicoltura (Milano) 33(3): 504. [Germai2002]
Notes: [Special Issue: Proceedings of the ISSIS IX International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies held at The University of Padua, Italy, Sept. 2-8, 2001.] [abstract of poster] A list is given of the species of Coccoidea which have been intercepted on plants imported in France during the period 1997-2001, with data on host plants on which the insects were intercepted, country of origin and year of interception. Two notable species are Aulacaspis yasumatsui and Pseudococcus jackbeardsleyi. Other species mentioned include Aonidiella aurantii, Chrysomphalus aonidum, Coccus pseudomagnoliarum, Delottococcus euphorbiae, Dysmicoccus multivorus, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Parasaissetia nigra and Planococcus citri.

Germain, J.-F. & Bertaux, F. 2003. [Parasaissetia nigra, unrecognized host on the Côte d'Azur.] Parasaissetia nigra, hôte méconnu sur la Côte d'Azur. (In French). PHM Revue Horticole No. 447: 42-44. [GermaiBe2003]
Notes: This species, previously known as Saissetia nigra, has been established for many years in France. The origin, distribution, plant hosts, biology, ecology, morphological characteristics, phytosanitary risk, and economic impact are discussed.

Germain, J.-F., Matile-Ferrero, D., Picart, J.-L., Delvare, G. & Piron, M. 2002. Inventory of scale insects in tropical green houses in France and knowledge of their parasitic Hymenoptera, previous to development of biological control. (In French; Summary In English). 253-260 In: [Sixth International Conference on Pests in Agriculture. Vol. 1.] Sixième Conférence Internationale sur les Ravageurs en Agriculture. Tome 1. AGRO, Montpellier. 350 pp. [GermaiMaPi2002]
Notes: [Conference held 4-6 December, 2002 in Montpellier, France.] There are numerous tropical greenhouses containing rare plant species at risk of scale insect outbreaks. This paper surveys both scale insects and their parasitic Hymenoptera and to facilitate biological control. Scale species discussed include Aspidiotus nerii, Balanococcus diminutus, Bambusaspis bambusae, B. miliaris, Ceroplastes sinensis, Chrysomphalus aonidum, C. bromeliae, C. dictyospermi, Coccus hesperidum, C. longulus, Diaspis boisduvalii, D. echinocacti, Dysmicoccus grassii, Fiorinia coronata, F. fioriniae, Furchadaspis zamiae, Hemiberlesia cyanophylli, H. lataniae, H. rapax, Opuntiaspis philococcus, Ovaticoccus agavium, Pinnaspis aspidistrae, P. buxi, P. strachani, Planococcus citri, Protopulvinaria pyriformis, Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli, P. major, P. pentagona, Pseudococcus longispinus, P. viburni, Rhizoecus dianthi, Saissetia coffeae and S. oleae.

Germain, J.-F., Matile-Ferrero, D., Piron, M. & Picart, J.L. 2003. [Greenhouse mealybugs in France: an illustrated inventory. 1. Asterolecaniidae and Coccidae.] Cochenilles sous serres en France: inventaire illustré. 1. - Les Asterolecaniidae et les Coccidae. (In French). Phytoma No. 561: 21-23. [GermaiMaPi2003]
Notes: This paper presents nine of the 38 mealybug species from five different families, two Asterolecaniidae (Bambusaspis bambusae and B. miliaris) and seven Coccidae (Ceroplastes sinensis, Coccus hesperidum, C. longulus, Eucalymnatus tesselatus (tessellatus?), Protopulvinaria pyriformis, Saissetia coffeae and S. oleae).

Germain, J.F. & Streito, J.C. 2004. [Phenacoccus madeirensis Green, 1923 (Pseudococcidae), Protopulvinaria longivalvata Green, 1909 (Coccidae) and Bemisia giffardi (Kontinski, 1907) (Aleyrodidae), new introductions for Martinique (Hem.).] (In French). Bulletin de la Société entomologique de France 109(2): 223-224. [GermaiSt2004]
Notes: [Original title: Phenacoccus madeirensis Green, 1923 (Pseudococcidae), Protopulvinaria longivalvata Green, 1909 (Coccidae) et Bemisia giffardi (Kontinski, 1907) (Aleyrodidae), nouvelles introductions pour la Martinique (Hem.).] Brief review of these species; notes on origins, distributions and hosts.

Gertsson, C.A. 2002. Carulaspis juniperi (Bouche): en ny dansk sköldlus (Hemiptera, Coccoidea). [Carulaspis juniperi (Bouché) - a new Danish scale insect (Hemiptera: Coccoidea).] insect (Hemiptera: Coccoidea). (In Swedish). Entomologiske Meddelelser 70(2): 112. [Gertss2002]
Notes: The specimens were found on Juniperus chinensis in the Botanical Garden at the Danish Agricultural University, Copenhagen.

Gharizadeh, E. & Hesami, S. 2003. Report of Metastenus concinnus (Hym.: Pteromalidae) parasitoid of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri in Iran. (In English; Summary In Persian). Journal of Entomological Society of Iran 22(2): 85-86. [GharizHe2003]
Notes: In studies carried out in 2002 to evaluate the efficacy of C. montrouzieri on citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri) in Chalus, Iran, some specimens of a parasitic wasp, identified as M. concinnus, emerged. This is the first record of this species from Iran.

Glynn, C. & Herms, D.A. 2004. Local adaptation in pine needle scale (Chionaspis pinifoliae): Natal and novel host quality as tests for specialization within and among red and Scots pine. Environmental Entomology 33(3): 748-755. [GlynnHe2004]
Notes: Intraspecific variation in herbivore fitness can generate populations locally adapted to different host species, or even individual plants. To test for occurrence of deme formation, local host species adaptation, and interspecific variation in host quality, we quantified survival and fecundity of pine needle scale, Chionaspis pinifoliae (Fitch), on red (Pinus resinosa Ait.) and Scots pine (P. sylvestris L.) in unmanipulated populations, as well as intra- and interspecific reciprocal host transfer experiments. Intraspecific transplants generated no evidence for deme formation on red or Scots pine as scale performance on natal and conspecific hosts did not differ, possibly because host uniformity and proximity may not have generated requisite environmental heterogeneity and genetic isolation. We did observe evidence for local adaptation to Scots, but not red pine. Survival of scales originating on Scots was 6 times higher on conspecific hosts relative to scales transferred from red to Scots pine; their fecundity was also higher, but the effect was not as strong. However, parental effects also contributed to this pattern, at least partially. In all experiments, Scots pine was a much better host than red pine, which is consistent with previous hypotheses that the long coevolutionary history between pine needle scale and red pine has selected for host defenses. These results add to previous studies that question the importance of deme selection in interactions between scales and trees, but do suggest that bottom-up effects contribute substantially to the variation in pine needle scale population dynamics frequently observed on different host species.

Godfrey, K.E., Daane, K.M., Bentley, W.J., Gill, R.J. & Malakar-Kuenen, R. 2002. Mealybugs in California vineyards (Publication 21612). University of California, Agriculture & Natural Resources, Oakland, California. 16 pp. [GodfreDaBe2002]
Notes: Identification key, description of damage, photographs, chemical and biological control are discussed pertaining to the grape mealybug, obscure mealybug, longtailed mealybug, vine mealybug, citrus mealybug and pink hibiscus mealybug.

Godse, S.K. 2002. An annotated list of pests infesting cashew in Konkan Region of Maharashtra. Cashew 16(3): 15-20. [Godse2002]
Notes: Since 1982, various stages of pests infesting cashew crops and their predators have been collected from the Regional Fruit Research Station, Vengurle, Maharashtra, India. A total of 47 pests were collected. Of these, tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis antonii), flower thrips (Rhynchothrips raoensis [Liothrips raoensis], Scirtothrips dorsalis, Liothrips sp. and Haplothrips sp.) and stem and root borers (Plocaederus ferrugineus, P. obesus and Batocera rufomaculata) were observed as major pests. Apple and nut borer (Nephopteryx [Nephopterix] sp.), mealy bugs (Ferrisia virgata and Planococcoides robustus), shoot tip larva (Hypatima haligramma), leaf and blossom webbers (Macalla moncusalis [Lamida moncusalis] and Orthaga exvinacea) and leafminer (Acrocercops syngramma) were secondary important pests. Ten natural enemies were recorded during this survey. Heavy predation with chrysopa, particularly Meloida sp., was observed on mealy bugs. A list of pests of cashew crops and their natural enemies observed in Maharashtra, India is provided.

Godse, S.K. & Bhole, S.R. 2003. Mango mealy bug fauna of Konkan Region of Maharashtra. Insect Environment 9(4): 157 pp. [GodseBh2003]
Notes: During a survey in Vengurle, Maharashtra, India, seven species of mealybugs were collected on mango (Perissopneumon sp., Ferrisia virgata, Planococcoides robustus, Rastrococcus invadens, Planococcus sp., Cataenococcus sp. and Icerya aegyptiaca). Of these, Ferrisia virgata and Perissopneumon sp. were observed causing considerable economic damage.

Golan, K. 2003. Observations on the biology and management of Parthenolecanium fletcheri (Cockerell) (Hemiptera, Coccidae). (In English; Summary In Lithuanian). Sodininkyste ir Darzininkyste 22(3): 164-170. [Golan2003]
Notes: Studies on the biology of Fletcher scale, Parthenolecanium fletcheri, were conducted during 1997-98 on Thuja sp. growing in the botanical garden of the Maria Curie-Sklodowska University in Lublin, Poland. Fletcher scale developed one generation per year and the second-instar larvae overwintered. Two year-long studies pointed to the differences existing between the dates of occurrence of particular developmental stages of the species. The date of the appearance of eggs, larvae and females was, to a large extent, dependent on temperature. The optimum date for the chemical control of Fletcher scale was between 14 and 21 July in 1997 and between 3 and 10 July in 1998.

Golan, K. & Drabik, E.G. 2004. [Mealybugs of the genus Greenisca (Homoptera, Coccinea) occurring on monocotyledonous plants in Poland.] (In Polish). Ochrona Roslin 48(1): 29-30. [GolanDr2004]
Notes: Notes are given on the harmfulness, morphology, biology, host plants and distribution of Greenisca brachypodii and G. gouxi occurring on monocotyledonous grasses in Poland.

Golino, D.A., Sim, S.T., Gill, R. & Rowhani, A. 2002. California mealybugs can spread grapevine leafroll disease. California Agriculture 56(6): 196-201. [GolinoSiGi2002]
Notes: An experiment was conducted in California, USA to examine the ability of mealybugs to transmit grapevine leafroll-associated viruses (GLRaVs). Four species found in California, i.e. longtailed mealybug (Pseudococcus longispinus), obscure mealybug (Pseudococcus viburni), grape mealybug (Pseudococcus maritimus) and citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri), were able to transmit GLRaV-3 isolates in grapevines. This is the first experimental evidence of GLRaV transmission by obscure and grape mealybugs. In addition, GLRaV-5 was found to be transmitted, for the first time, by longtailed mealybug.

Gómez Vives, S. 2002. Mass rearing of Rhyzobius lophanthae Blaisdell (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) predator of the red date scale (Phoenicococcus marlatti Cockerell). Boletín de Sanidad Vegetal, Plagas 28(2): 167-176. [GomezV2002]
Notes: A process for mass rearing R. lophanthae under controlled conditions in laboratory using armoured scale Aspidiotus nerii as host reared on Cucurbita maxima, is described. This method allows the high and continuous production of the ladybird during the period of augmentative release for biological control of the red date scale Phoenicococcus marlatti in the date palm grove of Elche (Spain).

Gonzalez, R.H. 2003. [Mealybugs of agricultural and quarantine importance in fruit orchards in Chile (Hem.: Pseudococcidae).] Mealybugs of agricultural and quarantine importance in fruit orchards in Chile (Hem.: Pseudococcidae). (In Spanish; Summary In English). Revista Fruticola 24(1): 5-17. [Gonzal2003]
Notes: Vine mealybugs were the first reported insect pests of this group occurring in Chile, back in 1895. The species Dactylopius vitis (Nied.) [Planococcus ficus], represented the first known entity of economic importance. At present, fairly few species of economic importance are known in Chile. These include the obscure mealybug, Pseudococcus viburni (Signoret), the long-tailed mealybug, P. longispinus Targ., the citrophilus mealybug, P. calceolariae (Maskell) and the citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso). Species of minor occurrence, although important to deciduous fruit trees and vines, include the grape mealybug, Pseudococcus maritimus (Erhorn), and the vine and fig mealybug, Planococcus ficus (Signoret), the latter restricted to table grapes planted in the northern desert areas. As a result of USDA-APHIS quarantine restrictions in operation since 1996, the taxonomy and identification of apparently new mealybug species is being investigated in both grapevines and deciduous orchards. So far, at least 2 new entities pertaining to the viburni-maritimus complex are under study. New quarantine restrictions are affecting the above complex. Morphological and biological data pertaining to the common mealybugs found in fruit tree hosts are provided. As an appendix, a preliminary list of known, identified species occurring on fruit tree hosts is included. This material is currently being studied with the view to publish an illustrated catalog of mealybugs of agricultural importance in Chile.

Gonzalez, R.H. 2003a. [Quarantine management of pome fruit mealybugs in Chile (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae).] Manejo cuarentenario de chanchitos blancos de pomáceas en Chile (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). (In Spanish; Summary In English). Revista Fruticola 24(3): 89-98. [Gonzal2003a]
Notes: The mealybug complex associated with pome fruits in Chile is reviewed and pre-harvest and postharvest control methods are discussed. The most common pests are Pseudococcus viburni, P. calceolariae and a Pseudococcus species belonging to the maritimus complex.

Gonzalez, D., El-Heneidy, A.H., Mousa, S.M., Triapitsyn, S.V., Adly, D., Trjapitzin, V.A. & Meyerdirk, D.E. 2003. A survey for pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) and its parasitoids in Egypt, Spain and Morocco. Egyptian Journal of Biological Pest Control 13(1/2): 1-5. [GonzalElMo2003]
Notes: A search for the pink hibiscus mealybug (PHMB), Maconellicoccus hirsutus and its parasitoids were conducted in Egypt, Spain, and Morocco in 2000-01. Ornamental hibiscus host plants were found in abundance in all three countries, however, PHMB was found only in Egypt. Among several parasitoids recovered from PHMB, a gregarious parasitoid, Allotropa sp. near mecrida was by far the most abundant parasitoid attacking PHMB in Egypt. Primary parasitoids made up 94.9% of the total parasitoids emerging while 5.1% were secondary. A potential for a successful introduction of a biological control programme against this pest in California is enhanced by the collaborative efforts of personnel from several agencies: the Plant Protection Institute of Egypt, the University of California at Riverside, CDFA-Biological Control Programme, and USDA-APHIS.

Gotoh, T. & Hong, X.Y. 2002. Ornamental crop pest management (insects). 562-567 In: Pimentel, D. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Pest Management. Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York. 929 pp. [GotohHo2002]
Notes: The ornamental pest species listed include Chrysomphalus, Ferrisia, Lepidosaphes, Pseudococcus and Pulvinaria.

Gould, W.P. & Raga, A. 2002. Pests of guava. 295-313 In: Peña, J., Sharp, J. & Wysoki, M. (Eds.), Tropical Fruit Pests and Pollinators: Biology, Economic Importance, Natural Enemies and Control. CABI Publishing, . 448 pp. [GouldRa2002]
Notes: Scale species listed as pests include Aonidiella aurantii, A. orientalis, Aspidiotus destructor, Ceroplastes floridensis, C. rubens, C. rusci, C. janeirensis, Chrysomphalus dictyospermi, C. ficus, Cloropulvinaria psidii, Coccus acuminatus, C. celatus, C. hesperidum, C. viridis, Dysmicoccus brevipes, Eucalymnatus tessellatus, Ferrisia virgata, Hemiberlesia diffinis, H. lataniae, H. palmae, H. rapax, Icerya seychellarum, Kilifia acuminata, K. deltoides, Lepidosaphes laterochitinosa, L. similis, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Nipaecoccus nipae, N. viridis, Parasaissetia nigra, Parlatoria pergandii, Perissopneumon ferox, Phenacoccus psidiarum, Planococcus citri, P. lilacinus, P. minor, P. pacificus, Protopulvinaria pyriformis, Pseudococcus citriculus, P. nipae, Pseudoparlatoria parlatorioides, Pulvinaria ficus, P. urbicola, Rastrococcus iceryoides, R. invadens, Saissetia coffeae, S. miranda, S. neglecta, S. oleae, Steatococcus samaraius, Unaspis citri and Vinsonia stellifera. [Available on the internet at http://www.cabi-publishing.org/Bookshop/Readingroom/0851994342/0851994342Ch9.pdf on September 2003.]

Govindan, M., Joy, M. & Sreekumar, K.M. 2003. Viral diseases of black pepper and their management. Indian Journal of Arecanut 5(3): 96-102. [GovindJoSr2003]
Notes: Black pepper (Piper nigrum), an export oriented spice crop of India, is cultivated mostly in southern states, i.e. Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. High incidence of pests and diseases leads to low productivity of the crop. Recent observations indicated that two major viral diseases are spreading at an alarming rate in the pepper gardens of Kerala. They are stunted diseases caused by the P. nigrum strain of cucumber mosaic virus (CMV-Pn) and yellow mottle disease caused by Piper yellow mottle virus (PYMV). Both the production and productivity of the virus-affected crop are very low. These viral diseases are transmitted through sap, cuttings, grafts, cutting knives and implements, and also through insect vectors like aphids (Aphis gossypii) in the case of CMV-Pn and mealy bugs Planococcus citri (citrus mealy bug) and Ferrisia virgata (Foliar mealy bug) in the case of PYMV.

Grafton-Cardwell, E.E. & Gu, P. 2003. Conserving vedalia beetle, Rodolia cardinalis (Mulsant) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), in citrus: A continuing challenge as new insecticides gain registration. Journal of Economic Entomology 96(5): 1388-1398. [GraftoGu2003]
Notes: The effects of insecticides used for California citrus pest management were evaluated using larval and adult stages of vedalia beetle, Rodolia cardinalis (Mulsant). This predatory beetle is essential for control of cottony cushion scale Icerya purchasi (Williston) (Homoptera: Margarodidae) in San Joaquin Valley citrus. When adult beetles were exposed to treated citrus leaves, adult survival was significantly reduced by the foliar neonicotinoid imidacloprid and the pyrethroid cyfluthrin. Progeny production was significantly reduced by imidacloprid, cyfluthrin, fenpropathrin, and buprofezin. Buprofezin, pyriproxifen, and foliar imidacloprid also significantly reduced successful development of larvae into the adult stage. When vedalia stages were fed insecticide-treated cottony cushion scale reared on Pittosporum tobira (Thunb.) Ait, toxic effects were more severe than contact toxicity alone. Adult beetle survival was most profoundly reduced by the pyrethroids and to a lesser extent the foliar neonicotinoids acetamiprid and imidacloprid. Progeny production and larval development to adulthood were reduced by all insecticides but were most severely affected by pyriproxifen and the pyrethroids. Systemically applied neonicotinoids were toxic to vedalia larvae feeding on cottony cushion scale that had ingested these insecticides. These data demonstrate that IGRs, neonicotinoid insecticides, and pyrethroid insecticides have a significant, negative impact on vedalia beetles. Depending on the rate of insecticide used, the number and timing of applications, and the level of coverage of the tree, disruption of vedalia can be minimized. However, the situation is made difficult when pests such as citrus thrips Scirtothrips citri (Moulton) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), forktailed bush katydid Sctiddaria furcata Brunner von Wattenwyl (Orthoptera: Tettigoiniidae), or glassy-winged sharpshooter Homalodisca coagulata Say (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) require these pesticide treatments during periods of vedalia beetle activity.

Grafton-Cardwell, E.E., Ouyang, Y., Striggow, R.A., Christiansen, J.A. & Black, C.S. 2004. Role of esterase enzymes in monitoring for resistance of California red scale (Homoptera: Diaspididae), to organophosphate and carbamate insecticides. Journal of Economic Entomology 97(2): 606-613 [GraftoOuSt2004]
Notes: Eighty-seven populations of California red scale, Aonidiella aurantii(Maskell) from the San Joaquin Valley of California were tested for insecticide resistance by using chlorpyrifos, methidathion, and/or carbaryl in a standard fruit-dip bioassay as well is for general esterase activity by using alpha-naphthyl acetate as a substrate in a colorimetric test. The percentage of individuals that survived a discriminating concentration of methidathion, chlorpyrifos, or carbaryl was significantly correlated with the percentage of individuals showing >0.4 nmol of esterase activity per minute pet, microgram of protein in the colorimetric test. Scale survival of the organophosphates showed a higher con-elation with esterase activity than survival of carbaryl. These results suggest that the colorimetric test of esterase activity is useful as an indicator of the frequency of organophosphate-resistant and, to a lesser extent, carbamate-resistant individuals in California red scale populations. The results of tests for activity and inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity suggest that California red scale is using increased amounts of esterase enzymes, including acetylcholinesterase, to sequester organophosphate and carbamate insecticides, rather than modified acetylcholinesterase. Third instars collected from twigs, leaves, and fruit showed similar levels of esterase activity. The colorimetric test of esterase activity is a useful tool to detect organophosphate and carbamate resistance in San Joaquin Valley California red scale because of its speed of testing over a wide range of months, allowing for within-season decision making by citrus growers.

Granara de Willink, M.C. 2003. [New records and host plants of Phenacoccus for Argentina (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae).] Nuevas citas y huéspedes de Phenacoccus para la Argentina (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). (In Spanish; Summary In English). Revista de la Sociedad Entomológica Argentina 62(3/4): 80-82. [Granar2003]
Notes: Phenacoccus madeirensis Green, P. manihoti Matile-Ferrero and P. solenopsis Tinsley, first records from Argentina and new host plants of P. crassus Granara de Willink, P. parvus Morrison and P. similis Granara de Willink are provided.

Granara de Willink, M.C. 2003a. [New species of Chorizococcus from Argentina and Uruguay (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae).] Nuevas especies de Chorizococcus de la Argentina y Uruguay (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). (In Spanish; Summary In English). Revista de la Sociedad Entomológica Argentina 62(3/4): 83-88. [Granar2003a]
Notes: Descriptions and illustrations of Chorizococcus achalensis, new sp. from Argentina and C. uruguayensis, new sp. from Uruguay, are given. Also, Chorizococcus McKenzie neotropical key and new host plants of C. rostellum (Lobdell) are included.

Granara de Willink, M.C. & Claps, L.E. 2003. [Scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) present in ornamentals in Argentina.] Cochinillas (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) presentes en plantas ornamentales de la Argentina. (In Spanish; Summary In English). Neotropical Entomology 32(4): 625-637. [GranarCl2003]
Notes: Many native and exotic plants are cultivated in urban environments, where they provide shade and appeal to our aesthetic sensibilities. Almost no research has been done on the Coccoidea associated with ornamentals in the Neotropics, although they seem especially well-adapted for survival in urban ecosystems. The objective of this study was to provide information about some scale insect families that attack ornamentals in Argentina. Collections of scale insects in Argentina, and new materials collected in the field or sent for identification by colleagues throughout the country were evaluated. Ninety species of Coccoidea, belonging to 8 families and 53 genera, were identified. Fifty-two species of Diaspididae, 15 species of Pseudococcidae, 18 species of Coccidae, and only one species of Asterolecaniidae, Eriococcidae, Lecanodiaspididae, Margarodidae, and Ortheziidae were found. Seventy-one species were cosmopolitan and 19 were endemic. Approximately 190 ornamental species in many different families were affected. A list of the scale insects in alphabetical order, hosts, distribution, economic importance, and relevant bibliography is provided.

Granara de Willink, M.C. & Miller, D.R. 2004. Two new species of mealybugs (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae) from Patagonia, Argentina. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 106(1): 140-158. [GranarMi2004]
Notes: Two new species of mealybugs, Eurycoccus chubutensis and Pseudantonina vernacula, have been discovered in the Patagonia Region of Argentina collected on Nothofagus dombeyi and on a grass, probably Stipa sp. Adult females and available immature stages of each species are described and illustrated and are compared with other mealybugs from the area.

Gravena, S. 2003. [Ecological management of the citrus mealybug, with emphasis on the biological control by coccinellid species Cryptolaemus montrouzieri.] (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Laranja 24(1): 71-82. [Graven2003]
Notes: [Original title: Manejo ecológico da cochonilha-branca dos citros, com ênfase no controle biológico pela joaninha Cryptolaemus montrouzieri.] This paper covers the occurrence, life cycle, behaviour and spread of the mealybug, Planococcus citri, as well as its current status in Brazilian citriculture. Notes are presented on the natural enemies of the mealybugs, as well as on the introduction of C. montrouzieri as a biological control agent of the pest. Existing biological data and procedures for the ecological management of the pest are also presented.

Griffin, J.M., Lovett, G.M., Arthur, M.A. & Weathers, K.C. 2003. The distribution and severity of beech bark disease in the Catskill Mountains, N.Y. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 33: 1754-1760. [GriffiLoAr2003]
Notes: Beech bark disease is caused by the interaction between the wingless scale insect Cryptococcus fagisuga and one of two species of Ascomycete fungus, Nectria coccinea Fr. var. faginata and Nectria falligena. The parthenogenetic reproduction of Cryptococcus allows for rapid population increase, and the combined feeding of many Cryptococcus individuals predisposes the bark to Nectria spp. infection. The distribution and severity of beech bark disease (BBD) in the Catskill Mountains of southeastern New York state, U.S.A., were measured between 1997 and 2000. BBD was present on almost all Fagus grandifolia Ehrh. (American beech) individuals encountered >10 cm diameter at breast height, but was most severe in larger diameter classes. Mortality due to BBD also increased with diameter class. The current status of BBD in the Catskills suggests these forests are entering the aftermath phase of the disease's progression and that BBD has become an endemic component of these forests.

Grygar, T., Kuckova, S., Hradil, D. & Hradilova, J. 2003. Electrochemical analysis of natural solid organic dyes and pigments. S PHYC Physical Chemistry/Chemical Physics 7(10): 706-713. [GrygarKuHr2003]
Notes: Square-wave voltammetry of solid naphthoquinone, anthraquinone, and flavone dyes, carmine, cochineal red, indigo, and Prussian blue, was compared to microanalysis (sample consumption <1 mg) of traditional painting pigments and dyes without their preliminary dissolution. Electrochemical analysis was also performed after the samples' hydrolysis simultaneously with thin-layer chromatography. Anthraquinone-based pigments and Prussian blue are reversibly reduced, cochineal red and lac dyes are irreversibly reduced, flavones are mostly reversibly oxidized, dragon's blood is irreversibly oxidized and reduced, and indigo yields both reversible oxidation and reduction. The potential window of these reactions is about 1.4 V wide. This variability permits identification of the kind of pigment or dye, and directly distinguishes, for example, alizarin and purpurin; luteolin and quercetin; or indigo and Prussian blue.

Guénaoui, Y., Dehliz, A., Alouach, M. & Meskine, S. 2003. The damage caused by the diaspidid Parlatoria zyziphi Lucas on citrus groves in the Northwest part of Algeria. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): 135. [GuenaoDeAl2003]
Notes: [Conference proceedings: 'Integrated control in citrus fruit crops'. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, held in Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002 Published by International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP), Dijon, France, Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.)] The diaspidid Parlatoria zyziphi [P. ziziphi] is one of the major pests for the Algerian citrus cultivation. The present contribution is part of a large study on the population dynamics of the diaspidid. It was conducted for three years in unsprayed orchards in the vicinity of Mostaganem in northwest Algeria, and heavy infestations were recorded during the summer. Results were expressed as the average number of insects per cm2. A high density of P. zyziphi was influenced by cultural practices. Parasitoids were recorded and their impact reached 30%.

Guerreiro, J.C., Busoli, A.C. & Berti Filho, E. 2003. Oviposition and predation of Pentilia egena Mulsant (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) in response to temperature. (In English; Summary In Portuguese). Scientia Agricola 60(3): 587-589. [GuerreBuBe2003]
Notes: This research investigated the effect of temperature (19, 24 and 29 deg C) on the number of eggs laid by P. egena and the number of Aspidiotus nerii scales preyed by this coccinellid. The highest number of eggs laid and scales preyed (5.1 plus or minus 0.59 and 11.3 plus or minus 0.19, respectively) occurred at 29 deg C. However, egg viability (52.86%) was reduced at this temperature, and was lower than those at 19 and 24 deg C (78.10 and 74.07%, respectively). Temperature did not affect the ladybeetle oviposition behaviour as the eggs were laid under the scale of prey A. nerii.

Guerrieri, E. & Noyes, J.S. 2002. An unusual genus and species of Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) from Australia reared from soft scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccidae). Journal of Natural History 36(4): 443-448. [GuerriNo2002]
Notes: Arketypon vaderi gen. et sp. nov. is described from Australia and its systematic position is discussed. It was reared as a gregarious endoparasitoid of Myzolecanium sp. (Hemiptera: Coccidae) found in the nest of Camponotus sp. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) nesting in a hollow stem of Sonneratia alba Smith (Sonneratiaceae).

Guirado, N., Ambrosano, E.J., Arévalo, R.A., Rossi, F., Mendes, P.C.D. & Ambrosano, G.M.B. 2003. [Control of snow scale in citrus tree with the use of oil in pulverization.] Controle da cochonilha escama-farinha em citros com o uso de óleos em pulverização. (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Laranja 24(2): 329-335. [GuiradAmAr2003]
Notes: The citrus snow scale Unaspis citri is a specific pest of citrus. This pest causes yield losses by sucking the plant sap and by the toxic action of its prick; in cases of intense attack, it provokes trunk bark scaling causing the death of the plant. The control of this pest was has been carried out by the application of insecticides mixed with mineral oil. The efficacy of neem oil extracted from seeds of Azadirachta indica, applied alone or in combination with mineral oil (Triona) to control this scale was determined. The treatments comprised 0.5 or 1% mineral oil and 0.5 or 1% neem oil. Treatment based on 1% mineral oil + 1% vegetal oil neem was the most effective.

Guirrou, Z., El Kaoutari, I., Boumezzough, A., Chemseddine, M. & Hilal, A. 2003. [Control of Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) populations in citrus orchards in Morocco.] Contrôle des populations d'Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) en vergers d'agrumes au Maroc. (In French). Fruits 58(1): 3-11. [GuirroElBo2003]
Notes: The pest Aonidiella aurantii or California red scale, not controlled, is able to cause the complete dieback of contaminated citrus trees in 2-3 years. In Morocco, the number of pesticide actions per production cycle against this citrus mealybug have grown since the 1960s. Considering these conditions, pest management is essential. The study undertaken aimed to jointly test three techniques of agricultural warning. The experiments carried out studied the pest spring generation for two years (1999/2000 and 2000/2001), during which the damage involved was very significant. Eleven biotopes distributed in the citrus zone of the irrigated perimeter of Tadla (Morocco) were studied. Biotope 1, untreated, was used as the control. The three jointly-used warning methods were the trapping of the adult males of Aonidiella aurantii, the follow-up of the dynamics of the pest larval populations and of its principal parasitoid (Aphytis melinus), and the use of the day-degree concept. For each one of these methods, an action threshold was defined. The use of the three agricultural warning techniques and of the thresholds required by each one of them allowed the determination of the time of action and the adaptation of the recommended treatment (insecticides, mineral oils or no treatment, according to the cases) to the outbreak risks. In addition, the parasitism of Aonidiella aurantii by Aphytis melinus significantly reduced the California red scale populations in the untreated plot. The method of the day-degree calculation combined with the count of pest males by trapping can be a basis of a good agricultural warning which can be used by the Moroccan growers. The natural activity of Aphytis melinus under the Tadla conditions remains insufficient to control the economical incidence of the California red scale.

Gullan, P.J., Downie, D.A. & Steffan, S.A. 2003. A new pest species of the mealybug genus Ferrisia Fullaway (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) from the United States. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 96(6): 723-727. [GullanDoSt2003]
Notes: A new pest species of Ferrisia (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), Ferrisia gilli Gullan, is described and illustrated based on the adult female, third-instar female, and first- and second-instar nymphs. Observation of pharate third-instar males and females failed to reveal sexual dimorphism of the second instar. Diagnosis of this new species was facilitated by the collection of nucleotide sequence data from fragments of a mitochondrial gene (COI) and two nuclear genes (EF-1? and 28S). The first phylogenetic study of Ferrisia is presented; combined and separate analyses of the three gene regions support monophyly of F. gilli and suggest that Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell) is a species complex. The known distribution of F. gilli from California and the southeastern United States is reported. It may be native to the southeastern states. This mealybug seems to be polyphagous because it feeds on a variety of species of woody plants, both evergreen and deciduous, as well as on monocots. It has at least three generations annually in central California, where it is newly recognized as a pest in pistachio and almond orchards, but has been present in northern California since at least 1968. The main problems caused by this mealybug in pistachio orchards are contamination of foliage and fruit with honeydew and the concomitant promotion of two major fungal pathogens.

Gullan, P.J. & Martin, J.H. 2003. Sternorrhyncha (Jumping plant lice, whiteflies, aphids, and scale insects. 1079-1089 In: Resh, V.H. & Cardé, R.T. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Insects. Academic Press (Elsevier Science), Amsterdam et al.. [GullanMa2003]
Notes: Introductory material discusses an overview, evolution and classification of these insects. The life history, behavior, ecology, morphology, notable species and their control are discussed in the Coccoidea section. Species mentioned include Aonidiella aurantii, Diaspis boisduvalii, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Nuculaspis californica and Unaspis euonymi. [Available on the internet at http://entomology.ucdavis.edu/scalewebpages/SternoChapter.pdf in September 2003.]

Gullan, P.J., Miller, D.R. & Cook, L.G. 2004. Gall-inducing scale insects (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea). 159-229 In: Raman, A., Schaefer, C.W. & Withers, T.M. (Eds.), Biology, Ecology and Evolution of Gall-Inducing Arthropods. Vol. 1. Science Publishers, New Hampshire. 774 pp. (2 vols.) [GullanMiCo2004]
Notes: The scale insects or coccoids are morphologically specialized plant parasites that mostly either live under a protective cover derived from their waxy secretions and/or old exuviae or live concealed by plant tissue, including within galls of a diversity of forms. Out of more than 7,000 described species of scale insects, about 230 species (or about 280 if undescribed taxa are included) induce galls that range in complexity from simple pits and foliage distortions to woody, enclosed structures of elaborate morphology. Only 10 of the twenty or more families of scale insects induce galls and the highest proportion of galling taxa (approximately 45 percent of described species and 57 percent of recognized species) belong to the Eriococcidae. Almost all eriococcid gallers occur in Australia, where their major host-plant family is Myrtaceae. Gall-inducing Pseudococcidae have radiated in Hawaii. For other coccoid families, the gall-inducing taxa are scattered among diverse genera and show no particular patterns of distribution or host use except that gallicolous Lecanodiaspididae are most common in Australia. Details of the types of galls formed and the roles of male and female are discussed in this paper.

Guo, X.X. & Shi, X.H. 2003. The biological characters of the leading pests of kiwifruit in Shaanxi province and their control. China Fruits 1: 45-46. [GuoSh2003]
Notes: Studies carried out during 1998-2000 investigation showed that the leading pests of kiwifruit in Shaanxi province, China, are small beetles [Coleoptera], stink bugs [Pentatomidae], scales [Coccoidea], leafhoppers [Cicadellidae] and cucurbit leaf beetle [Aulacophora femoralis]. Damage caused by these pests and control measures are described. It is indicated that for control of the mulberry white scale [Pseudaulacaspis pentagona] spraying a 1000-1500 solution of Sujieling (produced in China) or a 2000 times solution of 50% monocrotophos emulsion 2-3 times resulted in effective control.

Gupta, R. & Singh, M. 2002. Susceptibility of apple cultivars to the San Jose scale, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus Comstock, and its control in Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh. Pest Management and Economic Zoology 10(2): 187-192. [GuptaSi2002]
Notes: The susceptibility apple (Malus domestica [M. pumila]) cultivars Golden Delicious, Red Delicious, and Royal Delicious, and crab apple (Malus sp.) to the San Jose scale, Q. perniciosus [Diaspidiotus perniciosus], and the efficacy of chlorpyrifos, oxydemeton-methyl and fenitrothion was evaluated in Himachal Pradesh, India, during 1999 and 2000, respectively. Golden Delicious was more susceptible (28.61 scales/fruit) to D. perniciosus compared to Royal Delicious (16.40 scales/fruit), Red Delicious (17.83 scales/fruit) and crab apple (19.23 scales/fruit). Scale populations were found more on the top portion of trees than on lower portions. Hindustan Petroleum Spray Oil 2% (HPSO) mixed with chlorpyrifos (0.02%) registered the maximum suppression of the scale (8.67% fruit infestation; 1.09 scales/fruit) compared to the untreated check (88% fruit infestation; 20.04 scales/fruit) when spraying was carried out at green-tip stage. Addition of oxydemeton-methyl (0.05%) or fenitrothion (0.05%) to HPSO did not enhance the efficacy of the spray oil.

Guzmán Estrada, C. 2004. Effect of fruit bagging on sanitation and pigmentation of six mango cultivars. Acta Horticulturae 645: 195-199. [Guzman2004]
Notes: [VII International Mango Symposium, Recife, Brazil. Pinto, A.C.Q., Pereira, M.E.C, Alves, R.E. (Eds.)] Mango fruits of cultivars Manila, Ataulfo, Haden, Tommy Atkins, Kent and Keitt, were bagged in brown paper bags, anti-virus screen and white-coloured waxed paper to prevent and protect them from pests and disease during the attachment stage. The bagged fruits showed 100% phytosanitation up to the physiological ripening in Manila, Ataulfo, Haden and Tommy Atkins that were harvested before and even after the rainy season started. However, that was not the case for Kent and Keitt that were harvested when the rainy season was well under way, as 30-50% of the bagged fruits showed Colletotrichum gloeosporioides [Glomerella cingulata], Capnodium sp., Coccus mangiferae [Milviscutulus mangiferae], Tetranychus sp. and Atta sp. Haden, Tommy Atkins, Kent and Keitt in brown paper bags did not show any of the characteristic epicarp pigmentation or spotting upon reaching the physiological maturity or even five days later, which indicates that the lack of direct contact with sunlight prevented the chlorophyll degradation and that the chloroplasts were gradually replaced by the xanthophylls, carotenes and anthocyanins, while in the other bag types, pigmentation was light; but that was not the case for Manila and Ataulfo which showed normal pigmentation in the three bag types. The brix degrees and the resistance of the fruit to penetration, were inconsistent in the three bag types. The fruits in the anti-virus mesh registered the lowest weight, maybe due to the reflection of the sun rays and consequently to a lesser absorption of energy which affected the growth and development of fruits.

Haile, M., Belay, T. & Zimmerman, H.G. 2002. Current and potential use of cactus in Tigray, northern Ethiopia. Acta Horticulturae 581: 75-86. [HaileBeZi2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress on Cactus Pear and Cochineal, Nefzaoui, A. & Inglese, P. (Eds.), Hammamet, Tunisia, 22-28 October, 2000.] Cactus pear, Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill., was introduced to Northern Ethiopia by missionaries. Cactus culture in Tigray is expanding partly because of severe degradation of natural resources in the region Invasion in some areas of southern Tigray was high to the extent that it have been considered a threat to farming. Little or no care is given to the plant. More than 60 cultivars of cactus have been identified so far. It has potential uses such as red cochineal dye production.

Hale, M.A. & Elliott, D. 2003. Successes and challenges in augmentative biological control in outdoor agricultural applications: a producer's perspective. 185-188 In: Van Dreische, R.G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Washington D.C.. 573 pp. [HaleEl2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002.] Mealybugs and red scale are mentioned as hosts.

Hamon, A.B. 2002a. Pest Alert: White mango scale, Aulacaspis tubercularis (Newstead (Coccoidea: Diaspididae). Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Apopka & Gainesville, FL. [Hamon2002a]
Notes: Description, economic importance, hosts and distribution are discussed. Illustrated with photographs. [Available on the internet at http://doacs.state.fl.us/~pi/enpp/ento/aulacaspis-tubercularis.html on September 2003.]

Hane, E.N. 2003. Indirect effects of beech bark disease on sugar maple seedling survival. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 33(5): 807-813. [Hane2003]
Notes: To investigate the mechanisms of indirect effects of the increased presence of American beech (Fagus grandifolia) saplings on sugar maple (Acer saccharum) seedling survival, I conducted several experiments in the area of the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in central New Hampshire, USA. To investigate the effects of competition from beech saplings on sugar maple seedlings, a removal experiment was conducted. Sugar maple seedling survival was monitored in five replicate plots of each of the two treatments for 6 years. Survivorship in plots in which beech saplings had been removed was significantly higher (33%) than in control plots (1%). A shading experiment demonstrated that a large proportion of the mortality of sugar maple seedlings results from the effects of shading. Cutting and shade cloth treatments were done in a two-factor factorial block design, and results showed a strong negative effect of shading in the plot. A third experiment investigated the role of soil moisture. Plots that had higher soil moisture and also had beech removed had the highest survival (76%), while control plots in a dry area had the lowest (22%). Overall, the experiments showed that beech bark disease (caused by Cryptococcus fagisuga and Nectria complex) and the associated increase in beech saplings had a negative indirect effect on sugar maple seedling survival. Sugar maple regeneration failure appeared to be, at least in part, due to the indirect effects of beech bark disease.

Harris, P. 2002. Biological control of weeds (insects and mites). 74-76 In: Pimentel, D. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Pest Management. Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York. 929 pp. [Harris2002]
Notes: The confusion between Dactylopius ceylonicus and D. coccus caused the failure of a dye industry but the beginning of a program of understanding how to control prickly pear cactus with a biological control agent.

Hath, T.K. & Panigrahi, M. 2003. Enrichment of tukra leaves with some chemicals for improvement of economic parameters of silkworm, Bombyx mori L. Crop Research Hisar 26(1): 169-174. [HathPa2003]
Notes: The effect of enrichment of tukra as well as healthy leaves with ascorbic acid (1.5%), egg albumin (2%), sucrose (2%) and gentamycin (0.01%) on larval and cocoon characters was studied at two different growth stages of Bombyx mori L. at laboratory conditions during summer and autumn seasons in terai region of West Bengal. Results revealed that weight of larvae, cocoon, pupa and shell and SR% were greatly improved due to treatment with sucrose. All parameters except SR% were significantly superior when larvae were fed on healthy leaves, while higher SR% was effected due to tukra leaves. It was observed that treatments at two consecutive stages i.e. both at 4th and 5th stages enhanced larval weight and increased cocoon, pupal and shell weight and SR% significantly. Healthy leaves enriched with sucrose produced greatest impact on all parameters except SR% and cocoon and pupal weight showed the pronounced effect. It was strikingly noted that silkworms when fed on sucrose enriched tukra leaves, higher weight of cocoon, pupa and shell and SR% were obtained compared to that produced due to feeding with untreated healthy leaves. Larval weight was almost identical to that of control healthy leaves. Enrichment of tukra leaves in disease prone area may be recommended. Maconellicoccus hirsutus is discussed as a pest species.

Hayat, M. 2004. A new species of Chartocerus (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Signiphoridae) from West Bengal, India. Zoos' Print Journal 19(3): 1383-1385. [Hayat2004]
Notes: A new species of the signiphorid genus Chartocerus, C. bengalensis sp. nov. found on Aspidiotus on Mangifera indica is described and illustrated.

Hayat, M., Narendran, T.C., Remadevi, O.K. & Manikandan, S. 2003. Parasitoids (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea; Ceraphronoidea) reared mainly from Coccoidea (Homoptera) attacking sandalwood, Santalum album L. Oriental Insects. New Delhi 37: 309-334. [HayatNaRe2003]
Notes: The hymenopteran parasitoids of pests associated with sandalwood in the southern Indian State of Karnataka are dealt with. One new encyrtid genus (Neperpolia) and ten new species are described: 6 species in Encyrtidae (Anicetus inglisiae Hayat, Metaphycus bolangerae Hayat, Microterys agaeus Hayat, Neperpolia bangalorensis Hayat, Ooencyrtus kerriae Hayat, Philosindia inglisiae Hayat), one species in Signiphoridae (Signiphora woolleyi Hayat), and 3 species in Eulophidae (Aprostocetus bangaloricus Narendran, A. santalinus Narendran, Euplectrus nuperus Narendran). The following species are recorded: Aphelinidae: Coccophagus bivittatus; C. ceroplastae; C. cowperi; Encarsia citrina; Marietta leopardina; Encyrtidae: Bothriophryne pulvinariae; Cheiloneurus basiri; Encyrtus aurantii; Thomsonisca pakistanensis; Pteromalidae: Cephaleta nirupama; Scutellista caerulea.

He, J., Shi, L., Deng, J.A., Mao, Y.F. & Shi, B.C. 2003. [A preliminary study on biology of Kerria lacca strain Rangeeni.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Forest Research 16(5): 604-609. [HeShDe2003]
Notes: This strain of lac insect species was introduced from Nepal in 1999. It completed the life-cycle twice a year in Yuanjiang of Yunnan Province, China. The lac insect showed a stable life-cycle which indicated that the introduction and reproduction was successful. The individual of the lac insect had the characters of high lac yield (19.0 mg/lac) and egg production (600 to 1000 eggs). The colour of lac was light yellow and quality of lac was better than that of China's lac insect (Kerria chinesis). It was shown that this lac insect species was one of the optimal lac insects for lac production. Twelve species of host tree were selected in which Butea monosperma was the best followed by Acacia glauca [Leucaena leucocephala]. The insect pest in introduction acclimatization was studied preliminarily. From the viewpoints of rule of life-cycle, climatic conditions needed, host and eating habit, this lac insect could be identified as Kerria lacca strain Rangeeni.

Helms, K.R. & Vinson, S.B. 2003. Apparent facilitation of an invasive mealybug by an invasive ant. Insectes Sociaux 50(4): 403-404. [HelmsVi2003]
Notes: In the southeast United States, the invasive ant Solenopsis invicta is known to derive important carbohydrate (honeydew) resources from mealybugs utilizing grasses. Most important appears to be an invasive mealybug, Antonina graminis. We studied whether this mealybug and a similar native species also benefit from association with S. invicta. We found that mealybug occurrence increases significantly with increasing proximity to S. invicta mounds, suggesting that mealybugs benefit as well. Mutual benefits derived by S. invicta and A. graminis are consistent with a hypothesis proposing that associations among invasive species can be important in their success at introduced locations.

Hendawy, A.S., El-Mitwally, M.F. & Elsamea, S.A.A. 2002. Scientific note: Coccophagus scutellaris (Dalman) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), a new record parasitoid attacking sugar-cane soft scale insect, Pulvinaria tenuvalvata (Newstead) in Egypt. (In English; Summary In Arabic). Egyptian Journal of Agricultural Research 80(1): 219-222. [HendawElEl2002]
Notes: Nymphs and adults of Pulvinaria tenuvalvata were collected from infested sugarcane plants in Luxor, Egypt during 2000 and maintained in the laboratory. The insects were monitored daily until they completed their life cycle or until parasitoids emerged from them. The parasitoids were identified as C. scutellaris. This is thought to be the first report of C. scutellaris infesting P. tenuvalvata.

Henderson, L. & Zimmermann, H.G. 2003. Chainfruit cholla (Opuntia fulgida Engelm.) misidentified as rosea cactus (Opuntia rosea DC.) in South Africa. South African Journal of Plant and Soil 20(1): 46-47. [HenderZi2003]
Notes: Rosea cactus (Opuntia rosea) is a name that has long been used for a densely spiny cactus invading dry savanna in South Africa. Recent efforts to improve biological control of this invasive species using cochineal (Dactylopius tomentosus) led to the discovery that the plant species had been misidentified. A biotype of cochineal collected from rosea cactus in Mexico failed to develop on rosea cactus in South Africa. This pointed to the incorrect identification of rosea cactus in South Africa and led to an investigation of other similar cacti in Mexico. O. fulgida (chainfruit cholla) is similar in appearance to rosea cactus but has characteristic chains of fruits that persist for years. In South Africa, these chains of fruits had not been observed because chemical and mechanical control since the 1960s had prevented the plants from developing to maturity. In an isolated infestation bordering on Zimbabwe, the characteristic chains of fruit were seen for the first time. A comparison of the morphological characteristics of both species led to the conclusion that in South Africa, O. rosea had been misidentified and is in fact O. fulgida.

Hendricks, L.C. & Bentley, W. 2002. The responses of Peach Twig Borer (Anarsia lineatella), San Jose Scale (Quadraspidiotus perniciosus) and the scale parasitoid Encarsia perniciosi to dormant sprays in almond. Acta Horticulturae 591: 565-568. [HendriBe2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on Pistachios and Almonds, 12th Colloquium of GREMPA, Zaragoza, Spain, 20-24 May, 2001. Publisher: International Society for Horticultural Science (ISHS)] Many almond growers in California, USA have eliminated the dormant spray applications in recent years. This experiment was conducted in 1998-2000 to determine whether the Peach Twig Borer (PTB) (A. lineatella), and San Jose Scale (SJS) (Q. perniciosus [Diaspidiotus perniciosus]) would become economic problems if dormant sprays were not applied, and how sprays might affect the scale parasitoid E. perniciosi. Mature almonds were sprayed in late January of 1998, 1999 and 2000 with several dormant insecticide combinations. For peach twig borer, no dormant treatments have demonstrated a clear benefit in controlling PTB in this orchard. Insecticide treatments have resulted in a slight reduction in male San Jose scale counts in pheromone traps. Encarsia perniciosi will often give economic control of San Jose scale if in-season sprays do not interfere with this parasitoid.

Herms, D.A. & Nielsen, D.G. 2004. The magnolia scale: biology and management of a key pest of magnolia. Special Circular (Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center) No. 193: 74-77. [HermsNi2004]
Notes: The life history and host impact of magnolia scale (Neolecanium cornuparvum) are described. Management strategies to control this pest infesting different Magnolia spp. are identified, and research results regarding the efficacy of imidacloprid are presented.

Hernandez Hernandez, F.D.C., de Munoz, F.G.G., Rojas Martinez, A., Hernandez Martinez, S. & Lanz Mendoza, H. 2003. Carminic acid dye from the homopteran Dactylopius coccus hemolymph is consumed during treatment with different microbial elicitors. Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology 54(1): 37-45. [HernanDeRo2003]
Notes: The activation of Dactylopius coccus (Costa) hemolymph with microbial polysoccharide molecules was studied. Hemolymph incubated in the presence of laminarin, zymosan, and N-acetyl glucosamine produced a dark fibrillar precipitate, and the red pigment (carminic acid) was consumed (measured spectrophotometrically at 495 nm). Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) did not induce any response. The reaction was inhibited with millimolar concentrations of serine and cysteine protease inhibitors, EGTA and phenyl thiourea. It was also diminished by prostaglandin synthesis inhibitors: dexamethasone, acetylsalicylic acid, and indomethacin. However, Mg2+ chelator EDTA did not inhibit hemolymph activation. Hemolymph proteins were depleted from soluble phase during treatment with laminarin, but a group of around 34 kDa remained unmodified. These results showed that D. coccus hemolymph is activated by microbial elicitors, its activation depends on eicosanoids, and suggest participation of prophenoloxidase (PPO)-like activation system that could consume carminic acid. We are currently dissecting the molecular factors involved in D. coccus hemolymph activation to determine homologies and differences with other arthropods immune response pathways.

Hernández Penadés, P., Rodríguez Reina, J.M. & García Marí, F. 2002. Economic threshold for the diaspidid scales [Aonidiella aurantii, Cornuaspis beckii and Parlatoria pergandii (Homoptera: Diaspididae) in citrus orchards.] Umbrales de tratamiento para cóccidos diaspídidos en cítricos. (In Spanish; Summary In English). Boletín de Sanidad Vegetal, Plagas 28(4): 469-478. [HernanRoGa2002]
Notes: A quantitative economic threshold determination for the diaspidid armored scales A. aurantii, C. beckii [Lepidosaphes beckii] and P. pergandii was conducted in 34 commercial citrus plantations in Spain during 1998, 1999 and 2000. At each orchard, 300 mature fruits from a group of 15 to 30 trees were observed for scale infestation. The trees were not sprayed with insecticides for scale control during the three years. The flight activity of A. aurantii males was also measured in nine of these orchards in 1999 and in 20 in 2000, using pheromone traps. A positive correlation was found in fruit infestation at harvest between consecutive years in the three diaspidid species. The coefficient of correlation was high and consequently, the fruit infestation in the previous years could be used to predict the present year's infestation. Without chemical sprays to control the scales, the overall percentage of fruit infestation in the three species increased on average in individual orchards by a factor of two to three, and at most by a factor of six to seven. Infestation levels below 2% guarantee that no economic injury will happen at harvest next year. A high correlation was found between two or three deg male flights and infestation by A. aurantii at harvest. Male daily catches below ten per trap guarantee that no economic injury will appear on fruits at harvest. Daily catches above ten per trap can cause economic injury depending on the climate of the year and parasitism levels.

Herron, G.A. & Barchia, I. 2002. A review of methods for laboratory bioassay of the suffocant efficacy of petroleum-derived spray oils. 90-98 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [HerronBa2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Species discussed include Aonidiella aurantii and Comstockaspis perniciosus.

Heu, R.A. 2002. Distribution and Host Records of Agricultural Pests and Other Organisms in Hawaii. Survey Program, Plant Pest Control Branch, Plant Industry Division, Hawaii, Dept. of Agriculture, Honolulu, Hawaii. 69 pp. [Heu2002]
Notes: Species are listed in alphabetical order with location (Hawaiian island) and plant or insect hosts.

Hill, M., Holm, K., Vel, T., Shah, N.J. & Matyot, P. 2003. Impact of the introduced yellow crazy ant Anoplolepis gracilipes on Bird Island, Seychelles. Biodiversity and Conservation 12(9): 1969-1984. [HillHoVe2003]
Notes: The introduced yellow crazy ant or long-legged ant Anoplolepis gracilipes was first reported in Seychelles in 1969 and now occurs on at least nine islands in the Central Seychelles. We describe the yellow crazy ant's effects on vegetation and invertebrate communities on one of these, Bird Island; in 2000, Anoplolepis (first reported in 1991) occurred there at densities at least 80 times higher than on other islands in the Central Seychelles. They were associated with high densities of coccid scale insects on foliage, especially of the native tree Pisonia grandis, in some instances causing tree death.

Hoddle, M.S. 2003. Classical biological control of arthropods in the 21st century. 3-16 In: Van Dreische, R.G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Washington D.C.. 573 pp. [Hoddle2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002.] Icerya purchasi is the target species for one of the early examples of biological control mentioned in this paper.

Hodges, G. 2002. Pest Alert: A bamboo mealybug, Trionymus lumpurensis Takahashi (Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae). Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Apopka & Gainesville, FL. [Hodges2002]
Notes: Description, similar mealybugs, biology, economic importance and distribution are discussed. Illustrated with photographs. [Available on the internet at http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/~pi/enpp/ento/t-lumpurensis.html on September 2003.]

Hodges, G. 2002a. Pest Alert: Stellate scale, Vinsonia stellifera (Westwood) (Coccoidea: Coccidae). Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Apopka & Gainesville, FL. [Hodges2002a]
Notes: Description, economic importance, hosts and distribution are discussed. Illustrated with photographs. [Available on the internet at http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/~pi/enpp/ento/t-lumpurensis.html on September 2003.]

Hodges, G. & Hodges, A. 2004. New invasive species of mealybugs, Palmicultor lumpurensisand Chaetococcus bambusae(Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae), on bamboo in Florida. Florida Entomologist 87(3): 396-397. [HodgesHo2004]
Notes: This paper reports on the recently discovered occurence of these two mealybugs on imported plants in Florida. Other species mentioned as pests on bamboo are Antonina pretiosa, Maconellicoccus hirsutus and Saccharicoccus sacchari.

Hodges, G., Howard, F.W. & Buss, E.A. 2003. Entomology Section: Update on management methods: for cycad aulacaspis scale. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Gainesville, FL. [HodgesHoBu2003]
Notes: This report discusses chemical and biological control, cultural practices and the long term outlook of Aulacaspis yasumatsui. Illustrated with photographs and compared to Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli. [Available on the internet at http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/~pi/enpp/ento/aulacaspis.html on September 2003.]

Hodges, G., Ruter, J.M. & Braman, S.K. 2003. Florida wax scale damage on Ilex species, hybrids, and cultivars. Holly Society Journal 21(2): 3-12. [HodgesRuBr2003]
Notes: An evaluation was conducted in Georgia, USA, during 29-31 July 1998 and 11-12 February 1999 to identify the potential resistance among holly selections to Florida wax scale (Ceroplastes floridensis; FWS) infestation. A total of 231 selections representing species, hybrids and cultivars of Ilex were evaluated. Two generations of FWS were observed in 1998 at the holly field collection in Tifton, Georgia. The first generation emerged in early spring and the second generation in autumn (November). Population ratings were calculated for each of 18 Ilex taxa.

Hodges, G.S. & Williams, M.L. 2003. Descriptions and illustrations of the first instars of Parthenolecanium corni (Bouche) and Parthenolecanium quercifex (Fitch) (Hemiptera: Coccidae). Journal of Entomological Science 38(4): 489-493. [HodgesWi2003]
Notes: Adult female specimens of Parthenolecanium corni (Bouche) and Parthenolecanium quercifex (Fitch) are often times confused for one another and misidentified. Members of the Parthenolecanium do show host-induced morphological dimorphisms, and the adult female is heavily sclerotized which can make key morphological characters obscure. Utilization of morphological characters of the first instar can help in the accuracy of the identification process. Key characters in distinguishing P. corni from P. quercifex are the absence of large (>5 mum) in the dorsal pore pattern.

Hodges, G.S. & Williams, M.L. 2003a. Descriptions and illustrations of the first instar nymphs of the Cardiococcinae (Hemiptera: Coccidae). Journal of Entomological Science 38(4): 494-501. [HodgesWi2003a]
Notes: Taxonomic information on the Cardiococcinae is limited to morphological characters of the adult female. Morphological information on the immature stages has not been accomplished in the past. This work adds to the current knowledge of coccid immatures by providing descriptions and illustrations for the first-instar nymphs of Ceroplastodes dugesii (Signoret), Inglisia patella Maskell and Pseudokermes nitens Cockerell. Examination of the first instars indicated that morphological similarities exist between C. dugesii and P. nitens. However, L. patella differed morphologically from both of those species by lacking a rugose or papillated derm and by having greater than 34 marginal setae.

Hodgson, C.J. & Henderson, R.C. 2004. Coccidae (Insecta: Hemiptera: Coccoidea): adult males, pupae and prepupae of indigenous species. (In English). Fauna of New Zealand No. 51: 229 pp. [HodgsoHe2004]
Notes: The soft scale family Coccidae is one of ten families of plant sucking scale insects present in New Zealand. The adult females are relatively long lived (normally at least a month or more), and it is this stage that is usually found and thus most often used to identify any given species. The adult females differ greatly from the adult males and pass through 2 or 3 immature (nymphal) stages before finally moulting into a stage that is rather nymph-like but develops ovaries and can reproduce. Adult females lack wings and tend to have relatively short legs and antennae. In addition, the division of the body into head, thorax and abdomen is not obvious. It is this stage that is economically important. This volume of the Fauna of New Zealand describes all the known adult males, pupae, and prepupae of indigenous soft scales of New Zealand.

Hodgson, C. & Matile Ferrero, D. 2003. The immature stages of Pharangococcus iquitosensis Hodgson & Matile-Ferrero off guava from Peruvian Amazonia [Hemiptera, Coccoidea, Coccidae]. Revue Française d'Entomologie 25(1): 33-42. [HodgsoMa2003]
Notes: A new genus and species of soft scale, Pharangococcus iquitosensis, living on guava in Quistococha near Iquitos, Peru, have been recently described. The present paper describes all larval stages, except for the male pre-nymph stage. The same as for the adult females, an important variation is observed in the morphology of the third instar female larvae.

Hodgson, C.J. & Millar, I.M. 2002. A new subfamily, two new genera and three new species of Aclerdidae (Hemiptera : Coccoidea) from southern Africa, with a phylogenetic analysis of relationships. Systematic Entomology 27(4): 469-517. [HodgsoMi2002IM]
Notes: A new aclerdid genus, Lecanaclerda Hodgson & Millar, closely related to Aclerda but with fully developed legs and antennae, is introduced for a new new species, L. macropoda Hodgson & Millar, for which the male and female are described. In addition, genus Rhodesaclerda McConnell is revised and all known stages of existing species, R. combreticola McConnell and R. halli McConnell, are redescribed. The crawler, second-instar female, pupa and the adult male and female of a new species, R. insleyae Hodgson & Millar, from South Africa are also described. Another new genus, Kwazulaclerda Hodgson & Millar, close to Rhodesaclerda, is introduced and the crawler, second-instar female, second-instar male, pupa and adult male and female of the new species K. loranthi Hodgson & Millar from Kwazulu-Natal are described. A phylogenetic analysis based on adult macropterous male characters was undertaken to look at the relationships of these species with other Coccoidea. It is concluded that Lecanaclerda is closely related to Aclerda, Kwazulaclerda is closely related to Rhodesaclerda, Kwazulaclerda and Rhodesaclerda belong to Aclerdidae, and Aclerdidae should be split into two subfamilies, Rhodesaclerdinae Hodgson & Millar (to include Rhodesaclerda and Kwazulaclerda) and Aclerdinae Cockerell (to include Aclerda, Lecanaclerda and Nipponaclerda). These two subfamilies are diagnosed and a key is given for the separation of the genera now included in Aclerdidae. The relationships of Aclerdidae and Coccidae are discussed.

Hoffmann, C. & Schmutterer, H. 2003. [Contribution to the fauna of South-German scale insect antagonists (Coccina).] Beitrag zur Kenntnis der deutschen Fauna von Schildlaus-antagonisten mit Schwerpunkt Süddeutschland (Coccina). (In German; Summary In English). Staatliches Weinbauinstitut Freiburg, Merzhauserstr 47(3/4): 157-164. [HoffmaSc2003]
Notes: Some 81 species of parasitoids and predators of scale insects were reared during the last 50 years in southern Germany. Most of them were Hymenoptera, while some were Diptera and Coleoptera. Encyrtidae and Aphelinidae were the dominant families among the Hymenoptera. Approximately 38% of all reared species were first German records. Four unnamed Encyrtidae were recorded, and 21 of the host-parasitoid relations were previously unknown. Knowledge of the antagonists of scale insects in Germany and their ecology remains rather scanty.

Höhn, H., Höpli, H.U. & Graf, B. 2003. Branch sampling investigations 2002/2003: a year with records. Obst- und Weinbau 139(5): 6-10. [HohnHoGr2003]
Notes: The results are presented of 341 samples of apple branches taken in 110 orchards in German-speaking Switzerland in 2002-2003. The occurrence of winter eggs of the red spider mite [Tetranychus urticae] was at its lowest since these samples were first taken, while infestation by scale insects (including the San José scale [Quadraspidiotus perniciosus]) was at its highest level. There was little change in the abundance of other pests from the previous year.

Höhn, H., Höpli, H.U., Lahusen, A. & Vetsch, W. 2004. [Apple branch testing in 2003/04: did the warm summer influence insects and mites?] Astprobenuntersuchungen 2003/2004: zeigt der warme Sommer Auswirkungen bei Insekten und Milben? (In German; Summary In French). Obst- und Weinbau 140(5): 6-10. [HohnHoLa2004]
Notes: A total of 344 samples were collected in the winter of 2004 from 110 apple orchards in the German part of Switzerland. Per orchard, about three samples (three cultivars) were taken from 2 m long sections of 2-3 year old fruit-bearing branches (10 x 20 cm thick). The survey has been carried out over the last 50 years, however results are shown only for the last five years. Parthenolecanium corni reached record levels with 15.6 larvae/sample, only seen in the early 1950s. High numbers were also found of Lepidosaphes ulmi, Panonychus ulmi, Typhlodromus pyri and Operophtera brumata. The 2-3 fold increase in P. ulmi was mainly caused by the dry and warm summer. However, the average count of 620 winter eggs remained still below the damage threshold of 1200 eggs/2 m branch. Low numbers were found of Quadraspidiotus [Diaspidiotus] sp., Rhopalosiphum insertum, Dysaphis sp., Eriosoma lanigerum, Cacopsylla mali and Rhopobota naevana.

Hrncic, S. 2002. A survey of olive pests in Montenegro. Acta Horticulturae 586: 819-821. [Hrncic2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Olive Growing, Valenzano, Italy, 25-30 September, 2000. Volume 2. Publisher: International Society for Horticultural Science (ISHS).] The population of olive fly (Bactrocera oleae) was monitored in 1998 and 1999 using McPhail traps in olive groves in Budva, Bar, and Ulcinj, the main olive-growing area of the Montenegrin seacoast (Montenegro, Yugoslavia). Fruit samples were also examined for the presence of eggs, larvae, and nymphs. In 1998, the highest olive fly population was recorded from 15 to July 22. In 1999, population peaks were observed in mid-August and in the last fortnight of September. Besides olive fly, the other major pests identified in the Montenegrin coastal area were Prays oleae, Saissetia oleae, Parlatoria oleae, Philippia oleae [Filippia oleae], Liothrips oleae, Euphyllura olivina, Resselliela oleisuga [Resseliella oleisuga], Dasineura oleae, and Phloetribus scarabaeoides [? Phloetribus scarabeoides]. Attacks by Palpita unionalis were detected recently in several new olive orchards.

Hsieh, F.K., Shieh, S.H. & Chen, C.T. 2004. Using yellow water pans to study the insect fauna in a newly established climatron. (In Chinese). Plant Protection Bulletin (Taichung) 46(3): 223-233. [HsiehShCh2004]
Notes: Yellow water pans were used to trap insects and invertebrates in order to investigate the insect fauna in the newly established tropical rainforest climatron at the Botanical Garden of the National Museum of Natural Science, Taichung, Taiwan. Classification was determined to Order in insects and to Class in other invertebrates. In total, 52 taxa of trapped organisms were identified, among which, 47 taxa or 84.4% were insects. Among these, 38.5% of individuals were of the Homoptera, 17% were of the Hymenoptera, and 15.5% were other invertebrates. In the Homoptera, the Aleyrodidae had the most individuals by number at 54.4%, with the Aphidoidea at 31.7%, the Coccoidea at 9.6%, and the Eriosomatidae at 4.1%. As to the Hymenoptera, the Formicidae had the most abundant numbers at 87.5%, with the Chalcidoidea at 12.1%. The Pulmonata comprised the most non-insect individuals at 44.3%, of which snails accounted for 99%, and mites 27.5%. In terms of the number of taxa, the order Diptera had 11, Hymenoptera had 8, and Homoptera and Coleoptera both had 5. Based on PCA analyses, the major factor affecting the spatial distribution of insects in relation to the climatron environment was height above the ground, while the decenter, orientation, and pathways were minor ones.

Huang, H.Y., Liang, P., Wei, G.T. & Huang, Y.H. 2003. Experimental control of peach mulberry white scale using pesticides. (In Chinese). China Fruits No. 6: 28-30. [HuangLiWe2003]
Notes: 1000 times solution of 25% Jiesha emulsion, 200 times solution of 30% Qianglishajie light wettable granule, 2000 times solution of 10% Admire (imidacloprid) wettable powder, 1000 times solution of 40% Dusiben [? Dursban=chlorpyrifos] emulsion, 30 times solution of Petroleum oil emulsion and 1 Baume's degree of lime sulfur [calcium polysulfide] solution were used for control of mulberry white scale (Pseudaulacaspis pentagona). Results showed that the lime sulfur was the best for controlling scales; killing 98.5-99.5%. It is recommended that during the vegetative period, spraying twice with lime sulfur is necessary.

Huang, Y.H., Nie, Y.P., Tao, M., Chen, G.H. & Yang, B.L. 2004. Study on Phenacaspis kentiae Kuwana's natural enemies in Kunming. (In Chinese; Summary In English). Journal of Yunnan Agricultural University 19(3): 357-359. [HuangNiTa2004]

Huang, M.D., Tan, B.L., Mao, R.Q., Chen, Y.G., Beattie, G.A.C., Rae, D.J., Watson, D.M., Cen, Y.J., Quan, J.C., Tang, M.L., Chen, C.X. & Xie, S.T. 2002. Demonstration of horticultural mineral oil-based citrus IPM programs in China. 372-378 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [HuangTaMa2002]
Notes: [Authors continue: Zhang, Z.H. & Yang, Q.Y. Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Species listed include Aonidiella aurantii, Ceroplastes rubens, Chrysomphalus aonidum, Parlatoria pergandii and Unaspis yanonensis.

Huang, B.H., Zou, Y.D., Bi, S.D., Zhu, H.W. & Gao, Z.L. 2003. [Geostatistical analysis on spatial patterns of Didesmococcus koreanus Borchs and Chilocorus rubidus Hope.] (In Chinese). Yingyong Shengtai Xuebao 14(3): 413-417. [HuangZoBi2003]
Notes: The spatial pattern and correlation of Didesmococcus koreanus Borchs and Chilocorus rubidus Hope in different periods were investigated with geostatistics. The results showed that the semivariogram of Didesmococcus koreanus Borchs and Chilocorus rubidus Hope could be described by spherical model, indicating that their spatial patterns were in agreement. The amount and spatial distribution of Chilocorus rubidus Hope was closely related to that of Didesmococcus koreanus Borchs, which revealed that Chilocorus rubidus Hope was the dominant natural enemy of Didesmococcus koreanus Borchs.

Hudina, M. (Ed.) 2004. (In Slovenian). Proceedings. I Slovenian Fruit Growing Congress, with international participation, Krško, 24-26 March 2004. Parts 1 and 2. Slovenian fruit growing association, University of Ljubljana, Biotechnology Faculty, Ljubljana, Slovenia. 817 pp. [Hudina2004]
Notes: [Original title: Zbornik referatov 1. Slovenskega sadjarskega kongresa z mednarodno udelezbo, Krsko, Slovenia, 24-26 marec 2004. Del 1.] The 2 volumes of these proceedings, the first covering 421 pages and the second 423-817 pages, contain 54 papers and 57 papers, respectively. All aspects of fruit production in Slovenia are covered, including crop production, fertilizers and nutrition, propagation, rootstock effects, irrigation, climatic effects, physiology, plant health and protection against pests and diseases (notably Erwinia amylovora), quality, nutritional value, storage, packaging, economics and marketing. The vast majority of papers are on apples, although pears, small fruits, olives and nuts are also covered. One of the papers relevant to scale researchers is altered development of black scale (Saissetia oleae Bern.) in Slovenian Istria (Koren, Milevoj & Jancar).

Huszcza, W. & Kot, I. 2002. [The diversity of number of the most important apple pests under the influence of some ecological factors.] Zróznicowanie liczebnosci populacji najwazniejszych szkodników jabloni pod wplywem niektórych czynników ekologicznych. (In Polish; Summary In English). Progress in Plant Protection 42(2): 449-451. [HuszczKo3000]
Notes: Results are presented of a study conducted during 2000-01 in three apple orchards in Poland that are under different plant protection, fertilization and agrotechnical program to determine the effects of ecological factors on the population dynamics of apple pests Panonychus ulmi, Psylla mali [Cacopsylla mali], Lepidosaphes ulmi and Aphidoidea.

Ishaq, M., Usman, M., Asif, M. & Khan, I.A. 2004. Integrated pest management of mango against mealy bug and fruit fly. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology 6(3): 452-454. [IshaqUsAs2004]
Notes: Mango mealy bug (Drosicha stebbingi) and fruit fly (Dacus zonatus [Bactrocera zonata] and Dacus dorsalis [Bactrocera dorsalis]) are serious pests of mango and are difficult to control by insecticides. Testing several treatments developed an IPM strategy. The treatments to control mealy bugs were: chemical control, biological control, cultural control and mechanical control. The chemical control treatments include spraying with Folidol [parathion] 0.4% and metasystox [demeton-S-methyl] 0.4%; and stem injection using folidol at 0.20 ml and metasystox at 0.20 ml. The biological control treatment included placing burlap bands in trunks to encourage the increase in the population of the predator, Sumnius renardii [S. vestita]. Cultural control included egg exposure, and removal of infested soil around the trees and burying away from the orchard. Mechanical control included the use of sticky bands and burning of female insects along the stickybands. The treatments to control mango fruit fly included: methyl eugenol traps at frequencies of 2, 4 and 6 traps per hectare. The sticky bands along with burning and burying treatments significantly reduced the incidence of infestation by mango mealy bug (0.00-15.79%). Burlap bands reduced populations of mango mealy bug nymphs by 78.98%. Methyl eugenol traps were extremely effective to trap and kill fruit fly. Stem injection could achieve a very high level of mortality of sucking insects (98%). The mortality rates achieved with insecticide sprays were up to 55%. The non-chemical methods have been found superior in mealy bug and fruit fly control.

Ismailov, V.Y., Kovalenkov, V.G., Nadykta, V.D. 2002. [Biological method: past, present and future.] (In Russian). Zashchita i Karantin Rastenii No. 3: 13-16. [IsmailSm2002]
Notes: Information is reviewed on the first application of biological control method in the 19th century in the USA. Rodolia cardinalis was successfully used for complete control of Icerya purchasi in citrus plantations. I. I. Mechnikov demonstrated in Russia for the first time the potential of microorganisms for pest control when using the enthomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae, isolated from larvae of the bread beetle Anisoplia austriaca. Further successes in the field of development and use of biological control agents for insect pest control on crops in the former USSR, Russia, Europe and the USA are discussed.

Izquierdo, J., Mansanet, V., Sanz, J.V. & Puiggrós, J.M. 2002. Development of Envidor(R) for the control of spider mites in Spanish citrus production. (In English; Summary In French, German, Spanish). Pflanzenschutz Nachrichten Bayer 55(2/3): 255-266. [IzquieMaSa2002]
Notes: Envidor (spirodiclofen) at 0.0048% proved to be very effective in controlling Panonychus citri and Tetranychus urticae, the two main spider mite species in the citrus-growing areas in Spain. Envidor did not have any negative effect on Rodolia cardinalis, an important beneficial insect controlling cottony cushion scale, Icerya purchasi. Its good profile with respect to beneficial arthropods makes spirodiclofen an excellent tool in integrated pest control in citrus-growing.

Jacobsen, C.M. & Hara, A.H. 2003. Irradiation of Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Homoptera : Pseudococcidae) for phytosanitation of agricultural commodities. Journal of Economic Entomology 96(4): 1334-1339. [JacobsHa2003]
Notes: Studies on the tolerance of pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green), to ionizing irradiation were undertaken to determine the dose needed to disinfest commodities of this pest. Overall, radiotolerance of M. hirsutus was found to increase with maturity. Target doses of 50 Gy reduced eclosion of eggs to <50%, but doses as great as 750 Gy did not eliminate hatching during the study. At 100 Gy, M. hirsutus eggs, crawlers, and nymphs were controlled, because progeny were not produced despite crawlers and nymphs living for much longer periods than unexposed individuals. Fecundity of treated crawlers and nymphs was greatly impacted by treatment of 100 Gy; crawlers developing into adults produced no eggs, and 10 adults of 3,983 treated nymphs (0.25%) produced 309 eggs. Few adult females exposed as nymphs deposited eggs because male nymphs died during development, which left the females unfertilized. By comparison, 89% of female nymphs treated at 100 Gy and mated as adults with nonirradiated males produced a total of 1,447 eggs (19 eggs per female). Evidence from this study suggests M. hirsutus reproduces sexually, not parthenogenetically. Adults, the most resistant stage, exposed to target doses of 100 Gy produced eggs that were 1.2% viable, from which a small portion of individuals successfully completed development and produced progeny. A target dose of 250 Cy was sufficient to control adult M. hirsutus because, at that dose, none of the eggs produced by 3,093 irradiated adults enclosed. The minimum dose needed to ensure quarantine security is between 100 and 250 Gy.

Jacques, D.F. & Kuhlmann, B. 2002. ExxonMobil experience with horticultural mineral oils. 39-51 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [JacqueKu2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Pseudaulacaspis pentagona is mentioned as one of the target pests of a specific pesticides.

Jahn, G.C. 2004. Effect of soil nutrients on the growth, survival and fecundity of insect pests of rice: an overview and a theory of pest outbreaks with consideration of research approaches. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 27(1): 115-122. [Jahn2004]
Notes: [Conference: Proceedings of the IOBC WPRS Working Group 'Multitrophic Interactions in Soil and Integrated Control', Bad Honnef, Germany, 1-4 June 2003 combined with selected papers from the meetings 'Thinking in Lines - from Research to Market Products', Einsiedeln, Switzerland, 2-4 November 2000 and 'Biological Mechanisms Affecting Nematode Management', Reading, UK, 5-6 September, 2001, Sikora, R.A., Gowen, S., Hauschild & R., Kiewnick, S. (Eds.).] The addition of nutrients to the soil, especially nitrogen, is known to increase the growth, survival and fecundity of many rice insect pests. Likewise, an environmental stress, such as drought, which increases the availability of soluble nitrogen in the plant could be expected to have similar effects on the insects' biology. An increase in pest populations normally leads to an increase in the immigration and reproductive rates of natural enemies so that pest outbreaks are prevented. If the population growth response of natural enemies is prevented or sufficiently delayed, however, then pest outbreaks may occur. Such interference in the response of natural enemies could result from insecticide use or from environmental conditions that permit predators of the natural enemies to enter the agroecosystem. This paper contains an overview of the literature on the relation between soil nutrients and insect pest outbreaks on rice, a proposal that the rice mealybug (Brevennia rehi) outbreaks of South Asia are the result of drought-induced changes in plant metabolism and ant-mealybugs mutualism, and a review of possible research approaches that can be used to understand how multitrophic interactions and nutritional effects can contribute to the occurrence of rice pest outbreaks.

Jahn, G.C., Beardsley, J.W. & Gonzalez-Hernandez, H. 2003. A review of the association of ants with mealybug wilt disease of pineapple. Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society 36: 9-28. [JahnBeGo2003]
Notes: The literature concerning the association between ants and the mealybugs causing pineapple wilt disease is surveyed. A great deal of data on this subject has been published in the relatively obscure technical papers and reports of the defunct Pineapple Research Institute of Hawaii. This review article is an attempt to bring this information to a broader audience and examine it in the context of related research reported in mainstream publications to create a meaningful synthesis. Two species of mealy-bugs, Dysmicoccus brevipes (Cockerell) and D. neobrevipes Beardsley, are associated with wilt disease of pineapple under field conditions. A third species, Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni-Tozzetti) induces wilt symptoms in laboratory experiments, but not under field conditions. The symptoms of wilt disease and the geographic distribution of the pineapple mealybug complex are described. The history of the discovery of the disease, the disease etiology, the association of mealybugs with wilt and the mutualism between ants and mealybugs on pineapple are discussed in detail. At least 28 different species of ants tend mealybugs on pineapples. The ants and natural enemies associated with mealybugs on pineapple are reviewed as part of a discussion of the role of ants in promoting mealybug infestations. Finally, management techniques for wilt, including ant and mealybug control, are reviewed.

Jalaluddin, S.M. 2004. Crop loss assessment due to linear scale insect Lepidosaphus (Lepidosaphes?) cornutus Green (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) in Betelvine. Insect Environment 10(1): 16-17. [Jalalu2004]
Notes: An experiment was conducted in Tamil Nadu, India, to estimate the betelvine leaf yield loss, in monetary terms, caused by linear scale insect, Lepidosaphus cornutus [Lepidosaphes cornutus], infestation. The number of linear scale insect per 2 m vine was recorded at fortnightly intervals from April to September 2002. The plots treated with 0.04% chlorpyrifos had significantly lower number of insects per vine (0.00-2.94, mean 1.25) than the untreated plots (0.85-81.56, mean 20.45). The monetary loss due to pest damage in the treated and untreated plots were Rs. 10450 and 42800, respectively. The total loss of marketable leaves due to scale insect infestation in treated plots was 36.95% and in untreated plots was 59.24%. The cost benefit ratio was 1:13.94.

James, D.G. 2004. Effect of buprofezin on survival of immature stages of Harmonia axyridis, Stethorus punctum picipes (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), Orius tristicolor (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae), and Geocoris spp. (Hemiptera: Geocoridae). Journal of Economic Entomology 97(3): 900-904. [James2004]
Notes: The effect of buprofezin, a chitin synthesis inhibitor, on development and survival of immature stages of Harmonia axyridis (Pallas), Stethorus punctum picipes Casey, Orius tristicolor (White), Geocoris pallens Stal, and Geocoris punctipes (Say), was examined in a series of laboratory bioassays. Very few H. axyridis larvae (3.1%) treated with buprofezin reached adulthood, although 65% of treated pupae emerged successfully. Buprofezin caused no mortality to eggs of S. punctum picipes but 71.1% of treated early instar larvae failed to complete development. Eighty percent of treated late instars and 92.3% of pupae produced viable adults. Early instar nymphs of O. tristicolor were unaffected by buprofezin, whereas 47.7 and 85% of G. punctipes and G. pallens nymphs, respectively, failed to complete development. Treated eggs of G. pallens hatched successfully. The use of buprofezin in integrated pest management in Washington state wine grapes is discussed.

Jancar, M. 2003. [Integrated protection of olive.] Integrirano varstvo oljk. Revija za Sadjarstvo, Vinogradnistvo in Vinarstvo 14(6): 5-8. [Jancar2003]
Notes: Descriptions are provided and integrated control methods are discussed for the main pests and diseases of olive in Slovenia, namely Spilocaea oleagina, Saissetia oleae, Prays oleae and olive fly [Bactrocera oleae].

Jankovský, L. & Palovcíková, D. 2003. Dieback of Austrian pine - the epidemic occurrence of Sphaeropsis sapinea in southern Moravia. (In English; Summary In Czech). Journal of Forest Science 49(8): 389-394. [JankovPa2003]
Notes: This study was conducted in Moravia, Czech Republic, to evaluate the occurrence of fungal pathogens and some other harmful factors on Austrian pine (Pinus nigra) and to assess their role in the process of decline and dieback. At all localities, Sphaeropsis shoot the death of pine was caused by Sphaeropsis sapinea. Diplodia pinea was recorded on a mass scale in declining shoots. Fruit bodies of the fungus were found on twigs, at the base of needles being particularly abundant in cones. Generally, the fungus is considered to be an opportunist pathogen which spreads on damaged tissues of shoots accelerating their death. In trees with the same symptoms of damage, Brunchorstia pinea [Gremmeniella abietina] was also detected at some localities. The occurrence of scales Leucaspis pussila (pusilla) can be considered to be the demonstration of stress load of trees suffering from drought. Feeding marks of Pityophthorus pityographus and Ips acuminatus were noticed. Annual shoots were damaged by species of the genus Magdalis at some localities.

Jansen, M.G.M. 2003. A new species of Rhizoecus Kunkel d'Herculais (Hemiptera, Coccoidea, Pseudococcidae) on bonsai trees. Tijdschrift voor Entomologie. Amsterdam 146: 297-300. [Jansen2003]
Notes: Rhizoecus maasbachi, sp. n. is described and figured from specimens collected on bonsai trees originating from China during import inspections. A key to the Rhizoecus species of the Netherlands is given.

Japoshvili, G.O. 2002a. Chalcid wasps from south Georgia. 291-293 In: Melika, G. & Thuróczy, C. (Eds.), Parasitic Wasps: Evolution, Systematics, Biodiversity and Biological Control. Agroinform, Budapest. xx + 480 pp. [Japosh2002a]
Notes: Chalcid wasps were collected from south Georgia during 1994-2000. Hosts identified include Diaspidiotus perniciosus, D. pyri, Epidiaspis leperii, Leucaspis pusilla, Parthenolecanium corni, Physokermes piceae, Quadraspidiotus armeniacus, Q. ostreaformis, Rhodococcus spirae and Sphaerolecanium prunastri.

Japoshvili, G. & Karaca, I. 2002. Coccid (Homoptera: Coccoidea) species of Isparta Province, and their parasitoids from Turkey and Georgia. (In English; Summary In Turkish). Turkish Journal of Zoology 26: 371-376. [JaposhKa2002]
Notes: A list of coccids distributed in Isparta province (Turkey) is given in this paper. Their parasitoids determined in Isparta and previously reported from Turkey and Georgia are also discussed. As a result of the survey studies performed in June-November, 2001, 21 species of coccids were found on different host plants in Isparta province. From 16 of these coccids, 19 species of parasitoids were obtained. The similarity index of two countries in terms of their coccid parasitoids fauna was 0.635. Species listed are Acanthomytilus cedricola, Carulaspis caruelii, Chionaspis salicis, Coccus hesperidum, Diaspidiotus ostreaformis, D. perniciosus, D. prunorum, Eulecanium tiliae, Kermes vermilio, Lepidosaphes malicola, L. newsteadi, L. ulmi, Leucaspis loewi, Nuculaspis abietis, Parlatoria oleae, Parthenolecanium corni, Planococcus vovae, Pulvinaria betulae, Rhodococcus peromatus, Salicicola kermanensis and Sphaerolecanium prunastri.

Japoshvili, G. & Karaca, I. 2002a. Two new subspecies of the genus Coccophagus (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) from Turkey. (In English; Summary In Georgian). Bulletin of the Georgian Academy of Sciences 166(1): 139-142. [JaposhKa2002a]
Notes: Coccophagus proximus spartanus subsp. n. and C. scutellaris kvavadze subsp. n. from Turkey are described and illustrated as parasitoids of the scale pests Sphaerolecanium prunastri on Prunus divaricata and Armeniaca vulgaris and Eriopeltis sp. on Gramineae, respectively.

Japoshvili, G. & Karaca, I. 2003. New records of encyrtid parasitoids of Kermes palestiniensis Balachowsky (Hemiptera: Kermesidae), with the description of a new species of Blastothrix Mayr (Hymenoptera : Encyrtidae) from Turkey. Entomological News 114(4): 187-191. [JaposhKa2003]
Notes: A new species of the encyrtid wasp genus Blastothrix Mayr is described from Turkey. All specimens of the type series of B. gurselae n.sp. were reared from Kermes palestiniensis Balachowsky on Turkey oak, Quercus coccifera. New records of the parasitoids of K. palestiniensis in Turkey is given.

Jeon, H.Y., Kim, D.S., Cho, M.R., Chang, Y.D. & Yiem, M.S. 2003. Temperature-dependent development of Pseudococcus comstocki (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) and its stage transition models. Korean Journal of Applied Entomology 42(1): 43-51. [JeonKiCh2003]
Notes: This study was carried out to develop the forecasting model of P. comstocki for spray timing. Field phenology and temperature-dependent development of P. comstocki were studied, and its stage transition models were developed. P. comstocki occurred three generations a year in Suwon. The 1st adults occurred during mid to late June, and the 2nd adults were abundant during mid to late August. The 3rd adults were observed after late October. The development times of each instar of P. comstocki decreased with increasing temperature up to 25 deg C, and thereafter the development times increased. The estimated low-threshold temperatures were 14.5, 8.4, 10.2, 11.8, and 10.1 deg C for eggs, 1st+2nd nymphs, 3rd nymphs, preoviposition, and 1st nymphs to preoviposition, respectively. The degree-days (thermal constants) for completion of each instar development were 105 DD for egg, 315 DD for 1st + 2nd nymph, 143 DD for 3rd nymph, 143 DD for preoviposition, and 599 DD for 1stnymph to preoviposition. The stage transition models of P. comstocki, which simulate the proportion of individuals shifted from a stage to the next stage, were constructed using the modified Sharpe and DeMichele model and the Weibull function. In field validation, degree-day models using mean-minus-base, sine wave, and rectangle method showed 2-3 d, 1-7 d, and 0-6 d deviation with actual data in predicting the peak oviposition time of the 1st and 2nd generation adults, respectively. The rate summation model, in which daily development rates estimated by biophysical model of Sharpe and DeMichele were accumulated, showed 1-2 d deviation with actual data at the same phenology predictions.

Jia, K.F., Huang, J.B., Xu, Z.H., Long, X.J., Yan, X.S. & Wu, D.X. 2004. [Study on biology and utility of Aprostocetus sp. on Kermes nawai.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Journal of Zhejiang Forestry College 21(1): 75-78. [JiaHuXu2004]
Notes: The collection and observation of Aprostocetus sp. on Kermes nawai was conducted in Jiande, Zhejiang Province, China, during 1998-2002. The parasitoid occurred twice a year; the adults emerged in April to May and September to October. The adults of the first generation lay eggs into the body of adults; the adults of the second generation lay eggs into the body of nymphs in second instar. The adults of Aprostocetus sp. were released in chestnut (Castanea mollissima) forest in Quzhou to control K. nawai. Results showed that the population density of K. nawai decreased from 22.00 adults per 10 cm branch in April 2000 to 1.83 adults per 10 cm branch in April 2002. The insect pests were kept under control. The Chinese chestnut yield increased from 300 to 2250 kg/ha.

Jiao, Y. & Zhao, P. 2002. [Bionomics and population dynamics of Microterys sinicus Jiang (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae).] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Acta Entomologica Sinica 45(4): 482-486. [JiaoZh2002]
Notes: The bionomics and population dynamics of Microterys sinicus Jiang, an important natural enemy of the white wax insect, Ericerus pela Chavannes, during the latter's oviposition period, were surveyed from 1995 to 1998 in Yunnan Province. It was found that the adults moved up and down host trees and fed on honeydew as supplementary nutrition. Copulation occurred on host trees. Detailed biological information is given.

Jones, N. & Houben, A. 2003. B chromosomes in plants: escapees fro the A chromosome genome? Trends in Plant Science 8(9): 417-423. [JonesHo2003]
Notes: B chromosomes are dispensable elements that do not recombine with the A chromosomes of the regular complement and that follow their own evolutionary track. In some cases, they are known to be nuclear parasites with autonomous modes of inheritance, exploiting 'drive' to ensure their survival in populations. Their I selfishness' brings them into conflict with their host nuclear genome and generates a host-parasite relationship, with anti-B-chromosome genes working to ameliorate the worst of their excesses in depriving their hosts of genetic resources. Molecular studies are homing in on their sequence organization to give us an insight into the origin and evolution of these enigmatic chromosomes, which are, with rare exceptions, without active genes. Reference is made to Nur's work in providing convincing evidence of the parasitic nature of the mealybug Pseudococcus affinis.

Joubert, P.H., Grové, T., De Beer, M.S. & Steyn, W.P. 2004. Evaluation of Kaolin (Surround® WP) in an IPM program on mangoes in South Africa. Acta Horticulturae 645: 493-499. [JouberGrDe2004]
Notes: [VII International Mango Symposium, Recife, Brazil. Pinto, A.C.Q., Pereira, M.E.C, Alves, R.E. (Eds.)] In South Africa, insect pests like mango weevil, Sternochetus mangiferae, fruit flies, Ceratitis spp., mango scale, Aulacaspis tubercularis and citrus thrips, Scirtothrips aurantii, are important in commercial mango production and have to be controlled regularly. In certain areas pests of minor importance like mealybug spp., mango gall fly, Procontarinia matteiana, twig miner, Spulerina sp. and coconut bug, Pseudotheraptus wayi, also cause damage. A non-toxic kaolin product, Surround WP, was evaluated in a ‘Sensation’ mango orchard against pests occurring early in the season. Surround alone and Surround in combination with sulfur and lime sulfur effectively controlled citrus thrips, mango weevil and coconut bug. Mango gall fly did not occur during the trial and the treatments had no effect on twig miner. Both Surround treatments caused mild repercussions of mango scale and long-tailed mealybug, Pseudococcus longispinus, although the Surround in combination with sulfur minerals was more favourable and very similar to the control. With the increase in consumer resistance against the use of toxic chemicals in crop production, it was concluded that Surround WP should be registered and used in an IPM program on mangoes in South Africa.

Kahler, H.A. 2002. In: Nest-site Resources for Cavity-nesting Birds in the Southern Allegheny Mountain Forests of West Virginia. West Virginia University, . 127 pp. [Kahler2002]
Notes: [Ph.D. Thesis; James T. Anderson, Advisor.] Cavity-nesting birds may be negatively impacted by a lack of proper nesting sites. Southern Allegheny Mountain forests of West Virginia are unique due to the juxtaposition and diversity of forest cover types. Management must focus on monitoring wildlife population levels as well as habitat requirements within each cover type. Cavity tree abundance significantly differed among central hardwood (x = 16.4; SE = 5.3), northern hardwood (x =12.7; SE = 6.8), and boreal forest cover types (x = 7.2; SE = 3.6) ( P < 0.0001). Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) and American beech (Fagus grandifolia) were most likely to have tree cavities, yet beech may be influenced by increased mortality from recent outbreaks of beech bark disease initiated by the beech scale insect (Cryptococcus fagisuga).

Kailis, S. G. & Sweeney, S. 2002. Olives in Australia. Acta Horticulturae 586: 385-388. [KailisSw2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Olive Growing, Valenzano, Italy, 25-30 September, 2000. Volume 1. Vitagliano, C. & Martelli, G. P. (Ed.)] An olive industry is developing in Australia. Olive oil is popular in Australia because of its health benefits, Mediterranean links and commercial potential. Australian olive markets are dominated by imported products. By 2010, Australia wants to be acknowledged as a global producer of quality olive products. Olive oil production is set to expand to nearly half the volume of imported olive oils within 5 years. Industries, universities and government agencies undertake olive research and development. The Australian Olive Association has a 5-year industry plan. Olive orchards, some within vineyards, range from 10-500 ha. Establishment involves decisions on site selection, planting stock and horticultural technologies. Australian-propagated trees, trained in a vase-shape, are used. Varietal authenticity and suitability are still in question. Quarantine protocols are in place permitting import of high-health olive trees from Italy and Israel. New groves are irrigated with some fertigated. Interrows are managed by mowing, planting cover crops, spraying herbicides or tilling. Organic olive growing is popular. Pests and diseases include black scale [Saissetia oleae], peacock spot [Spilocaea oleaginea] and olive lace bug [? Eteoneus sigilatus] in humid conditions, curculio-weevil, wild birds and animals and to a lesser extent Phytophthora and nematodes. Olive fly [Bactrocera oleae], olive moth [Prays oleae] and olive knot [Pseudomonas savastanoi] have never been found in Australia. Olives are picked manually, but with future crops, mechanical harvesting is anticipated. Australian olive oils are produced in modern plants or by traditional pressing. Several table olive-processing plants have been established. Australian efforts are being directed towards high quality olive products for the domestic and international markets. Expectations are that existing imports will persist because of purchasing habits by Australians loyal to traditional olive products. An economic study has indicated that at $4/litre, the cost-benefit ratio at 7% was 1.46 with a break even after 12 years. Risks are climate, international prices and domestic supply. Competition for natural resources with other industries is a threat.

Kapoor, V. P. & Pushpangadan, P. 2002. Natural dye-based: Herbal Gulal. Natural Product Radiance 1(2): 8-14. [KapoorPu2002]
Notes: This paper describes a technological process for the preparation of synergistic herbal dry colour composition (or Gulal) from natural dyes extracted from Curcuma longa (curcumin), Bixa orellana (bixin and nor-bixin), Indigofera tinctoria (indigoid), Laccifer lacca [Kerria lacca] (lac dye) and chlorophyll (chlorophyllin) and blended in specific proportions under specific conditions. The novelty and main advantages of the process are discussed.

Karaca, I. & Japoshvili, G. 2002. An annotated list of the chalcid (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) parasitoids of coccids (Hemiptera, Coccoidea) in Isparta Province (Turkey). (In English). Proceedings of the Institute of Zoology, Academy of Sciences of Georgia 21: 173-175. [KaracaJa2002]
Notes: Coccid hosts listed include Acanthomytilus cedricola, Carulaspis caruelii, Diaspidiotus prunorum, Kermes, Lepidosaphes malicola, L. newsteadi, L. ulmi, Leucaspis, Parlatoria oleae, Pulvinaria betulae, Quadraspidiotus ostreaformis, Q. perniciosus, Rhodococcus perornatus and Sphaerolecanium prunastri.

Karaca, I., Japoshvili, G. & Demirözer, O. 2003. The chalcid parasitoid complex (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) associated with the globose scale (Sphaerolecanium prunastri Fonscolombe) (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) in Isparta Province, Turkey and some east European countries. (In English; Summary In German). Zeitschrift für Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz 110(5): 505-511. [KaracaJaDe2003]
Notes: The globose scale (GS) Sphaerolecanium prunastri Fonscolombe (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) is a common and harmful soft scale species which attacks Prunus spp. and other stone fruit trees throughout the Holarctic, including the Isparta Province of Turkey. A study is being undertaken on the phenology of GS in Isparta Province and, in particular, the chalcidoid parasitoids are being studied for their possible role in biocontrol of GS. Five study sites were chosen as representative of the stone fruit-growing area of the Isparta region. This is the first study on the phenology, degree of plant damage and host-parasitoid relations of this scale in Turkey. The experimental sites included three in which pesticides were being used and two that were undisturbed conserved areas. The 15 species of chalcidoid parasitoids of GS known for the southeastern Europe are listed, and a comparison of the parasitoid complexes of Turkey and some of other European countries is given. The observations revealed that the scale was heavily parasitized in the unsprayed plots. Parasitism by the chalcidoid complexes did not differ in seasonal occurrence and abundance, and was stable. The main primary parasitoid of GS was Discodes coccophagus Ratzeburg (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). The species Aprostocetus trjapitzini Kostjukov is recorded for the first time in Turkey.

Karaca, I., Japoshvili, G. & Demirözer, O. 2003a. Rose soft scale (Hemiptera: Coccidae) and its parasitoid in Isparta Province (Turkey). Proceedings of the Georgian Academy of Sciences, Biology, Ser. B 1(1/2): 77-80. [KaracaJaDe2003a]
Notes: Microterys bellae Trjapitzin (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), a parasitoid of rose soft scale, Rhodococcus perornatus (Cockerell & Parrott) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) has been found in Turkey for the first time. Rose oil is one of the most important agricultural exports from Turkey. Several pests and diseases cause economic losses in oil roses (Rosa damascena L.).

Kasetsart University, Thailand 2003. (In Thai; Summary In English). In: Proceedings of 41st Kasetsart University Annual Conference. Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand. 592 pp. [KasetsUnTh2003]
Notes: [Conference held 3-7 February, 2003.] These proceedings contain 73 papers, on genetic transformation, in vitro culture, plant physiology, plant disease control, weed control, pest control, biotechnology, plant genetics and breeding, plant genetic resources, agricultural extension, crop production, plant propagation, plant nutrition, fertilizer application, plant composition and biochemistry, sustainable agriculture and technology transfer in Thailand. The paper Annona seed extract and some herb extracts on chilli yield and control broad mite Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Bank)) and some key pests in chilli (Uraisakul) mentions Pseudococcidae.

Kathiresan, K. 2003. Insect foliovory in mangroves. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences 32(3): 237-239. [Kathir2003]
Notes: The insects cause extensive damage to mangrove leaves, such as holes, galls, necrotic spots, and incursions occurring along leaf margins. The predominant insect species are leaf-mining moth (Phyllocnistis sp.), leaf gall species (Stephaniella falcaria, Monolepta sp.), caterpillars (Dasychira sp., Capua endocypha and Odites spp.) and scale insects (Aspidiotus destructor). Avicennia species suffer more leaf damage than do Rhizophora species. This correlates negatively with tannin concentration in the leaves.

Kathiresan, G. 2004. Karumpuk kathi - a new sugarcane de-trasher. Cooperative Sugar 35(12): 939-940. [Kathir2004]
Notes: Removal of old dried, yellowish green, bottom leaves of sugarcane crop is called de-trashing. This single operation has several advantages of reducing the pest menace like, pyrilla, white flies, mealy bugs, inter node borer and removing the sprouted buds in the cane stalk.

Kaufmann, E., Malsch, A.K.F., Williams, D.J. & Maschwitz, U. 2003. Pseudolasius spp. (Formicinae) and their trophobionts - codispersal by colony budding. Sociobiology 41(2): 429-436. [KaufmaMaWi2003]
Notes: Biological data on three species of Pseudolasius (Formicinae) provide new circumstantial evidence on the codispersal of these ants with their trophobionts, in this case Tetraneura nigriabdominalis (Aphididae) and to a lesser extent, Paracoccus sp. (Pseudococcidae).

Kaydan, M.B., Ülgentürk, S., Zeki, C., Toros, S. & Gürkan, M.O. 2004. Studies on the Pseudococcidae (Homoptera: Coccoidea) fauna of Afyon, Ankara, Burdur and Isparta provinces, Turkey. (In English; Summary In Turkish). Turkish Journal of Zoology 28(3): 219-224. [KaydanUlZe2004]
Notes: Cultivated and non-cultivated areas were surveyed between 1999 and 2000 for coccoid fauna in Ankara, Afyon, Burdur and Isparta provinces. Nineteen species from eleven genera belonging to Pseudococcidae were found. Among these Chaetococcus phragmitis, Phenacoccus bicerarius, Phenacoccus evelinae, Puto pilosellae, Puto superbus, Rhodania porifera, and Spinococcus morrisoni were new records for Turkish fauna.

Kenne, M., Djieto-Lordon, C., Orivel, J., Mony, R., Fabre, A. & Dejean, A. 2003. Influence of insecticide treatments on ant-Hemiptera associations in tropical plantations. Journal of Economic Entomology 96(2): 251-258. [KenneDjOr2003]
Notes: In this survey conducted in southern Cameroon, we compared ant-Hemiptera associations on plantations treated with insecticides, on plantations two years after insecticide treatments ceased, and on control lots that never received insecticide treatments. By eliminating arboreal-nesting ants, insecticides favored the presence of "ecologically dominant" ground-nesting, arboreal-foraging species that occupied the tree crowns. The reinstallation of arboreal ants was slow as two yr after insecticide treatment ceased differences with the control lots were significant. This intermediary period also illustrated that arboreal ants can found and develop colonies on trees occupied by ground-nesting species. Certain arboreal species were more frequent during this intermediary period than on the control lots, showing that the period of installation in the trees was followed by competition between arboreal ants. We confirm that ground-nesting ants tend a wide range of hemipteran families, including well known agricultural pests, whereas arboreal ants, particularly dominant species, were mostly associated with Coccidae and Stictococcidae that do not pose problems to the supporting trees. A tree effect was also noted for both ant and hemipteran distribution. We concluded that because of insecticide use, ground-nesting ants pose problems through their associated Hemiptera. On the contrary, dominant arboreal ants, strong predators, benefit their supporting trees by excluding ground-nesting species and tending mostly nonpest Hemiptera. Nevertheless, certain of them, carpenter species or species likely to tend Pseudococcidae, have to be eliminated through integrated management.

Ketterl, J., Verhaagh, M., Bihn, J.H., Brandão, C.R.F. & Engels, W. 2003. Spectrum of ants associated with Araucaria angustifolia trees and their relations to hemipteran trophobionts. Studies on Neotropical Fauna and Environment 38(3): 199-206. [KetterVeBi2003]
Notes: The community of ants inhabiting A. angustifolia trees or foraging on this conifer was studied in the rain forest reserve Pró-Mata on the Serra Geral of Rio Grande do Sul, southern Brazil. Ants of 44 species were recorded of which 23 were nesting on A. angustifolia trees. Data on their abundance and relationships to trophobionts are presented. Amongst the latter, Planococcus citri was by far the most common species. It was associated with ants of the genera Crematogaster, Solenopsis (Diplorhoptrum), Linepithema, Myrmelachista and Camponotus. The results are discussed under ecological and biogeographical aspects.

Kimsanbaev, K.K., Nurmukhamedov, D.N. & Yusupov, A. 2002. [Coccoidea - dangerous pests of fruit orchards in Uzbekistan.] (In Russian). Zashchita i Karantin Rastenii No. 9: 27 pp. [KimsanNuYu2002]
Notes: Investigations conducted during 1999-2001 in Uzbekistan revealed the occurrence of 19 Coccoidea species belonging to Margarodidae, Pseudococcidae, Coccidae and Diaspididae. Damage to crops and pest control with insecticides are outlined.

Kindlmann, P. & Dixon, A.F.G. 2003. Insect predator-prey dynamics and the biological control of aphids by ladybirds. 118-124 In: Van Dreische, R.G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Washington D.C.. 573 pp. [KindlmDi2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002.] Predators are generally considered to be less effective biological control agents than parasites. The famous exception is the control of the cottony-cushion scale, Icerya purchasi Maskell, by the ladybird beetle Rodolia cardinalis.

Klechkovskii, Yu, E. 2003. Monitoring of quarantine pests in the fruit orchard. (In Russian). Zashchita i Karantin Rastenii NO. 12: 31-33. [KlechkLe2003]
Notes: Insect pests with limited distribution, including Hyphantria cunea, Grapholita molesta and Quadraspidiotus perniciosus [Diaspidiotus perniciosus], are the main quarantine pests in the Ukraine. Fruit trees are also attacked by Pseudococcus comstocki. However, the latter does not have practical importance for commercial plantations. Information is included on distribution, damage to host plants and life cycles of the main quarantine insect pests. Data are tabulated on the use of pheromone traps and insecticides, and a recommended scheme for the protection of apple orchards from combinations of quarantine pests.

Kogan, M. & Prokopy, R. 2003. Agricultural entomology. 4-9 In: Resh, V.H. & Cardé, R.T. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Insects. Academic Press (Elsevier Science), Amsterdam et al.. [KoganPr2003]
Notes: Species mentioned include Aonidiella aurantii.

Konar, A. & Saha, P.K. 2002. Incidence of insect parasite of Ceroplastes fioridensis Comstock and C. ruben Maskell attacking orange in Darjeeling of West Bengal. Journal of Interacademicia 6(1): 65-68. [KonarSa2002]
Notes: Coccophagus ceroplastae was recorded to parasitize Ceroplastes floridensis while Metaphycus lichtensiae sp. nov. was found to parasitize C. rubens infesting Citrus reticulata in four orchards in Darjeeling district, West Bengal, India. The percentage of parasitization of C. ceroplastae on C. floridensis varied from 0 to 35.0% at Bhalukhop: from 0 to 33.33 at Ecchey; from 0 to 26.5% at Sakyong and from 0 to 26.2% at Bara Mungawa. The highest parasitization of C. ceroplastae on C. floridensis was observed in August 1994 at Bhalukhop (35.0%) and Bara Mungawa (26.2%): and in July 1995 at Ecotey (33.33%) and Sakyong (26.50%). The percentage of parasitization of M. lichtensiae on C. rubens ranged from 0 to 32.5% at Bhalukhop; from 0 to 43.5% at Ecchey; from 0 to 45% at Sakyong and from 0 to 50% at Bara Mungawa. High parasitization by M. lichtensiae was recorded in August 1994 and again in October 1994 (32.5%) at Bhalukhop; in July 1994 (45.0%) at Sakyong and Bara Mungawa (50%). Encyrtus infelix parasitized Coccus hesperidum only at Sakyong.

Kondo, T. 2003. A taxonomic review of the subfamily Myzolecaniinae (Homoptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae). Auburn University, . 288 [Kondo2003]
Notes: [Ph.D. thesis; Michael L. Williams, advisor.] The soft scale insects of the subfamily Myzolecaniinae are of particular interest because of their biology, morphology and worldwide distribution. Scale insects in the Myzolecaniinae are known for their symbiotic relationships with ants (rarely stingless bees) that constantly tend, clean, protect and even transport them in exchange for nutritious honeydew. Presumably as a result of this relationship, many morphological features found in these scale insects have been reduced or lost entirely, resulting in morphological convergence of unrelated groups. In order to test the monophyly of the Myzolecaniinae, a taxonomic revision of the group was conducted. A total of 90 species, including 8 new genera and 9 new species is treated (see Table 1). Morphological descriptions and illustrations of the adult female stage of 34 representative species in 23 genera are presented. Eight new genera are proposed. The latter two genera belong to the tribe Paralecaniini in the subfamily Coccinae, however they are herein treated because of their superficial resemblance to some species in the Myzolecaniinae. Two genera: Megasaissetia and Neolecanium are synonymized with Toumeyella. In the process of the study, new morphological terms were introduced and defined. Dichotomous keys to separate all genera and species treated in the group are also presented. With the help of computer programs, a phylogenetic analysis using parsimony was conducted using morphological characters of both adult females and first-instar nymphs. The revision of the group resulted in the redefinition of the subfamily Myzolecaniinae and the proposal for the establishment of the new subfamily Toumeyellinae and the Alecanopsis-Group. The distribution of the newly proposed subfamily Toumeyellinae is restricted to the New World, whereas the redefined subfamily Myzolecaniinae is mostly distributed in the Old World, with one genus found in the New World. The Alecanopsis -group is represented in the Australian region.

Kondo, T. & Williams, M.L. 2003 (2004). Redescription of the Mexican soft scale insect Toumeyella sallei (Signoret, 1874), comb. n. (Insecta: Hemiptera: Coccidae). (In English). Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums in Wein Serie B Botanik and Zoologie 105B: 211-215. [KondoWi2003]
Notes: Neolecanium sallei is redescribed and transferred to the genus Toumeyella as T. sallei (Signoret, 1874), comb. n. Morphological notes and its affinity with T. mirabilis (Cockerell, 1895) are discussed.

Kondo, T. & Williams, M.L. 2004. A new species of myrmecophilous soft scale insect from Colombia in the genus Akermes Cockerell (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Coccidae). (In English; Summary In Spanish). Revista Colombiana de Entomología 30(2): 137-141. [KondoWi2004]
Notes: This new species is described and illustrated. Information on distribution, host plants and morphological variation is given. This is the first record of the genus Akermes in Colombia.

Kontodimas, D.C., Eliopoulos, P.A., Stathas, G.J. & Economou, L.P. 2004. Comparative temperature-dependent development of Nephus includens (Kirsch) and Nephus bisignatus (Boheman) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) preying on Planococcus citri (Risso) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Environmental Entomology 33(1): 1-11. [KontodElSt2004]
Notes: The effect of temperature on the development of the predators Nephus includens and Nephus bisignatus [Nephus georgei] was studied. The duration of the development of immature stages and the preoviposition period of the two predators, reared on Planococcus citri were recorded at eight constant temperatures.

Koren, T., Milevoj, L. & Jancar, M. 2004. [Altered development of black scale (Saissetia oleae Bern.) in Slovenian Istria.] (In Slovenian). 431-436 In: Hudina, M. (Ed.), Zbornik referatov 1. Slovenskega sadjarskega kongresa z mednarodno udeležbo, Krško, Slovenia, 24-26 marec 2004. Del 2, 2004. Slovenian fruit growing association, University of Ljubljana, Biotechnology Faculty, Ljubljana, Slovenia. 817 pp. [KorenMiJa2004]
Notes: [Original title: Spremljanje razvoja oljkovega kaparja (Saissetia oleae Bern.) v Slovenski Istri.] Following a description of this pest, its life cycle, factors influencing development and damage caused, results are presented of a survey of S. oleae on trees in a 14-year-old olive grove at Benesa (100 m above sea level), near Ankaran in the Istrian region of Slovenia. Trees were spaced 6 x 5 m apart. Samples from 10 trees, 5 of which were subjected to [unspecified] chemical control measures, were studied in the field and in the laboratory, with samples taken every 14 days from 5 April 2003. Living and dead individuals at different development stages were monitored on twigs as well as on upper and lower leaf surfaces. At all sampling dates, the population of L1 stage larvae in particular was assessed. Extreme climatic conditions in July and August that year significantly affected pest population levels. High temperatures and low relative humidity caused high L1 mortality, reaching 89.3% when maximum temperatures reached over 38 deg C in early August.

Koroch, A., Juliani, H., Bischoff, J., Lewis, E., Bills, G., Simon, J. & White, J. 2004. Examination of plant biotrophy in the scale insect parasitizing fungus Dussiella tuberiformis. Symbiosis (Rehovot) 37(1-3): 267-280. [KorochJuBi2004]
Notes: Dussiella tuberiformis is a member of the Clavicipitaceae (Ascomycetes) associated with the perennial bamboo grass Arundinaria tecta. D. tuberiformis is one of only a few fungi that are capable of infecting insects and plants. To gain a better understanding of how the infection process is accomplished we conducted a study of the physical association of fungus and plant and the in vitro growth parameters of the fungus. From the structural studies we found that: 1) D. tuberiformis is a necrotrophic pathogen of scale insects, infecting and fully degrading the body of the scale insect; and 2) the stylet of the scale insect remains in the plant and the fungus is nourished by nutrients that leak to the surface through the stylet. The in vitro studies on the fungus suggest that: 1) fungal stroma development is largely fueled by non-reducing sugars, such as sucrose; 2) perithecial development on stromata may be triggered by restriction of nutrients and moisture; 3) nutritional auxotrophies, such as the inability to utilize nitrates as nitrogen sources, may be among the features of D. tuberiformis that limit its free-living and plant destructive capacity, thus relegating it to plant biotrophy rather than saprotrophy or destructive plant parasitism. We proposed that the evolution of plant biotrophy in D. hiberiformis may have bypassed gradual evolution from destructive pathogen to non-destructive biotroph by the intermediate infection of scale insects. Through infection of scale insects the fungus was able to gain direct access to nutrients of the plant without eliciting defensive responses, representing an evolutionary short cut route to plant biotrophy.

Koteja, J. 2004. Scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccinea) from Cretaceous Myanmar (Burmese) amber. Journal of Systematic Palaeontology 2(2): 109-114. [Koteja2004]
Notes: Scale insect inclusions have been found in 14 pieces of Lower Cretaceous (Upper Albian) Myanmar (Burmese) amber housed in the Natural History Museum, London. Burmacoccus danyi gen. et sp. nov. (Burmacoccidae fam. nov.), Albicoccus dimai gen. et sp. nov. (Albicoccidae fam. nov.), both archeococcids, and Marmyan barbarae gen. et sp. nov., a neococcid incertae sedis, are established on the basis of winged males, while an immature specimen of uncertain relationship is described. All of these taxa are considered to be extinct. Since each specimen represents a different group, the Burmese scale insects must have been abundant and diverse. They are also highly specialised (small size, reduced wing venation, microtrichia, long penial sheath, diverse tail devices), suggesting that the main radiation and specialisation of scale insects occurred prior to the Cretaceous.

Koteja, J. & Ben-Dov, Y. 2003. Notes on the fossil armoured scale insect Aspidiotus crenulatus (Pampaloni) (Hem., Coccoidea, Diaspididae). Bulletin de la Societe Entomologique de France 165-166. [KotejaBe2003]
Notes: The authors suggest that from the photograph of Diaspis crenulata it belongs to the Aspidiotinae rather than to the Diaspidinae, because of the general outline of the body and call it Aspidiotus crenulatus (Pampaloni), new comb, although they realize it may not be congeneric with the extant Aspidiotus nerii Bouché, the type species of Aspidiotus. In a checklist of fossil scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccoidea), Koteja (2000) listed Aspidiotus proteus Pampaloni, 1902, (Diaspididae) which should be regarded a lapsus calami for A. crenulatus (Pampaloni).

Koteja, J., Pyka-Fosciak, G., Vogelgesang, M. & Szklarzewicz, T. 2003. Structure of the ovary in Steingelia (Sternorrhyncha: Coccinea), and its phylogenetic implications. Arthropod Structure & Development 32: 247-256. [KotejaPyVo2003]
Notes: The paired ovaries of Steingelia gorodetskia are composed of about 100 telotrophic ovarioles devoid of terminal filaments (scale insect autapomorphy). In structure they resemble those of other scale insects, but differ in the following details: (a) all ovarioles develop synchronously, (b) they are suspended to the lateral oviducts by means of long stalks, (c) the tropharium is tubular (unique in scale insects) (d) consists of 15-35 trophocytes, 2-4 previtellogenic oocytes that develop further, and numerous somatic prefollicular cells, (e) the vitellarium houses 2-4 linearly arranged vitellarial oocytes (versus one in most scale insects). Most of these features must be considered as plesiomorphic corresponding with the conditions in the most primitive Heteroptera. Bacterial endosymbionts have been found in some somatic cells, trophocytes, oocytes and in the nutritive cord. Present results support the opinion, based on external morphology, that the Steingeliidae are closely related to the Ortheziidae, Xylococcidae and Matsucoccidae.

Kozár, F. 2004. Ortheziidae of the World. Plant Protection Institute, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary. 525 pp. [Kozar2004]
Notes: This work includes 4 subfamilies, 9 tribes, 20 valid genera (including 3 fossils) and 198 species (including 7 fossil species). A further 7 generic synonymous and 14 specific synonymous names are listed. Ten new genera, and 94 new species are described in this book.

Kozár, F. & Konczné Benedicty, Z. 2003. Description of four new species from Australian, Austro-oriental, New Zealand and South Pacific regions (Homoptera, Coccoidea, Pseudococcidae, Rhizoecinae), with a review, and a key to the species Ripersiella. Bollettino di Zoologia Agraria e di Bachicoltura (Milano) 35(3): 225-239. [KozarKo2003]
Notes: Four new species (Ripersiella australiensis sp. nov., R. caledoniensis sp. nov., R. guineensis sp. nov., and R. tillierorum sp. nov.) collected from Australia, New Zealand, Austro-oriental and South Pacific regions are described. The internal structure of female genitalia was studied in some species. The chitin formation rate was also used as a specific character. A worldwide review of the Ripersiella and a key for the species in the regions are given.

Kozár, F., Konczné Benedicty, Z. & Samu, F. 2002. Data to the scale insect and whitefly (Homoptera: Coccoidea, Aleyrodoidea) fauna of the Sas-hegy Nature Reserve Area (Budapest, Hungary). Folia Entomologica Hungarica 63: 33-41. [KozarKoSa2002]
Notes: Fifty-four scale insect and three whitefly species are reported from the Sas-hegy Nature Reserve Area. Forty species are new for the area, while three scale insect species (Eumirococcus borchsenii, Lecanopsis subterranea, and Acanthococcus baldonensis), and one whitefly species (Asterobemisia paveli) are new for the Hungarian fauna. The paper presents data on localities (collecting places), host plants, instars and density.

Kreiter, P., Graille, G., Thaon, M., Lanza, R., Tamonte, M., Germain, C., Germain, J.F. & Hantzberg, H. 2004. [Biological control against two mealybugs, newly present on strawberries in Southern France.] Premiers résultats de protection biologique: contre deux cochenilles pseudococcines nouvellement présentes sur fraisiers dans le sud de la France. (In French; Summary In English). Phytoma No. 568: 38-40. [KreiteGrTh2004]
Notes: Two scale-insect viz., Pseudococcus viburni and Heliococcus bohemicus were recorded as new pests of strawberries in Southern France. A preliminary study of the biological control of the pests using the coccidiphagous predator Cryptolaemus montrouzieri has been set up and the results of the study are presented.

Krishnamoorthy, S.V. & Mahadevan, N.R. 2002. Assessment of status of sugarcane coccids in Cauvery delta region. Indian Journal of Plant Protection 30(2): 120-126 [KrishnMa2002]
Notes: Studies were conducted to assess the current status of sugarcane coccids in the Cauvery delta region, Tamil Nadu, India. The coccid fauna surveyed in five sugarcane factory areas revealed the occurrence of scale insects, namely Melanaspis glomerata, Marsipococcus marsupiale, Aulacaspis madiunensis and Aclerda japonica. Among the four coccids, Melanaspis glomerata occurred widely and intensively in all the sugar factory areas surveyed. The occurrence of Marsipococcus marsupiale and Aclerda japonica was very strayed in the sugar factory areas except in Cauvery sugars where it was comparatively higher. Aulacaspis madiunensis occurred commonly in alternate hosts like Erianthus [Saccharum] sp. and Saccharum spontaneum types in Kothari sugars area but its incidence on sugarcane hybrids was very strayed. The occurrence of Aclerda japonica was low in all the surveyed areas and no incidence of Aulacaspis madiunensis was recorded in Arignar Anna sugars. The occurrence of Marsipococcus marsupiale was recorded only at nine months after planting and harvest while Aulacaspis madiunensis and Aclerda japonica were recorded only during harvest. Melanaspis glomerata was more or less equally abundant both in plant and ratoon crops in the sugarcane cultivars commonly cultivated in the Cauvery delta region. Coccid infestation was highest during harvest in all the five sugar factory areas indicating their proliferation on the standing crops until harvest.

Krishnamoorthy, S.V. & Mahadevan, N.R. 2002a. Influence of time of planting on the incidence of sugarcane scale insect Melanaspis glomerata G. 169-173 In: Babu, B.S., Varaprasad, K.S. & Anitha, K. (Eds.), Resources management in plant protection during twenty first century, Hyderabad, India, 14-15 November 2002. Volume II. Plant Protection Association of India, Hyderabad, India. 201 pp. [KrishnMa2002a]
Notes: The effect of planting date on the incidence and intensity of sugarcane scale insect (M. glomerata) was investigated in a field experiment conducted in Sirugamani, Tamil Nadu, India, with sugarcane cultivars CoC 671, CoSi 86071, Si 85124 and Si 85197 planted in December (pre-season), January, February (early season), March (mid-season), April, May, June (late season), July and August (special season). No detrashing was performed. Observations were recorded on the incidence (cane basis) and intensity (nodal basis) at 6, 9 months after planting and at harvest in 12 middle rows. Differences among the various times of planting and genotypes were significant in terms of scale incidence and intensity. The minimum incidence and intensity were recorded in June and July plantings and the maximum in December and January plantings in both plant and ratoon crops.

Krishnamoorthy, S.V. & Mahadevan, N.R. 2003. Colonisation of scale insect, Melanaspis glomerata G. on sugarcane genotypes. Annals of Plant Protection Sciences 11(1): 23-25. [KrishnMa2003]
Notes: Experiments were conducted to study the biology of M. glomerata on seven genotypes/hybrids of sugarcane (Si 85057, CoSi 86071, CoN 8011, Co 88025, CoN 7712, Si 85036 and CoC 671). Development indices worked out on the seven genotypes, were compared with standard CoC 671. CoSi 86071 appeared to be least suitable for growth and development. The adult development was prolonged by ten days. Also, the female body weight was reduced and lesser population survived as females (42.1%). However, the differences in the mean number of scale insects colonizing each genotype did not exhibit wide variation.

Krishnamoorthy, S.V. & Mahadevan, N.R. 2003a. Life table studies of sugarcane scale, Melanaspis glomerata G. Journal of Entomological Research 27(3): 203-212. [KrishnMa2003a]
Notes: Life table studies of Melanaspis glomerata conducted in vitro on CoC 671 (susceptible) and CoSi 86071 (resistant) genotypes under limiting and non-limiting environment at Sugarcane Research Station Sirugamani revealed that the innate capacity for increase in numbers, finite rate of natural increase and weekly multiplication of the population was high in CoC 671. The value of cohort generation time and mean generation time increased in CoSi 86071 while the innate capacity for increase came down. Life table studies under field conditions indicated that the dispersal of crawlers and mortality due to unknown causes in the early instars were the key mortality factors. Mortality due to predators and parasites was low. Parasitisation was evident only in the fourth instar and fifth instar by Adelencyrtus mayurai Subba Rao and Botryoideclava bharathiya Subba Rao.

Kulkarni, R., Kadam, J.R. & Mote, U. N. 2003. Efficacy of Verticillium lecanii against mealy bugs on pomegranate. Journal of Applied Zoological Research 14(1): 59-60. [KulkarKaMo2003]
Notes: A field experiment on the efficacy of V. lecanii against mealy bugs (Ferrisia virgata, Planococcus citri and Nipaecoccus viridis) on pomegranate was conducted during 2001-02 in Rahuri, Maharashtra, India. All the concentrations of V. lecanii (2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 g/litre of water) tested against mealy bugs were found effective for controlling the pest. On the basis of effectiveness, economics and persistency, V. lecanii at 4 g/litre of water was found to be the optimum for the management of mealy bugs on pomegranate.

Kumar, C.M.S. & Regupathy, A. 2004. Generating base line data for insecticide resistance monitoring in coffee green scale, Coccus viridis (Green). Resistant Pest Management Newsletter 13(2): 5-7. [KumarRe2004]
Notes: Acute toxicity studies were conducted to determine the base line toxicity of thiamethoxam, imidacloprid and dimethoate against Coccus viridis, which infests arabica (Coffea arabica) and robusta (Coffea canephora) coffee plantations in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, India.

Kumar, T.S., Sheela, M.S. & Sankar, A. 2002. Occurrence of red cotton bug, Dysdercus cingulatus (Fb.) and white mealy bug, Ferrisia virgata (Ckll.) on Kurumthotti, Sida rhombifolia L. (Malvaceae) - a new report. Insect Environment 8(4): 177. [KumarShSa2002]
Notes: A severe incidence of red cotton bug (D. cingulatus) was observed at the seed setting stage of S. rhombifolia, and as a result the seeds failed to germinate. The white mealy bug (F. virgata), which is a polyphagous pest, was also found causing serious damage to S. rhombifolia, desapping the plants from the tender portions. Both pests are being reported for the first time on S. rhombifolia.

Kumarasinghe, N.C. 2003. Insect fauna associated with sugarcane plantations in Sri Lanka. Journal of Environmental Biology 24(4): 359-368. [Kumara2003]
Notes: A survey conducted over 13 years (1986-1999) in sugarcane plantations in Sri Lanka to identify insects associated with sugarcane recorded a total of 103 insect species comprising 31 Coleoptera, 2 Dictyoptera, 5 Diptera, 12 Heteroptera, 18 Homoptera, 7 Hymenoptera, 3 Isoptera, 13 Lepidoptera, 9 Orthoptera, and one species each of Thysanoptera, Neuroptera and Trichoptera. Among them were 46 species of sugarcane pests. In addition, 27 species of natural enemies of sugarcane pests belonging to the orders Coleoptera, Diptera and Hymenoptera were identified. Epiricania melanoleuca, introduced into Sri Lanka from Pakistan in 1991 for the control of the sugarcane planthopper, was also recorded. Five new pest species previously not recorded from sugarcane in Sri Lanka have been identified, namely Sogata sp., Saccharolecanium krugeri, Antonina graminis, Dysmicoccus brevipes and D. boninsis.

Kunka, E., Molnár, J. & Sallai, P. 2003. [Plant protection in apple orchards.] (In Hungarian). Növényvédelem 39(3): 141-160. [KunkaMoSa2003]
Notes: Species mentioned include Diaspidiotus perniciosus, Lepidosaphes ulmi and Parthenolecanium corni.

Kussler, A.L., Sabedot, S.M., Garcia, F.R.M. & Peronti, A.L.B.G. 2004. [First record of Pendularia paraguariensis Granara de Willink, 1999 (Hemiptera: Coccidae) in Brazil.] Primeiro registro da cochonilha Pendularia paraguariensis Granara de Willink, 1999 (Hemiptera: Coccidae) no Brasil. (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Ciencia Rural 34(4): 1231-1233. [KussleSaGa2004]
Notes: The presence of P. paraguariensis (Hemiptera: Coccidae) was reported for the first time in Brazil in Chapecó, Santa Catarina State (27 deg 05'47"S, 52 deg 37'06"W), attacking Paraguay tea plants (Ilex paraguariensis), from September 2002 to January 2003. 32 other Paraguay tea plantations were inspected and there was no occurrence of this insect. This cochineal can cause degeneration of the branches due to the constant suction of the sap. The contour of the body is rounded oval (2.68 x 2.60 mm) and it has short and robust antennae with seven segments. This species is characterized by the presence and distribution of preopercular pores and hypopygial arrows.

Kwon, G.M., Danzig, E. & Park, K.T. 2003. Taxonomic notes of the family Pseudococcidae (Sternorrhyncha) in Korea. I. Tribes Phenacoccini, Rhizoecini, and Sphaerococcini. Insecta Koreana 20(1): 103-124. [KwonDaPa2003]
Notes: A total of 22 species belonging to the genera of the tribes Phenacoccini, Rhizoecini, and Sphaerococcini (Sternorrhyncha: Pseudococcidae) are noted in Korea, with descriptions and illustrations for a full grown female. Among them, three species, Heliococcus puerariae sp. nov., Heliococcus zoysiae sp. nov., and Phenacoccus rubicola sp. nov., are new to science, and four species, Coccura comari, Heliococcus kuriensis, Puto erigeroneus and P. orientalis are reported for the first time from the Korean Peninsula, and a species is newly known from South Korea. Eleven species, which were previously recorded in Korea, have not been found from South Korea during this study.

Kwon, G.M., Danzig, E. & Park, K.T. 2003a. Taxonomic notes of the family Pseudococcidae (Sternorrhyncha) in Korea. II. Tribe Pseudococcini. Insecta Koreana 20(3/4): 393-424. [KwonDaPa2003a]
Notes: A total of 31 species belonging to 10 genera of the tribe Pseudococcini (Sternorrhyncha: Pseudococcidae) are noted in Korea, with descriptions and illustrations for full grown females. Among them, three species, Balanococcus costacola sp. nov., B. corpusenormis sp. nov., and Spilococcus jejuensis sp. nov., are new to science, and seven species, Balanococcus bambusum, Spilococcus flavidus, Trionymus isfarensis, T. lumpurensis, T. orientalis, T. radicum and T. tomlini are reported for the first time from the Korean Peninsula, and four species are newly recognized from South Korea. New combination Balanococcus bambusum, comb. nov. is given. However, eight species, which were previously recorded in Korea, have not been found from South Korea during this study.

Kwon, G.M. & Han, M.J. 2003. [Scale insects (Stenorrhyncha) [Sternorrhyncha] occurred on fruit trees in Korea.] (In Korean). Korean Journal of Applied Entomology 42(4): 279-288. [KwonHa2003]
Notes: A total of 29 scale insect species belonging to 21 genera of five families were recognized on 11 fruit trees on the basis of specimens collected from 2001 to 2002 and specimens deposited in the Insect Collection of NIAST in Korea. Ten species were recognized on apple, nine species on pear, three species on peach, 14 species on unshiu orange, nine species on persimmon, two species on Japanese plum, one species on Japanese apricot, 10 species on junos orange, one species on grape, four species on jujube and three species on kiwi fruit.

Kwon, G.M. & Han, M.J. 2004a. The genus Eriococcus Targioni Tozzetti (Sternorrhyncha, Eriococcidae) from Korea. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology 6(2): 151-157. [KwonHa2004a]
Notes: Ten species of the genus Eriococcus (Sternorrhyncha, Eriococcidae) in Korea are reviewed with known host plants: E. borchsenii, E. glyceriae, E. isacanthus, E. lagerstroemiae, E. micracanthus, E. onukii, E. orientalis, E. sojae, E. tokaedae and E. ulmarius. Among them, E. glyceriae and E. sojae are reported for the first time from the Korean Peninsula, with redescriptions and illustrations for the morphological characters of adult females. A key is given for the adult females.

Kwon, G.M., Han, M.J. & Lee, Y.H. 2003. The genus Aulacaspis Cockerell, 1893 (Sternorrhyncha, Diaspididae) in Korea. Korean Journal of Applied Entomology 42(1): 15-20. [KwonHaLe2003]
Notes: Five species of the genus Aulacaspis from Korea Republic are redescribed and illustrated for the adult female morphological characters: A. distylii (on Distylium racemosum); A. rosae (on Rosa multiflora, Rosa wichuraiana, Rubus hirsutus and Rubus parviflorus [R. cuneifolius]); Aulacaspis rosarum (on Rosa hybrida, Rubus crataegifolius, Sapium sebiferum, Cinnamomum camphora, Rosa indica [R. chinensis], Rubus occidentalis, Rosa spp. and Rubus spp.); A. spinosa (on Smilax sieboldii, S. china, Photinia glabra, Trachycarpus excelus, Phoebe nanmu and Cymbidium spp.); A. yabunikkei (on Neolitsea aciculata and N. sericea). Among these species, A. spinosa is reported for the first time in Korea.

Kwon, G.M., Lee, S.H., Han, M.J. & Goh, H.G. 2002. The genus Pseudococcus(Westwood) (Sternorrhyncha: Pseudococcidae) of Korea. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology 5(2): 145-154. [KwonLeHa2002]
Notes: Four species of Pseudococcus(Sternorrhyncha: Pseudococcidae) from Korea were reviewed with redescriptions and illustrations of adult females. Among them, two species, P. cryptus Hempel, 1918 and P. dendrobiorum Williams, 1985, are reported for the first time from the Korean Peninsula, and one species, P. longispinus (Targioni Tozzetti, 1867), is newly known from South Korea. A key is given for the adult females.

Kwon, G.M. & Park, K.T. 2002. Taxonomic reconsideration of Eriococcidae (Sternorrhyncha) occurring on the persimmon tree, Diospyros kaki Thunb. Korean Journal of Applied Entomology 41(4): 305-311. [KwonPa2002]
Notes: Asiacornococcus kaki, known as a serious pest on D. kaki, has been reported erroneously as Eriococcus lagerstroemiae [Acanthococcus lagerstroemiae]. These two species were redescribed and illustrated for correct identification based on the morphological characters of adult females with known host plants. Asiacornococcus is a newly known genus from the Korean Peninsula.

Labanowski, G. & Soika, G. 2002. [The present problems in ornamental plant protection against pests.] Aktualne problemy w ochronie roslin ozdobnych przed szkodnikami. (In Polish; Summary In English). Progress in Plant Protection 42(1): 188-195. [LabanoSo2002]
Notes: Pests from South America recorded for the first time on ornamental plants in Polish greenhouses are presented: Florida red scale (Chrysomphalus aonidum [Chrysomphalus aonidum]), fern scale (Pinnaspis aspidistrae), slug-caterpillar moths (Scopelodes contracus [Scopelodes contracta] and Sibine stimulea [Acharia stimulea]), and Australian cockroach (Periplaneta australasiae) on Dracaena; Florida wood cockroach (Eurycotis floridana) and leafrollers (Amorbia and Platynota spp.) on Schefflera; leafroller moth (Epagoge grotiana) and American thrips (Echinothrips americanus) on azalea (Rhododendron sp.); and noctuid moth (Chrysodeixis chalcites) on Zebrina pendula. Native pests that have become economically important consisted of: woolly aphids (Pemphigidae) on roots of junipers (Juniperus), pines (Pinus), and spruces (Picea); weevils (Otiorhynchus spp.) on azaleas and coniferous plants; a lymantriid moth (Orgyia antiquoidea) on Erica tetralix; bud and leaf nematode (Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi) on Virgin's bowers, Hydrangea petiolaris, H. anomala], Philadelphus coronarius, and some perennial plants. The minerfly (Phytomyza ranunculi) on Virgin's bowers and Ranunculus acris, the azalea leafminer (Caloptilia azaleella) on rhododendrons (Rhododendron), the locust midge (Dasineura gleditchiae) on honey locust [Gleditsia triacanthos], the aster mite (Phytonemus pallidus asteris) on Aster dumosus and A. novi-belgii, and the broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus) on potted plants were also identified as important pests. The horse chestnut miner (Cameraria ohridella) was recorded for the first time on nursery-grown horse chestnut [Aesculus hippocastanum]. Phyllonorycter robiniella and Parectopa robiniella occurred on white locust.

Labanowski, G. & Soika, G. 2003. Major pests of ornamental plants and their control in Poland. Sodininkyste ir Darzininkyste 22(3): 442-449. [LabanoSo2003]
Notes: The efficacy of chemical compounds registered in the last 10 years for the control of spider mite (Tetranychus urticae), melon cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii), glasshouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum), citrus mealybugs (Planococcus citri), pea leafminer (Liriomyza huidobrensis) and western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis) infesting ornamental crops under covers in Poland is reviewed. Trends in ornamental plant protection in the country are briefly discussed.

Labanowski, G., Soika, G. & Chalanska, A. 2003. [The effectiveness of novel pesticides against pests on ornamental plants.] Efektywnosc nowych zoocydów w zwalczaniu szkodników roslin ozdobnych.) (In Polish; Summary In English). Zeszyty Naukowe Instytutu Sadownictwa i Kwiaciarstwa w Skierniewicach 11: 99-109. [LabanoSoCh2003]
Notes: Good results in controlling scales (Parthenolecanium corni and P. pomeranicum) were obtained with acetamiprid (Piorun 200 SL - 0.02-0.04%) and fluvalinate (Mavrik 240 EW - 0.02-0.04%).

Lach, L., Picker, M.D., Colville, J.F., Allsopp, M.H. & Griffiths, C.L. 2002. Alien invertebrate animals in South Africa. 267-282 In: Pimentel, D., Biological Invasions: Economic and Environmental Costs of Alien Plant, Animal, and Microbe Species. CRC Press, Boca Raton et al.. 369 pp. [LachPiCo2002]
Notes: Among the alien insect species discussed is Aonidiella aurantii.

Laflin, H.M., Gullan, P.J. & Parrella, M.P. 2004. Mealybug species (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) found on ornamental crops in California nursery production. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 106(2): 475-477. [LaflinGuPa2004]
Notes: Surveys and collections were carried out between 16 November 2001 and 7 March 2003 in nurseries and greenhouses in California, USA. The mealybug species most frequently found were the long-tailed mealybug, Pseudococcus longispinus and the citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri. With the exception of roses, Planococcus citri fed on many short-term crops such as coleus, whereas Pseudococcus longispinus often fed upon perennial crops such as cycad and Phormium tenax. The lilybulb mealybug, Vryburgia amaryllidis and the obscure mealybug, Pseudococcus viburni, were commonly found as well. V. amaryllidis is limited to a few plant families (especially Liliaceae and Iridaceae). It occurs on the bulb and on the basal portion of the leaves. Pseudococcus viburni was found both on the roots and the aerial portion of the plants, most commonly on short-term crops. Seven other mealybug species were found to occur less frequently. Many of these mealybugs were specialists found only on one species of plant.

Lagowska, B. 2003. [Damage by and control of apple scale Lepidosaphes ulmi in orchards.] Szkodliwosc i zwalczanie skorupika jabloniowego (Lepidosaphes ulmi (L.), Hemiptera, Coccinea) w sadach. (In Polish). Ochrona Roslin 47(10): 20-24. [Lagows2003]
Notes: Damage caused to apple trees by scale insects, in Poland, is discussed. The apple scale, Lepidosaphes ulmi, is found on almost 100 species of plants including Abies alba, Taxus baccata, Achillea millefolium, Polygala vulgaris, Hypericum perforatum, Urtica dioica and others. One female can lay 80-120 eggs. Monitoring of Polish apple orchards in 2001 showed that some apple cultivars (McIntosh, Jonathan and Bancroft) were more susceptible than others (Jonagold, Jonagored, Ligol), and older trees of the same cultivar (Cortland) suffered more damage than younger ones (25 compared to 12 years old). A range of chemical sprays including application rates to control infestations is recommended.

Lama Amezcua, S. & Rojas Lobato, J.A. 2002. [Characterization of dying techniques with natural dyes.] Caracterización de técnicas de teñido con colorantes naturales. (In Spanish). 116-119 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 pp. [LamaAmRo2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] Among the dyes discussed is the cochineal (Coccus cacti).

Lama Amezcua, S. & Rojas Lobato, J.A. 2002a. [Colors with natural dyes.] Colores con colorantes naturales. (In Spanish). 120 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 pp. [LamaAmRo2002a]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] Cochineal (Coccus cacti is one of the dyes used to establish cards that correspond to the color obtained by the dye on various fabrics.

Lambdin, P.L., Aquino, G.P., Green, J.F. & Soto-Hernandez, M. 2002. Synopsis of carmine acid biosynthesis. CACTUSNET NEWSLETTER (FAO International Technical Cooperation on Cactus) No. 7: 11-15. [LambdiAqGr2002]
Notes: Carminic acid is a natural dye produced by cochineal insects (Dactylopius spp.), a family of scale insects that feed on cactus (i.e. Opuntia ficus-indica). This scale insect species, native to North and South America, has been used commercially worldwide as a natural red dye source since the 16th century when General Cortez shipped the dye to Spain in 1536. Carmine dye became the dominant dye source used in food, medicine, and textile products until it was eventually replaced by aniline dyes. With the number of aniline dyes shrinking as a result of decertification by government agencies due to carcinogenic and mutagenic effects, attention is being directed to natural dyes as viable substitutes, including carmine dye. This paper reviews the attempts to chemically synthesize the dye in order to improve the expensive and time-consuming natural production process.

Langewald, J. & Neuenschwander, P. 2002. Challenges in coordinating regional biological control projects in Africa: classical biological control versus augmentative biological control. Biocontrol News and Information 23(4): 101N-107N. [LangewNe2002]
Notes: Differences in agricultural systems in Africa on the one hand, changes of policy environments on the other hand and the challenges these present for plant protection are discussed. The rapid advance of biological control in Africa in the last 15 years is highlighted, and the advantages of and opportunities for further biological control in this region are considered. Two successful regional projects, which took classical and augmentative biological control approaches, respectively, are used to illustrate how and why requirements for project coordination vary. The first, against cassava mealybug (Phenacoccus manihoti), began in the early 1980s and involved the introduction of natural enemies from South America, while the second, against locusts, began some years later, in 1989, and led to the development of a biopesticide, Green MuscleTM, from an African fungal isolate. The differences the timing and approach of the projects made to their implementation are discussed in relation to the role of the African Phytosanitary Council, acceptance of biological control, quarantine issues, accountability, the use of indigenous or exotic natural enemies, environmental impact of natural enemies, the Convention on Biological Diversity, intellectual property rights, commercialization, registration regulations, and product stewardship.

Latty, E.F., Canham, C.D. & Marks, P.L. 2003. Beech bark disease in northern hardwood forests: the importance of nitrogen dynamics and forest history for disease severity. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 33(2): 257-268. [LattyCaMa2003]
Notes: Beech bark disease has been a major cause of mortality of American beech (Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.) in North America during the past century. Previous studies have suggested a positive relationship between disease severity and both bark nitrogen content and tree size, presumably due to higher rates of infestation by beech scale insects, which allow more extensive infection of the tree by Nectria fungi.

Leandro, M.J., Oliveira, M., Melo, C. & Mexia, A. 2003. Survey of the insect population on a Protea plantation in the southwest of Portugal. Acta Horticulturae No. 602: 67-74. [LeandrOlMe2003]
Notes: [Proceedings of the Sixth International Protea Research Symposium, Leuven 1: International Society Horticultural Science.] During June and July of 1999, a Protea plantation was established in Zambujeira do Mar, in the Southwest of Portugal. The plantation comprised a diversity of species and varieties of Protea, Leucadendron and Leucospermum along with species from different families in the Fynbos. Since then, work has been done in order to define the insect populations affecting the Proteaceae and to establish an IPM program for the crop in the region. Minor pests identified were mainly scale insects, mealybugs, and others.

Le Houérou, H.N. 2002. Cacti (Opuntia spp.) as a fodder crop for marginal lands in the Mediterranean Basin. Acta Horticulturae 581: 21-46. [LeHoue2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress on Cactus Pear and Cochineal, Nefzaoui, A. & Inglese, P. (Eds.), Hammamet, Tunisia, 22-28 October, 2000.] Cacti, particularly Opuntia ficus-indica, were introduced to Spain at the end of the 15th century and from there spread over the whole Mediterranean Basin. They have been used for almost 500 years as a fruit crop, a defensive hedge, a support for cochineal production of dye (carminic acid) and, more recently, as a fodder crop and as a standing buffer feed for drought periods; they can also play a key role in erosion control and land rehabilitation, particularly in arid and semiarid zones, and as a shelter, refuge and feed resource for wildlife (birds and mammals alike). They are particularly adapted to arid lands that are unfit for traditional crops for reasons of topography, soils or aridity. They are unfit, however, for areas with cold winters and saline land. The ecology and bioclimatic requirements of O. ficus-indica and other occasionally fodder crop species are analysed, particularly their drought and heat tolerance, their cold tolerance. Their feed value is assessed and recent experiments on intake and digestibility reviewed. They may also constitute a shelter and feed resource for wildlife: fructivores and herbivores. Easy agronomic methods are described to considerably increase the nitrogen content of the pads, thus raising them to the standard value of classical fodder crops. Their potential for degraded land rehabilitation is explained, as inexpensive and easy erosion control tool for the rational use of marginal land. Cactus plantations and hedges probably cover approximately one million hectares in the Basin (including O. ficus-indica fa. amyclaea (the spiny form)), particularly in the Mediterranean islands and North Africa; but, unlike in other subtropical zones, cacti never became an invasive pest in the Basin. Spineless cacti never become invasive pests anyway, as they are grazed out, unless totally protected from herbivores, either naturally (cliffs) or artificially (fences). Contrary to other subtropical zones, Mediterranean Basin cacti have not been subjected to heavy parasite infestations neither, from the cactus scale (Dactylopius) nor from the cactus moth (Cactoblastis), that in other areas decimated the populations, either deliberately or inadvertently.

Lei, H.D., Li, H.J., Ran, C., Hu, J.H., Lin, B.M., Zhang Q.B., Tian, W.H. & Qian, K.M. 2004. [Application of Sunspray oils for pollution-free control of the main pests in citrus orchards.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Journal of Southwest Agricultural University 25(5): 409-412. [LeiLiRa2004]
Notes: Sunspray oils (7E and 9E) showed a broad spectrum in pest control, giving satisfactory results in controlling Panonychus citri, Phyllocoptruta oleivora, Unaspis yanonensis, Toxoptera citricidus and Phyllocnistis citrella when foliar sprayed onto sweet orange and mandarin trees in an IPM experiment carried out in 1999-2002 in Chongqing, China. However, in order to avoid the possible hazard to the young shoots and the quality of the fruit, these oils should not be used in the periods of current-shoot growth and from flower-budding to blooming, as well as the 100 days before harvest. The oils are recommended for the control of P. citri and the first generation of U. yanonensis. For varieties used for processing, Sunspray oils should be sprayed twice/year. Sunspray oil treatments in successive years increased the number of natural enemies of insect pests and mites and the damage caused by these pests were brought under control. Due to good control and low toxicity to man and animals, Sunspray oils should be given priority for pollution-free control of pests in citrus orchards.

Le Lagadex, M.D. 2004. The control of mango scale in commercial orchards through the use of the predatory beetle, Cybocephalus binotatus. Acta Horticulturae 645: 509-515. [LeLaga2004]
Notes: [VII International Mango Symposium, Recife, Brazil. Pinto, A.C.Q., Pereira, M.E.C, Alves, R.E. (Eds.)] Mango scale insect, Aulacaspis tubercularis Newstead, is a major pest in South African mango orchards. Chemical control using organo-phosphates is effective but is not conducive to an IPM pest management system. Cybocephalus binotatus Grouvelle, a predatory beetle of mango scale was introduced into South Africa in 1995 and has since become well established in the mango growing areas. The effectiveness of this predator in controlling mango scales was investigated during the 1999/2000 mango season. A retrospective study of past Cybocephalus releases, trials carried out in insect-proof tents and large field trials revealed that the predator successfully controls scale populations to levels of 2-3% scale infestation. The beetles are mass feeders and require a substantial scale population in order to sustain themselves. Female predatory beetles were found to produce only as many offspring as the scale population could support. Furthermore, the field trials indicated that the rate of scale population decline was somewhat independent of the number of predatory beetles released and remained reasonably constant. For effective scale control it is recommended that between 500-1000 beetles be released per hectare of cultivated mangoes.

Leong, S.C.T., Ng, H.L., Beattie, G.A.C. & Watson, D.M. 2002. Comparison of a horticultural mineral oil program and two pesticide-based programs for control of citrus pests in Sarawak, Malaysia. 432-443 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [LeongNgBe2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Scale species mentioned include Aonidiella aurantii, Lepidosaphes beckii and Planococcus citri.

Li, C.D., Byun, B.K. & Choi, Y.C. 2002. A new species of Epitetracnemus (Hymenoptera, Encyrtidae) from Korea. Korean Journal of Systematic Zoology 18(1): 85-89. [LiByCh2002]
Notes: The genus Epitetracnemus Girault, 1915 is reported for the first time from Korea. A new species, E. kosef Li et Byun sp. nov. is described. The species is internal parasitoid wasp on Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli (Cooley) which infests on Taxus cuspidata S. et Z.

Li, W. & Chen, W.X. 2004. Advances in the studies on postharvest physiology and fresh-keeping methods of Annona fruits. (In Chinese). Journal of Tropical and Subtropical Botany 12(3): 280-284. [LiCh2004]
Notes: The development of annona fruit production is restricted due to the difficulty in fresh-keeping of the fruits during storage and transportation. This paper reviews postharvest physiology of annonas, including respiration and ethylene production, relevant enzymes, fruit softening, fruit browning, postharvest pathology and pest species such as Pseudococcus spp.

Li, S.C., Liu, H. & Wu, H.T. 2004. [The occurrence of Comstock mealybug under bagging apple culture and its control.] (In Chinese). China Fruits 1: 44, 51. [LiLiWu2004]
Notes: Due to the practice of bagging fruits in apple culture, the Comstock mealybug Pseudococcus comstocki has become a serious pest in recent years. It attacks the branches, shoots, leaves and young fruit. When young bagged fruits are attacked, the bag contents become wet and sticky and the mealybug secretions cause the formation of grey-black moulds on the fruit skin, which affects fruit quality. The bug's body is pinkish in colour and is covered with a waxy powdery substance. Experiments showed that spraying an 800-1000 times solution of 40% omethoate emulsion was necessary to kill eggs, nymphs and adults, and then spraying a 4000-6000 times solution of 1% Shimanjing emulsion was found necessary before bagging.

Li, P. & Piao, Y.F. 2002. Citrus pests in China and their sustainable management. 369-378 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [LiPi2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Scale species discussed include Unaspis yanonensis.

Li, C.Y. & Su, T.H. 2002. Effects of temperature on development of the hemispherical scale, Saissetia coffeae (Walker) (Homoptera: Coccidae), and its occurrence on cycad (Cycas taiwanian Carr.). Formosan Entomologist 22(1): 65-74. [LiSu2002]
Notes: The effect of temperature on the development of the hemispherical scale, Saissetia coffeae, was studied. Insects were reared on potato sprouts (Solanum tuberosum) at 5 different constant temperatures (18, 20, 24, 28, and 30 deg C). The results showed that an increase in temperature within limits accelerated the rate of development of all stages of the hemispherical scale. The developmental duration of the hemispherical scale from egg to adult at 18 and 28 deg C were 95.5 and 51.3 days, respectively. Nymphal scale continuously reared at 30 deg C failed to produce adults. The optimum development temperatures of the hemispherical scale were 24-28 deg C. Temperature influences the reproductive capacity of the hemispherical scale. Lower temperatures increased egg production of the scales. There was a high correlation between temperature and growth rate for all stages of the scale. Their low developmental threshold temperature (Tb) and thermal summation (K) were: 7.1 deg C and 270 DD in the egg stage; 11.9 deg C and 43 DD for crawlers, and 4.1 deg C and 555 DD for secondary instars, respectively. The life cycle of the hemispherical scale on cycad (Cycas taiwaniana) was observed. The scale produces 4-5 generations per year in Taichung, west-central Taiwan.

Li, K., Sun, Y.Y., Yang, C.Y. & Wei, H.Y. 2003. [Study on blooming, fruiting and breeding technique of Schleichera oleosa.] (In Chinese). Forest Research 16(2): 153-158. [LiSuYa2003]
Notes: Schleichera oleosa is the best host tree species of Kerria lacca. The trees can grow, flower and fruit normally in hot and dry valley area of Yunnan Province. It begins to bud in early March, and most of which blooms from the middle of March to the middle of April. The flower rate is about 30%, in which 19.2% is male flower and 10.8% is perfect flower (both staminate flower and monoclinous flower). Anemophilous pollination exists between different flowers. One flower cluster of perfect plant has 41 flowers, 60% of which drops, the rate of fruiting at last is 39.9% and the last fruit holding rate is 6.3% of the perfect flower and 38.2% of the beginning fruit. The shattering rates of flower and fruit are very high mainly for strong wind in March and rainwater in May. The seeds take to mature from the end of July to middle of August at Ynanjiang. The shell of seed should be broken that can make germination rates high. It is highly important to locate a nursery where is full of light and airing.

Li, Y.T., Tian, M.Y., Ren, S.X., Liang, M.S., & Liu, Y.K. 2003. Influence of temperature on the development of Nephus ryuguus. Entomological Knowledge 40(3): 244-247. [LiTiRe2003]
Notes: The development of Nephus ryuguus, a predator of Oracella acuta and other mealybugs, at 17, 20, 23, 26, 29, 32 and 35 deg C was studied. The development of N. ryuguus was enhanced from 17 to 32 deg C. The relationship between development and temperature exhibited a good fit to the logistics equation. The threshold temperature for development and the effective accumulative temperature were 13.7 and 371.6 degree-days, respectively.

Liang, W.G., Beattie, G.A.C., Meats, A.W., Spooner-Hart, R. & Jiang, L. 2002. Efficacy of a horticultural mineral oil for control of purple scale and white louse scale in orange orchards. 444-450 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [LiangBeMe2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Scale species mentioned include Aonidiella aurantii, Cornuaspis beckii (=Mytilococcus beckii), Lepidosaphes beckii and Unaspis citri.

Liang, X.M., Wang, Y.Z., Wang, P.S., Wang, J.Q. & Wu, G.B. 2004. [Effect of using Luying mechanical oil emulsion for control of diseases and pests of fruit crops.] (In Chinese). China Fruits No. 2: 7-10. [LiangWaWa2004]
Notes: Different concentrations of Luying mechanical oil emulsion were used in apple [Malus pumila], pear [Pyrus], sweet cherry [Prunus avium] and strawberry [Fragaria] and compared to other fungicides and insecticides. For controlling pest species Luying oil was useful for mulberry white scales [Pseudaulacaspis pentagona] in sweet cherry.

Lin, X.L. 2002. Study on physical-chemical characteristics and selection for utilization model of Acacia auriculiformis plantation. (In Chinese; Summary In English). Scientia Silvae Sinicae 38(5): 121-127. [Lin2002]
Notes: The growth volume of Acacia auriculiformis in forest stands of the same age, its chemical composition and the utilization of its pertinent regions were studied. A. auriculiformis was the perfect host of lac insects. The yield of tree stick lac from coppice stand was higher than that from seeding stand. The net increase production of tree stick lac (Kerria lacca) was 1.42 kg. The chemical composition of wood was almost the same and that of the bark differ slightly when the trees were stocked by lac insects. The tannin of the bark reached 9.97-11.40% (>8%). The product quality and the properties of tannins from this bark were better than the first degree of GB2619-81. The artificial forest of A. auriculiformis yielded the best economic benefits when the following process was followed: (1) stocking the 3-year-old coppice stands of lac insects; (2) cutting the trees after collecting the tree stick lac and debarking the trunk and branch; and (3) using the debarked trunk and branch as a culture medium for domestic fungus and the bark for producing tannins.

Ling, K.S., Zhu, H.Y. & Gonsalves, D. 2004. Complete nucleotide sequence and genome organization of Grapevine leafroll-associated virus 3, type member of the genus Ampelovirus. Journal of General Virology 85(Part 7): 2099-2102. [LingZhGo2004]
Notes: This study reports on the complete genome sequence of Grapevine leafroll-associated virus 3, the type member of the genus Ampelovirus. Phylogenetic analysis using MT domains further supports the creation of the genus Ampelovirus for mealybug-transmitted viruses in the family Closteroviridae.

Liotta, G., Agrò, A. & Lo Pinto, M. 2003. Biological control in citrus groves in the last 50 years: three successful cases in Western Sicily. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): 171-173. [LiottaAgLo2003]
Notes: [Integrated control in citrus fruit crops. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002. Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.) Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP).] This paper reports the appearance in western Sicily, Italy of 3 pests, Dialeurodes citri, Aleurothrixus floccosus and Lepidosaphes gloverii. Insecticides were unable to control them, but biological means kept these phytophagous species below the economic threshold. L. gloverii was discovered in 1947 in Palermo. For several decades, it has been the main problem for citrus groves in western Sicily, requiring legislation which made it compulsory to combat it and prohibited transporting citrus plants or parts of them from Palermo to other Italian provinces. Encarsia herndoni was introduced from Spain and spread rapidly in the areas where it was released, leading to active parasitization levels up to 50%. Despite the high mortality of the parasitoid (70-90%), it has led to the almost total disappearance of L. gloverii in all the infested areas of Sicily.

Liu, Y.S. 2003. Occurring law and prevention and curing of Kermes nawae Kuwana in Hubei Province. (In Chinese; Summary In English). Journal of Fujian College of Forestry 23(4): 364-367. [Liu2003]
Notes: There is only one generation of K. nawae in a year. Larva stays in 1- or 2-year-old twigs to pass the winter. During the first 10-day period of March, the larva comes out. In April, its crust becomes bigger and harder. The first 10-day of April and the second 10-day of May is the spawning period of the female, and the average amount of spawn is 2500. The incubation lasts for 6 days. The rate of average incubation is 97%. In 15 May, the initial larva occurs. Until the last 10-day period of May, the larva starts the stable parasitism, and secretes the wax to cover its body, which is very small. The natural enemies of K. nawae include Chilocorus rubidus, Blastothrix mys, Microterys kuwanai, Blastothrix chinensis, Psilophrys tenuicomis and Psilophrys may. M. kuwanai parasitizes male or female K. nawae. The latter 3 parasitize male K. nawae. In 1999, the rate of parasitism in male K. nawae is 14% and in female 22.5%. When controlling the pests on chestnuts, increasing the times of using the pesticide and using the pesticide in an inappropriate period may weaken the controlling effect of the pesticide. The last 10-day period of March is the best time for pesticide application.

Liu, Z.M. 2004. [The control of powdery scale in the apple orchards in the western part of Henan province.] (In Chinese). China Fruits No. 5: 43-44. [Liu2004]
Notes: In recent years the powdery scale (Pseudococcus comstocki) has become an important pest for apple orchards in China. The infected trees usually reach 2.3-9.7%, but reaching 17.6%. Its first generation nymphs usually attack the young tissues of the tree, the second and third generation nymphs mainly attack the fruit. The bagged fruit could be attacked by 30%. The nymphs often make the fruit surface to form yellow, white and green marble spot with red brown or yellow brown cycles. It has three generations a year. Its eggs hibernate in the bark split or soil. The rampage period for the first generation nymphs is in mid- to late May. Practice showed spraying 1500x dilution solution of 40% Lorsban emulsion or 1500x dilution of 52.25% Nurelle-D505 emulsion in mid- to late May controls the pest.

Liu, Y.S. 2004a. [Biological characteristics of chestnut scale and its control.] (In Chinese). South China Fruits 33(1): 56-57. [Liu2004a]
Notes: Chestnut scale (Kermes nawai) caused massive damage during 1999-2001 in the chestnut producing areas of Hubei province, China. This pest has one generation/year. The 2nd-instar larvae hibernate near buds, in stem scars and in bark. When the daily mean temperature is 10 deg C (early March), these larvae start to attack 1- to 2-year-old branches by sucking the juice. Control (93.2-98.0%) was possible by spraying 1500 times solution of Supracide [methidathion].

Liu, X.Q., Qin, Z.Q. & Li, X.M. 2002. The citrus brown scale and its control. South China Fruits 1(6): 34. [LiuQiLi2002]
Notes: The citrus brown scale [Chrysomphalus aonidum] is a leading pest in the Hubei central citrus producing area. It has 3 generations a year, the first-generation nymphs appear in mid-May, the second-generation nymphs appear in early July and the third-generation nymphs appear in early September. The scale attacks the branches, leaves and fruit, sucking the sap, causing leaf fall and weakening the tree, resulting in fruit of low quality. It has two leading natural enemies: Comperiella bifasciata and Aphytis chrysomphali. The scale is 2 mm in diameter and purplish brown in colour. Practice has shown that besides using the natural enemies to kill it, spraying an 80 times solution of mechanical oil and an 800 times solution of Rogor [dimethoate] achieves 100% mortality.

Liu, S.J., Wang, X.J., Zhang, J.L. & Xie, S.A. 2002. The forecast techniques of Drosicha corpulenta. (In Chinese; Summary In English). Journal of Northeast Forestry University 30(5): 63-64. [LiuWaZh2002]
Notes: This paper summarizes some simple and convenient techniques in forecasting the damage of Drosicha corpulenta to poplar [Populus] and economic forests in Xi'an City in Shaanxi, China. Rodolia limbata, the most important natural enemy of D. corpulenta, and the effects of biological control were also observed to improve forecast accuracy.

Liu, D.M., Wu, Y.S., Dong, Z.L., Chen, H.F., Zeng, Q.W. & Xing, F.W. 2003. [Investigation on the insect pests of magnolia plants.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Journal of Jiangsu Forestry Science and Technology 30(6): 26-30. [LiuWuDo2003]
Notes: This paper presents a list of the 42 species of insect pests infecting magnolia plants. The morphologic character and life habits of the eight most important pest species are given, which includes Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli and Icerya aegyptiaca.

Livieratos, I.C. & Coutts, R.H.A. 2002. Nucleotide sequence and phylogenetic analysis of Cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus RNA 2. Virus Genes 24(3): 225-230. [LivierCo2002]
Notes: The complete nucleotide sequence of Cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus (CYSDV) RNA 2, a whitefly (Bemisia tabaci)-transmitted closterovirus with a bi-partite genome, is reported. CYSDV RNA 2 is 7,281 nucleotides long and contains the closterovirus hallmark gene array with a similar arrangement to the prototype member of the genus Crinivirus, Lettuce infectious yellows virus (LIYV). CYSDV RNA 2 contains open reading frames (ORFs) potentially encoding in a 5' to 3' direction for proteins of 5 kDa (ORF 1; hydrophobic protein), 62 kDa (ORF 2; heat shock protein 70 homolog, HSP70h), 59 kDa (ORF 3; protein of unknown function), 9 kDa (ORF 4; protein of unknown function), 28.5 kDa (ORF 5; coat protein, CP), 53 kDa (ORF 6; coat protein minor, CPm), and 26.5 kDa (ORF 7; protein of unknown function). Pairwise comparisons of CYSDV RNA 2-encoded proteins (HSP70h, p59 and CPm) among the closteroviruses showed that CYSDV is closely related to LIYV. Phylogenetic analysis based on the amino acid sequence of the HSP70h, indicated that CYSDV clusters with other members of the genus Crinivirus, and it is related to Little cherry virus-1 (LChV-1), but is distinct from the aphid- or mealybug-transmitted closteroviruses.

Llorens, J.M., Vinaches, P., Rafael, E., Fucks, P. & Marín, C. 2003. Field trial to determine the effect of pyriproxifen on Icerya purchasi Mask. and Rodolia cardinalis Muls. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): 169. [LlorenViRa2003]
Notes: [Integrated control in citrus fruit crops. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002. Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.) Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP).] [Abstract only.] Experiments were carried out in spring in an orchard of clementine cultivar "Marisol". The treatment was considered successful.

Lo, P.L. 2004. Toxicity of pesticides to Halmus chalybeus (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) and the effect of three fungicides on their densities in a citrus orchard. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science 32(1): 69-76. [Lo2004]
Notes: The effect of three fungicides in five programmes on densities of Halmus chalybeus (steelblue ladybird) was tested in a citrus orchard. Programmes of five and nine applications of cupric hydroxide or chlorothalonil reduced densities by c. 35% and 70% respectively, compared with unsprayed plots. One application of copper sulphate and lime (Bordeaux mixture) reduced ladybird density by 81%, similar to the two nine-application programmes. These reductions in numbers were probably due to a repellent effect since the fungicides had a relatively low toxicity. H. chalybeus is an important predator of wax scales (Ceroplastes destructor) and the implications of these pesticide effects for biological control of these pests are discussed.

Loayza, R.M., Parra, J.R.P. & Vendramim, J.D. 2003. [Compared biology of Selenaspidus articulatus (Morgan) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) in Citrus sinensis varieties and in Citrullus silvestris.] Neotropical Entomology 32(3): 493-496. [LoayzaPaVe2003]
Notes: The biology of S. articulatus was studied in four Citrus sinensis cultivars (Hamlin, Natal, Pêra and Valencia) compared with the factitious host Citrullus silvestris. The scale was better developed in 'Hamlin', with a high fixing capacity, making the cycle shorter and providing high survival. For both males and females, 'Natal' and 'Pêra' served as intermediaries, and 'Valencia' was less adequate for insect development. Although Citrullus silvestris provided an extension of the cycle regarding the citrus cultivars, comparable only to 'Valencia' with regard to female development, this cucurbit can be recommended for the maintenance of the species in the laboratory.

Logan, D.P. & Thomson, C. 2002. Temperature-dependent development of parasitoids on two species of armoured scale insects. New Zealand Plant Protection 55: 361-367. [LoganTh2002]
Notes: [The 53rd Conference Proceedings of the New Zealand Plant Protection Society held in Rotorua, 12-15 August 2002. http://www.hortnet.co.nz/publications/nzpps/proceedings/02/02_361.pdf] The duration of development of the parasitoid Encarsia citrina (Craw) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) on its hosts greedy scale, Hemiberlesia rapax (Comstock) and oleander scale, Aspidiotus nerii Bouché, (Hemiptera: Diaspididae), and of Signiphora merceti (Malenotti) (Hymenoptera: Signiphoridae) on greedy scale was determined at five constant temperatures. Weibull functions were fitted to the cumulative distribution of parasitoid emergence times, and development rates for 5.50 and 95% emergence were calculated. Development rates for each parasitoid-scale combination were described by the same linear regression equations for 50% emergence, and for 95% emergence. Duration of development in the field was simulated using 13 months of hourly temperatures recorded at Te Puke.

Lopez Gonzalez, J.J., Ayala Ortega, M.J., Rodríguez Carreón, V.M., Santos Vega, T. & García Ponce, G. 2002. [Study proposal on the wild cochineal in the state of Coahuila, Mexico.] Propuesta de estudio de la grana cochinilla silvestre en el estado de Coahuila, México. (In Spanish). 75-76 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 p. [LopezGAyRo2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] The extent and distribution of Opuntia spp. serving as hosts for carmine in this region suggest that a study to determine the quality of carmine produced would be valuable.

Lopez, V.F., Kairo, M.T.K. & Irish, J.A. 2004. Biology and prey range of Cryptognatha nodiceps (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), a potential biological control agent for the coconut scale, Aspidiotus destructor (Hemiptera: Diaspididae). Biocontrol Science and Technology 14(5): 475-485. [LopezKaIr2004]
Notes: Cryptognatha nodiceps Marshall is an important natural enemy used in biological control programmes against Aspidiotus destructor (Signoret), an introduced pest of coconut in many countries. In order to increase our understanding of C. nodiceps, the present study to quantify aspects of the developmental, reproductive and feeding biology under constant environmental conditions (26 +/- 2degreesC, 55-65% RH) was carried out. In addition, methods for culturing the scale and the beetle were developed. The average duration of development was 19.2 +/- 0.1 days for males and 19.6 +/- 0.2 days for females. Female longevity and lifetime fecundity was 35.6 +/- 5.1 days and 141.0 +/- 35.6 eggs, respectively. Life table statistics were as follows: reproductive rate, 9.99, intrinsic rate of increase, 0.09, finite rate of increase, 1.1, doubling time, 7.8 days and generation time, 41.1 days. Studies on feeding biology showed that C. nodiceps was oligophagous. The coccinellid fed and reproduced on prey species in two families, Diaspididae and Coccidae. Adults also fed on the coconut whitefly Aleurodicus cocois (Curtis) (Aleyrodidae) but no reproduction occurred on this prey. Aphididae, Psyllidae and Pseudococcidae were not fed upon.

López Mejía, O.A., Ojeda Espinosa, C., Calderón Cervantes, F. & García Velázquez, A. 2002. [The cultivation of cochineal in the Tecamachalco Pueblo region.] Experiencia de cultivo de cocinilla en la región de Tecamachalco Puebla. (In Spanish). 77-79 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 p. [LopezMOjCa2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This paper examines the adapatation of Dactylopius coccus to the conditions of this region.

Lo Pinto, M., Lo Bue, P., Peri, E., Agrò, A., Liotta, G. & Colazza, S. 2002. Responses of Aphytis chilensis to the synthetic sex pheromone of the oleander scale. IOBC/WPRS Bulletin 25(9): 271-275. [LoPintLoPe2002]
Notes: [IOBC/WPRS Working Group Use of Pheromones and Other Semiochemicals in Integrated Control. Pheromones and other biological techniques for insect control in orchards and vineyards. Proceedings of the working group meeting, Samos, Greece, September 25-29, 2000. Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP).] The role of the synthetic sex pheromone of the oleander scale, Aspidiotus nerii Bouché (Homoptera: Diaspididae), in the long-range host-searching behaviour of the specialist parasitoid Aphytis chilensis Howard (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) was studied. Different concentrations in hexane of the (-) and (+) enantiomers of the synthetic host sex-pheromone were compared for their attractiveness in dual choice tests in a Y-olfactometer. Wasp females were significantly attracted from the synthetic sex pheromone. The results indicate that in searching behaviour of A. nerii, A chilensis is oriented towards areas likely to contain suitable host stages by host-derived information.

Louda, S.M., Pemberton, R.W., Johnson, M.T. & Follett, P.A. 2003. Nontarget effects the achilles' heel of biological control? Retrospective analyses to reduce risk associated with biocontrol introductions. Annual Review of Entomology 48: 365-396. [LoudaPeJo2003]
Notes: Biological control of weeds has a long recorded history, starting with redistribution in 1832 of Dactylopius scales to control weedy prickly pear cacti in South Africa. Controversy exists over ecological risks in classical biological control. We reviewed 10 projects with quantitative data on nontarget effects. Ten patterns emerged: (a) Relatives of the pest are most likely to be attacked; (b) host-specificity testing defines physiological host range, but not ecological range; (c) prediction of ecological consequences requires population data; (d) level of impact varied, often in relation to environmental conditions; (e) information on magnitude of nontarget impact is sparse; (f) attack on rare native species can accelerate their decline; (g) nontarget effects can be indirect; (h) agents disperse from agroecosystems; (i) whole assemblages of species can be perturbed; and (j) no evidence on adaptation is available in these cases. The review leads to six recommendations: Avoid using generalists or adventive species; expand host-specificity testing; incorporate more ecological information; consider ecological risk in target selection; prioritize agents; and pursue genetic data on adaptation. We conclude that retrospective analyses suggest clear ways to further increase future safety of biocontrol.

Lourenção, A.L., Terra, M.M., Pires, E.J.P., Pommer, C.V. & Ambrosano, G.M.B. 2002. [Grapevine rootstock performance in a soil infested by Eurhizococcus brasiliensis.] Comportamento de porta-enxertos de videira em solo infestado pela pérola-da-terra. (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Revista de Agricultura Piracicaba 77(1): 57-64. [LourenTePi2002]
Notes: The performance of four grapevine rootstocks in soil infested by Eurhizococcus brasiliensis was evaluated in Angatuba, São Paulo, Brazil from 1995 to 1997. Observations were recorded on the vigour and survival of Ripária do Traviú, IAC 766, IAC 572 and IAC 571-6 rootstocks. Ripária do Traviú showed the worst performance, with only 3.3% plants surviving at the end of two years, while IAC 571-6 showed 76.7% survival. In terms of plant vigour, the three IAC rootstocks showed significantly higher vegetative growth than that of Ripária do Traviú.

Lozzia, C. (Ed.) 2003. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group: Integrated Protection and Production in Viticulture. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(8): xv + 330 pp. [Lozzia2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Volos, Greece, 18-22 March, 2003.] These proceedings include the papers, Study of scale insects and their antagonists associated with vineyards in Bourgogne and Alsace during 2000 to 2002 (Sentenac & Kuntzmann), The scale Parthenolecanium persicae (Fabricius) on grapes in Greece (Stathas, Eliopoulos, Bouras & Economou) and Laboratory tests of the effect of Bacillus thuringiensis on grape berry moth Lobesia botrana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) and on the pseudococcids' predator Nephus includens (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) (Anagno & Kontodimas).

Luck, R.F. & Forster, L.D. 2003. Quality of augmentative biological control agents: a historical perspective and lessons learned from evaluating Trichogramma. 231-246 In: van Lenteren, J.C. (Eds.), Quality Control and Production of Biological Control Agents CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. 327 pp. [LuckFo2003]
Notes: Augmentative biological control involves one or more releases of a natural enemy in an attempt to suppress and maintain a pest population at subeconomic densities. The notion of releasing parasitoids augmentatively for pest suppression was initially proposed in the late 1800s. However, its first sustained use involved the suppression of the citrophilous mealybug, Pseudococcus calceolariae Farnale, a pest of citrus in southern California, which began sometime between 1913 and 1917. The biological control agent, the coccinellid Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant, initially introduced as a classical biological control agent, was unable to survive in sufficient numbers to affect control without augmentation. This coccinellid is still being used in citrus to suppress mealybug pests and it is still commercially available. The initial success of this tactic led to an expansion in its use against other pests, beginning with the most widely used augmentative biological control agents, Trichogramma species. Their use began in the late 1920s, when S.E. Flanders developed a mass-production system for them. In this chapter, we first summarize this historical origin and then illustrate the role of fundamental research and its interaction with theory in improving augmentative biological control's predictability, using Trichogramma species as examples. Host species discussed include Planococcus citri, Pseudococcus obscurus (=maritimus), P. longispinus and Saissetia oleae.

Luck, R.F., Forster, L.D. & Scriven, G. 2003. Augmentative biological control in North America as a foundation for agricultural pest management: its potential and limitations. 179 In: Van Dreische, R.G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Washington D.C.. 573 pp. [LuckFoSc2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002.] Species discussed include Planococcus citri and Saissetia oleae.

Lucques. 2003. [Lucques.] Arboriculture Fruitière No. 577: pp. 35. [Lucque2003]
Notes: The olive variety Lucques is described from France. Information is included on the tree, leaves, flowers and fruits; susceptibility to diseases (Cycloconium oleagina [Spilocaea oleagina]), insect pests (Bactrocera oleae, Saissetia oleae), and cold conditions; and uses (including harvesting time, yield and quality of olive oil).

Lunderstädt, J. 2002. Long term research on the infestation dynamics of beech scale (Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind.) and on the formation of necroses in a mixed stand of beech and valuable broad leaved trees. Allgemeine Forst und Jagdezeitung 173(11/12): 193-200. [Lunder2002]
Notes: In the Lower Saxonian hilly region, Forest office Kattenbühl, Forest district Brackenberg, the development of 55- to 73-year-old beech (Fagus sylvatica) trees after a mass propagation of beech scale (Cryptococcus fagisuga) in 1982/83 was followed for 15 years. In neighbouring mixed stands of beech and valuable broadleaved species from natural regeneration experimental twin plots (r=15 m), each in valley-, side slope-, and plateau position were subjected to thinning of varied intensity at different time intervals. Irrespective of the treatment, scale infestation decreased from 1983 to 2001 on all plots. The relative share of infested trees as an average of the years 1985, 1988 and 1996 came to 15-20%. It remained similar in the individual classes of the 6 experimental plots with quantitative differences in the intensity of the attack by the scale. After 18 years the attack of the scale was stronger on the thinned plots, the necrosis causes by the scale remained similar in all cases. Maximum necrosis occurred on the thinned side slope plot within the class of dominated trees, on the corresponding unthinned one within the class of dominating trees. The necroses caused by an unidentified pathogen, probably Nectria ditissima, was observed only on all unthinned plots, it decreased from valley to plateau. Regular thinning measures are most important in the control of infestations. The time and intensity of the procedure are strongly influenced by the water regime of the stands. Up to 5 years after a mass propagation of the scale a higher proportion of final crop trees changing their social position should be preserved. As well the monitoring and control of xylophagous insects should be intensified within this time span.

Lupi, D. 2002. [Cybocephalus nipponicus Endrödy-Younga (Coleoptera Cybocephalidae) on Diaspis echinocacti (Bouchè) in Liguria.] Cybocephalus nipponicus Endrody-Younga (Coleoptera Cybocephalidae) su Diaspis echinocacti (Bouché) in Liguria. (In Italian; Summary In English). Bollettino di Zoologia Agraria e di Bachicoltura (Milano) 34(3): 463-466. [Lupi2002]
Notes: C. nipponicus, a species preying on D. echinocacti in Liguria, Italy, is recorded in Europe for the first time. Notes on its biology are given.

Lupi, D. 2003. Contribution to the knowledge of cybocephalid beetles. Biology and ethology of Cybocephalus freyi Endrody-Younga. (In English; Summary In Italian). Bollettino di Zoologia Agraria e di Bachicoltura (Milano) 35(1): 45-54. [Lupi2003]
Notes: Cybocephalid beetles are predators of armored scale insects. Up to the present they have been poorly studied in Italy. In this paper the authors are given notes on the biology and life cycle of Cybocephalus freyi Endrody-Younga, a species common in Sardinia and Liguria. Scale species mentioned as hosts include Abgrallaspis cyanophylli, Aonidia lauri, Chionaspis salicis, C. freyi, Diaspis echinocacti, Pseudaulacaspis pentagona and Quadraspidiotus perniciosus.

Mabbett, T. 2003. Coccinellid beetle for greenhouse biocontrol. International Pest Control 6: 334-335. [Mabbet2003]
Notes: Abgrallaspis cyanophylli, Pseudococcus viburni and Saissetia coffeae are among the pest species discussed.

Madmony, A., Schiller, G., Moshe, Y., Tsabary, G., Mendel, Z. & Riov, J. 2003. Controlled and open pollination between Pinus brutia (Ten.) and Pinus halepensis (Mill.) in Israel and hybrid performance. Israel Journal of Plant Sciences 51(3): 213-222. [MadmonScMo2003]
Notes: The present study examined the occurrence of open and controlled pollination between Pinus brutia and P. halepensis under the environmental conditions of the East Mediterranean climate. Controlled interspecific pollination succeeded only with P. brutia as the maternal parent and P. halepensis as the paternal parent. Open interspecific pollination also occurred under Israeli conditions, due to some overlapping between the flowering periods of P. brutia and P. halepensis. Interspecific pollination was characterized by a low percentage of filled seeds and a low germination percentage compared to seeds from intraspecific pollination of each of the parents. The growth rate of the hybrids in the nursery was inferior to or the same as either of the parents. The susceptibility of the hybrids to Matsucoccus josephi varied between different clones, but was intermediate between P. brutia (low susceptibility) and P. halepensis (high susceptibility). Backcrossing one seedling were highly susceptible to M. josephi.

Maeyer, L. de, Peeters, D., Wijsmuller, J.M., Cantoni, A., Brueck, E. & Heibges, S. 2002. Spirodiclofen: a broad-spectrum acaricide with insecticidal properties: efficacy on Psylla pyri and scales Lepidosaphes ulmi and Quadraspidiotus perniciosus. 65-72 In: The BCPC Conference: Pests and diseases, 2 vols. British Crop Protection Council, Farnham, U.K.. 1042 pp. [MaeyerPeWi2002]
Notes: [Conference held at the Brighton Hilton Metropole Hotel, Brighton, UK, 18-21 November 2002.] Spirodiclofen (Envidor) is an integrated pest management-compliant and high-performance acaricide which belongs to a new chemical class, the tetronic acids. Its acaricidal mode of action is unique as it interferes with lipid biosynthesis, which is unrelated to other currently registered acaricides. Spirodiclofen shows an excellent and long lasting activity against the main harmful mite species. Besides this acaricidal action, spirodiclofen shows interesting insecticidal activity against pear suckers (Psylla pyri [Cacopsylla pyri]) and scale insects (e.g. Lepidosaphes ulmi, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus [Diaspidiotus perniciosus]). In field experiments, a well-timed spirodiclofen treatment, applied at the first main hatching of young orange pear sucker nymphs, provided good control of L1-L3- larvae and inhibited or disrupted the further rapid development to older, dark L4-L5 larvae. The efficacy of spirodiclofen was less temperature-dependent than the current standard amitraz and its long-lasting action is able to protect flowers, fruitlets or shoots for nearly a whole pear-sucker generation. Spirodiclofen application at the beginning of scale crawler migration also provided excellent control of Lepidosaphes ulmi and Quadraspidiotus perniciosus. Spirodiclofen showed no adverse effects on natural predators of pear Psylla: e.g. Anthocoridae. These insecticidal properties enable spirodiclofen to play a key role in a complementary strategy for the control of pear suckers, the main pest in Western European pear growing. The compound also controls scale insects such as Lepidosaphes ulmi (a former secondary pest with increasing significance in pome fruit IPM systems) and Quadraspidiotus perniciosus.

Mahmoud, M.R., Baron, P. & Bayoumi, M.R. (Eds.) 2003. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on 'Arab region and Africa in the World Sugar Context', Aswan, Egypt, 9-12 March 2003. International Sugar Organization, London. unpaginated. [MahmouBaBa2003]
Notes: This publication contains 32 studies, including 14 general and 12 technical lectures and 6 poster presentations, presented at the Arab Region and Africa in the World Sugar Context Conference. Subjects covered include a wide ranging variety relevant to the sugar industry and includes one paper on scales, Light and scanning electron microscopic studies on the various stages of the scale insect Pulvinaria tenuivalvata (Hemiptera, Coccidae), attacking sugarcane (Azab, Sadek & Khalil).

Maier, M.S., Parera, S.D. & Seldes, A.M. 2004. Matrix-assisted laser desorption and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry of carminic acid isolated from cochineal. International Journal of Mass Spectrometry 232(3): 225-229. [MaierPaSe2004]
Notes: Carminic acid, isolated from cochineal, was analyzed by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) and electrospray mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). Application of both techniques to the analysis of carminic acid suspended in linseed oil and applied to a piece of canvas, demonstrated the ability of MALDI and ESI-MS to identify this organic dye in a mixture as those used in easel painting.

Maity, A. & Ghosh, A.B. 2004. Morphology of various instars of the mealybug, Icerya aegyptiaca (Douglas) (Margarodidae: Hemiptera). Environment & Ecology 22(1): 7-12. [MaityGh2004]
Notes: Descriptions and illustrations are given on different instars of the mealybug, I. aegyptiaca. The first and second instar nymphs possess six segmented antennae; the former has large setae on apical segment of antenna and no waxy tassel but the later has waxy tassels along body margin. The third instar nymphs have 9, rarely 8, segmented antennae and multilocular disc pore with bilocular centre on dorsum of head and thorax. The adult females possess 11, rarely 10, segmented antennae, vulva and ovisac band pore. Disc pores with trilocular centre surrounded by kidney-shaped multiple loculi produce waxy tassels with the help of marginal setae but pores surrounded by small multiple loculi produce ovisac. All other dermal pores secrete waxy dusts. No male has been recorded. Pedilanthus tithymaloides (Euphorbiaceae) and Vernonia cinerea (Compositae) have been recorded as its new hosts.

Malumphy, C. & Robinson, J. 2004. Interception records of Rhizoecus hibisci Kawai & Takagi (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae, Rhizoecinae) in England and Wales, with a revised key to the Rhizoecus species recorded in Britain. Entomologist's Gazette 55(2): 121-126. [MalumpRo2004]
Notes: Information on the morphology, geographical distribution, and host plants of R. hibisci is provided. R. hibisci has been recorded feeding on the roots of plants belonging to 26 genera from 20 families, including new hosts (Crassula sp., Rhododendron sp., Ficus aurica, Punica granatum, Zelkova serrata, Ulmus sp. and U. parvifolia). A key to Rhizoecus species in Britain, and interception records of R. hibisci in England (14 counties) and Wales (one county), most of which were associated with plants of Serissa foetida from China, are presented.

Mani, M. & Krishnamoorthy, A. 2002. Biological suppression of spherical mealybug Nipaecoccus viridis (Newstead) (Hemiptera, Pseudococcidae) on acid lime in India. Entomon 27(4): 423-424. [ManiKr2002]
Notes: A field experiment was conducted with the Australian ladybird beetle Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Muls. for the suppression of spherical mealybug Nipaecoccus viridis (Newstead) on acid lime. The results indicated that the mealybug population had declined from 221.30 in March 94 to 1.40 in June 94. The decline in the mealybug population was attributed to the activity of biotic agents Anagyrus spp. and C. montrouzieri.

Mansfield, S., Elias, N.V. & Lytton-Hitchins, J.A. 2003. Ants as egg predators of Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in Australian cotton crops. Australian Journal of Entomology 42(4): 349-351. [MansfiElLy2003]
Notes: Helicoverpa armigera is a major pest of Australian cotton crops. To assess the impact of ant predation on H. armigera populations, the behaviour of four common ant taxa was observed in cotton crops in northern New South Wales over the 1999-2000 and 2001-02 seasons. Areas of cotton were artificially stocked with H. armigera eggs prior to observation. Pheidole spp. were the most frequently observed ants within the crop canopy in 1999-2000 and took the most H. armigera eggs. Iridomyrmex spp. were more frequently observed than Pheidole spp. in 2001-02 and also took some H. armigera eggs. Neither Paratrechina spp. nor Rhytidoponera metallica (Smith) took any H. armigera eggs, although both were seen in the crop canopy. Irrigation, cultivation and insecticide application disrupted foraging ants and limited their impact on H. armigera populations. Pseudococcidae are also discussed.

Mansilla Vásquez, J.P., Barrote Meira, M.C., Pintos Varela, C. & Salinero Corral, M.C. 2002. [Phytopathologic situation of camellias in the region between Entre Douro and Minho in Portugal.] (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Boletín de Sanidad Vegetal, Plagas 28(4): 609-622. [MansilBaPi2002]
Notes: Buds, flowers, branches and leaves taken from Camellia were surveyed for incidences of pests, pathogens, and damages. The most common pest was Cosetacus camelliae (found at all sites), followed by Pulvinaria floccifera [Chloropulvinaria floccifera] (found in 8 out of 10 places). Ciborinia camelliae was the most common disease and existed in all sites. Sun damage was also detected at all sites.

Manuel, L.J., Pedro, V., Rafael, E., Pedro, F. & Cándido, M. 2003. Field trial to determine the effect of pyriproxifen on Icerya purchasi Mask. and Rodolia cardinalis Muls. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): 169. [ManuelPeRa2003]
Notes: [Conference proceedings: 'Integrated control in citrus fruit crops'. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, held in Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002 Published by International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP), Dijon, France, Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.)] A field trial was carried out in spring 1997 to determine the effect of pyriproxifen [pyriproxyfen] on the pest I. purchasi and its predator R. cardinalis. A clementine (cv. Marisol) orchard was selected in Orihuela, Spain, and 160 shoots (two per tree from 80 trees) which contained colonies of I. purchasi, were previously tagged. Pyriproxifen 10LE at 0.075% plus a wetting agent was applied with an atomizer at 3472 litres/ha on 3 March 1997. Population levels of the pest and its natural enemy were monitored immediately before the treatment, and 14, 21, 33, 39, 46 59 and 66 days after the treatment. R. cardinalis larvae appeared at the end of March and their numbers increased in unsprayed trees until 22 April, with a significant decrease in the pest number. In pyriproxifen-treated plots, the number of R. cardinalis larvae was low, and neither nymphs nor adults were observed. With time, R. cardinalis adults originating from the untreated parts of theorchard eliminated the I. purchasi population from the treated plots.

Marchetti, L. 2003. [Plant protection in ornamental and forest plants.] La difesa fitosanitaria delle piante ornamentali e forestali. (In Italian). Informatore Agrario 59(14): 89 pp. [Marche2003]
Notes: After persistent low temperatures in the winter, growers are advised to monitor the following shrubs and trees for signs of pests and diseases in spring. The gall-forming aphid Sacchiphantes abietis [Adelges abietis] in spruce [Picea spp.] is treatable with white oil [mineral oil] and pyrethroids. Rhyacionia buoliana in the apical buds of young pines [Pinus spp.] should be removed by hand; in maritime pines [Pinus pinaster] Matsucoccus feytaudi must by law be treated with pyrethroids. Forsythia branches infected with Phomopsis sp., Phyllosticta or Ascochyta should be removed before applying copper as oxychloride or hydroxide. The former may also be used against leaf spot or Fusicoccum amygdali [Phomopsis amygdali] canker in flowering almonds. Mimosa should be given treatment to forestall infection by Verticillium dahliae. Plane tree [Platanus] leaves showing necrotic spots should be removed. Carbendazim at 120 g/hl should be applied at bud burst in nurseries, but care must be taken in towns and housing estates not to use pesticides potentially harmful to humans; thiabendazole in mixtures with acephate, imidacloprid or methomyl can be used against Corythucha ciliata in planes and a watch should be kept for the canker-producing Ceratocystis fimbriata.

Margaritopoulos, J.T., Bacandritsos, N., Pekas, A.N., Stamatis, C., Mamuris, Z. & Tsitsipis, J.A. 2003. Genetic variation of Marchalina hellenica (Hemiptera: Margarodidae) sampled from different hosts and localities in Greece. Bulletin of Entomological Research 93(5): 447-453. [MargarBaPe2003]
Notes: Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis was applied to 120 individuals of Marchalina hellenica (Gennadius) representing six populations collected in northern, central and southern mainland Greece. One population was sampled on one species of fir tree and the others on two species of pine trees. Four random decamer primers were used to evaluate genetic variation among the populations examined. The results revealed intra- and interpopulation polymorphism both related to host type and region of origin. Phylogenetic analysis based on genetic distances estimated by the RAPD frequencies revealed an important genetic differentiation in samples collected on fir trees in southern Greece and to a lesser extent in samples from pine trees in central and northern Greece. Furthermore, considerable subdivision and restricted gene flow among the populations examined were observed. The results are discussed in relation to the biology and geographical distribution of M. hellenica in Greece.

Martínez-Ferrer, M.T., Fibla, J.M., Campos, J.M., Beltrán, E. & Ripollés, J.L. 2003. [Using insecticide mineral oils on adult citrus trees for controlling Phyllocnistis citrella (Lepidoptera: Gracillaridae) and other summer pests (I): Efficacy on pests.] (In Spanish; Summary In English). Boletín de Sanidad Vegetal, Plagas 29(2): 281-289. [MartinFiCa2003]
Notes: [Original title: Aplicación de aceites minerales insecticidas en árboles adultos de cítricos para el control de Phyllocnistis citrella (Lepidoptera: Gracillaridae) y otras plagas de verano (I): Eficacia sobre plagas.] Five insecticide mineral oils were tested at two concentrations in field, on Clemenules mandarin adult trees (Citrus sinensis) in summer for control the Lepidopteran pest Phyllocnistis citrella and a group of scale pests. A high efficacy for all the oils investigated was obtained for P. citrella (>85% in relation to affected leaf surface). Significant population reduction was obtained, higher than 95% for Parlatoria pergandii and Cornuaspis beckii [Lepidosaphes beckii] (Homoptera: Diaspididae) at the higher dose, and higher than 60% for Ceroplastes sinensis (Homoptera: Coccidae).

Martínez-Ferrer, M.T., García-Marí, F. & Ripollés Molés, J.L. 2003. Population dynamics of Planococcus citri (Risso) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) in citrus groves in Spain. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): 149-161. [MartinGaRi2003]
Notes: [Integrated control in citrus fruit crops. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002. Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.) Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP).] Nine non-sprayed citrus groves located in the south of Tarragona and north of Castellón (Spain) were periodically monitored from 1992 to 1995 to determine the population dynamics of P. citri. Five male flights were detected, between April and November, and we observed significant differences in abundance between flights and years. The life cycle of P. citri is well-defined by the thermal parameters of 8.3 deg C as the lower developmental threshold and 562 deg DD (C) as the degree-days to complete a generation. Increases in females on trunk populations coincided with male flights. P. citri invaded the calyxes of newly settled fruits between May and July. By the end of this process, more than 70% of the calyxes were occupied by the insect. P. citri subsequently developed on the fruits, although in smaller percentages (20%). We observed increasing populations in the absence of natural enemies and decreasing populations of P. citri when natural enemies were present. Among the natural enemies, the Coccinellidae predator, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri, stands out as well as several species of hymenopteran parasitoids.

Martínez-Ferrer, M.T., García-Marí, F. & Ripollés Molés, J.L. 2003a. Host and parasitoid densities influence on progeny and sex ratio of Anagyrus pseudococci (Girault) and Leptomastix dactylopii Howard Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae); two Planococcus citri (Risso) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) parasitoids. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): 139-147. [MartinGaRi2003a]
Notes: The effects of different P. citri, A. pseudococci and L. dactylopii densities on progeny, parasitization and sex ratio were investigated under controlled laboratory conditions. L. dactylopii progeny numbers increased significantly as did host density until the host:parasitoid ratio was 80:1. Thereafter, the progeny numbers began to decline. The numbers of A. pseudococci progeny slightly increased as the host density increased. Parasitism percentages for the two parasitoids decreased as the host density increased. A. pseudococci and L. dactylopii attained optimum levels for mass production when the host: parasitoid ratios were 10:1 and 80:1, respectively. The numbers of A. pseudococci progeny increased with increasing parasitoid densities (2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 females) when the host density was held stable (480 P. citri0). L. dactylopii only showed this trend at the lower parasitoid densities. The number of A. pseudococci progeny per female was not affected by parasitoid density, although the number of L. dactylopii progeny per female decreased as the parasitoid density increased. The sex ratios of A. pseudococci and L. dactylopii were unaffected by the modifications to parasitoid densities.

Martinez-Ferrer, M.T., Grafton-Cardwell, E.E. & Shorey, H.H. 2003. Disruption of parasitism of the California red scale (Homoptera: Diaspididae) by three ant species (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Biological Control 26(3): 279-286. [MartinGrSh2003]
Notes: The relative influence of the southern fire ant, Solenopsis xyloni McCook, Argentine ant, Linepithema humile (Mayr), and native gray ant, Formica aerata (Francoeur), on parasitism of California red scale, Aonidiella aurantii Maskell, was studied in the laboratory for two parasitoids, Comperiella bifasciata Howard and Aphytis melinus DeBach. All three ant species reduced percentage parasitism by C. bifasciata and both percentage parasitism and host mutilation by A. melinus. Southern fire ant was the least disruptive and native gray ant the most disruptive. Southern fire ant removed 12% of scale from the lemons, presumably to feed on them, while the other ant species did not exhibit significant removal of scale compared to the controls. Percentage parasitism of California red scale exhibited by C bifasciata was more than 2-fold the level exhibited by A. melinus. Percentage mutilation of California red scale, including probing and host feeding, was nearly 5-fold higher for A. melinus than C. bifasciata. Because A. melinus required a longer total host examination + oviposition period in the absence of ants than C. bifasciata and because oviposition occurs as the last act in a sequence of behaviors, disruption by the ants had a more significant negative effect on oviposition by A. melinus.

Martínez, M.A., García, M.E. & Valle, Z. 2003. [Characterization of the tissular lesions produced by mealybugs on coffee roots.] Caracterización de las lesiones tisulares producidas por chinches harinosas en raíces de cafeto.) (In Spanish). Revista de Protección Vegetal (Cuba) 18(1): 62-64. [MartinGaVa2003]
Notes: The characteristics of the two types of tissue lesions (internal and external) caused by mealybugs on coffee roots are described.

Martins, F.M., Mendonça, T.R., Lavadinho, A.M.P. & Vieira, M.M. 2002. Entomofauna in a lemon orchard in Escaroupim (Ribatejo), Portugal. Boletín de Sanidad Vegetal, Plagas 28(3): 435-443. [MartinMeLa2002]
Notes: This paper gives an account of beneficials, pests and other insects caught by a beating technique in a lemon tree orchard in Escaroupim, Ribatejo, Portugal, during 1996 and 1997, and of the periods of activity of the most important beneficials. The beneficial insects belong to Coccinellidae, Anthocoridae, Miridae, Chrysopidae and Coniopterygidae families, Chalcidoidea, Ichneumonoidea and Proctotrupoidea superfamilies and Dermaptera. The beneficial insects with the highest numbers were those of Anthocoridae (Orius spp.), Coccinellidae (Stethorus punctillum and Chilocorus bipustulatus) and Chalcidoidea. Arachnida (Aranea) was the group of beneficial arthropods with the highest numbers. The most abundant pest species were Saissetia oleae and Aleurothrixus floccosus. Psocoptera was very important compared to other insects.

Masjedian, H. & Seyedoleslami, H. 2003. Bioecology of pistachio oyster shell scale, Lepidosaphes pistaciae Archangelskaya (Hom: Diaspididae) in Isfahan. (In Persian; Summary In English). Journal of Science and Technology of Agriculture and Natural Resources 6(4): 181-194. [MasjedSe2003]
Notes: The abundance of pistachio oyster shell scale, L. pistaciae, on leaves and branches of pistachio plants of different ages, two heights and four cardinal directions of the tree crown was investigated. The seasonal occurrence of the three forms of the pest was studied on leaves, and one- and two-year-old branches separately. Insects, mostly female, overwintered on the one- and two-year-old branches. The pests showed two different periods of activity throughout the season. In the first, eggs mostly hatched in April, and male and female crawlers mostly settled on leaves and newly grown twigs, but not on older branches. In the second, eggs mostly hatched in June, and male and female crawlers settled mostly on leaves and one- to two-year-old branches, respectively. Population density was higher on the upper surface of leaves than on the lower surface. The analysis of variance showed that significant differences existed only in the densities between trees in both generations, and between two heights of the tree crown for population that settled on wood. Two predatory species from Cybocephalidae and Coccinellidae, one ectoparasitoid from Aphelinidae, and two ectoparasitoids from Encyrtidae were collected as natural enemies of this pest in Isfahan, Iran.

Matadha, D. 2003. In: Biology and Evaluation of Parasitoids of Euonymus Scale, Unaspis euonymi (Comstock) (Homoptera: Diaspididae)/ Rutgers The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, . 84 pp. [Matadh2003]
Notes: [Ph.D. Thesis; George C. Hamilton, Advisor.] A statewide survey of New Jersey was carried out to determine the current establishment and distribution of introduced natural enemies of euonymus scale, Unaspis euonymi (Comstock) (Homoptera: Diaspididae). The most commonly encountered natural enemies were Cybocephalus sp.nr. nipponicus Enrody-Younga (Coleoptera: Cybocephalidae), Chilocorus kuwanae Silvestri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) and the endoparasitoid, Encarsia citrina Craw (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae). Neither of the introduced aphelinid parasitoid species, Encarsia sp.nr. diaspidicola (Silvestri) and Aphytis proclia (Walker) were recovered from the collection sites. Host acceptance studies of the laboratory strains of A. proclia and E. sp.nr. diaspidicola revealed that both species have lost the ability of parasitizing euonymus scale due to their long term rearing on the laboratory host San Jose scale and have developed a preference for San Jose scale over euonymus scale. However, both E. citrina and the field strain of E. sp.nr. diaspidicola were capable of parasitizing both the San Jose and euonymus scales successfully. The host age preferences for oviposition by E. citrina, E. sp.nr. diaspidicola and A. proclia were compared by exposing them to 5-45 day old San Jose scales. Encarsia citrina showed a significant preference for 11 day old scales, A. proclia showed a significant preference for 23 and 25 day old scales, whereas, E. sp.nr. diaspidicola showed equal preference for 5-9 day old scales. The functional response of the three parasitoids was determined by exposing them to 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 and 128 San Jose scale densities. Hollings' disc equation (Type II) functional response curve was a better fit than Rogers' random parasitoid equation. Both E. citrina and E. sp.nr. diaspidicola had higher ovipositional potentials than A. proclia. Life history and life table of the adventive parasitoid, E. citrina was studied at six different temperatures. The optimal range of temperature for development and survival for E. citrina is between 20°C and 25°C. The average fecundity of females ranged from 96.25 eggs at 20°C to 40 eggs at 17.5°C. Life table parameters at four constant temperatures (17.5 to 27.5°C) are also estimated.

Matadha, D., Hamilton, G.C. & Lashomb, J.H. 2004. Effect of temperature on development, fecundity, and life table parameters of Encarsia citrina Craw (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), a parasitoid of euonymus scale, Unaspis euonymi (Comstock), and Quadraspidiotus perniciosus (Com.) (Hom.: Diaspididae). Environmental Entomology 33(5): 1185-1191. [MatadhHaLa2004]
Notes: The development, reproduction, and life history of Encarsia citrina Craw were studied in the laboratory on San Jose scale, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus (Comstock), at constant temperatures of 15, 17.5, 20, 25, 27.5, and 30°C at 60–70% RH, and a photoperiod of 16:8 (L:D) h. Larval development did not occur at 15 and 30°C. Total developmental time varied from 22.7 d at 27.5°C to 47.4 d at 17.5°C. The lower development thresholds for larval, pupal, and egg to adult periods were 10.4, 6.3, and 9.0°C, respectively. The number of degree-days required to complete development was 434.8. The average longevity of adults ranged from 34.3 d at 15°C to 8.0 d at 30°C. The average fecundity of females ranged from 96.3 eggs at 20°C to 40 eggs at 17.5°C. Life table parameters were also determined at four constant temperatures (17.5-27.5°C). The intrinsic rate of increase, rm, values for E. citrina ranged from 0.074 at 17.5°C to 0.176 at 27.5°C. The highest net reproductive rate, R0, of 93.7 female offspring/female was estimated at 20°C. The mean generation time, T, ranged from 49.3 d at 17.5°C to 23.4 d at 27.5°C. The results of this study emphasize E. citrina survival and population growth under varied temperature conditions.

Matadha, D., Hamilton, G.C., Hughes, M.G. & Lashomb, J.H. 2003. Distribution of natural enemies of euonymus scale, Unaspis euonymi (Comstock) (Homoptera: Diaspididae), in New Jersey. Environmental Entomology 32(3): 602-607. [MatadhHaHu2003]
Notes: A statewide survey of New Jersey was carried out during 2001 to determine the current establishment and distribution of introduced natural enemies of euonymus scale. One hundred twenty-two sites were surveyed, and their location was recorded. Euonymus scale infestations were recorded at 89% of the sites surveyed. The most commonly encountered natural enemies were Cybocephalus sp.nr. nipponicus Enrody-Younga, Chilocorus kuwanae Silvestri, and the endoparasitoid, Encarsia citrina Craw. Neither of the introduced aphelinid parasitoid species, Encarsia sp. nr. diaspidicola (Silvestri) and Aphytis proclia (Walker), were recovered from the collection sites. The geographic distributions of the most commonly encountered natural enemies of euonymus scale are discussed.

Matile-Ferrero, D. 2004. [Taxonomy, nomenclature and distribution in France of three species of the genus Fonscolombia Lichtenstein, 1877, (Hemiptera, Pseudococcidae).] (In French; Summary In English). Revue Française d'Entomologie 26(2): 73-76. [Matile2004]
Notes: [Original title: Taxonomie nomenclature et répartition en France de trois espèces du genre {Fonscolombia} Lichtenstein, 1877, (Hemiptera, Pseudococcidae).] The grass infesting mealybug genus {Fonscolombia} Lichtenstein includes 3 species in France: {F. europaea} (Newstead), n. comb., {F. graminis} Lichtenstein and {F. tomlinii} (Newstead), n. comb. New synonymies are proposed for the following genus and species: {Conicoccus} Goux with {Fonscolombia} Lichtenstein}, {Ripersia interrupta} Goux and {F. graminis} Lichtenstein, {Ripersia montana} Newstead, {R. exul allosiana} Goux and {Conicoccus montrottieri} Goux with {F. tomlinii} (Newstead). Lectotypes are designated. The distribution of the 3 species is given for France.

Matile-Ferrero, D. & Germain, J.F. 2004. [Eriococcus munroi (Boratynski), new pest on Lavandin in France, and note on two mealybugs new for France (Hemiptera, Eriococcidae and Pseudococcidae).] (In French; Summary In English). Bulletin de la Société entomologique de France 109(2): 191-192. [MatileGe2004]
Notes: [Original title: Eriococcus munroi (Boratynski), nouveau ravageur du Lavandin en France, et note sur deux Pseudococcines nouvelles pour la France (Hemiptera, Eriococcidae et Pseudococcidae).] Eriococcus munroi is newly recorded damaging Lavandin in France. In addition, Phenacoccus madeirensis and Spilococcus halli are recorded from France for the first time. Notes are provided on hosts and distributions.

Matile-Ferrero, D., Germain, J.F., Picart, J.L. & Piron, M. 2004. [Scale insects from greenhouses in France: an illustrated inventory. II. Pseudococcidae and Eriococcidae.] Cochenilles sous serres en France: inventaire illustré. (In French; Summary In English). Phytoma - La Défense des Vegétaux No. 572: 35-37. [MatileGePi2004]
Notes: The first paper in this series gave the general characters of scale insects, the possibility of biological control and reviewed two species of Asterolecaniidae (pit scales) and 7 species of Coccidae (soft scales). This second paper continues with nine species of Pseudococcidae (Balanococcus diminutus, Phenacoccus madeirensis, Planococcus citri, Pseudococcus longispinus, Ps. microcirculus, Ps. viburni, Rhizoecus dianthi, Trochiscococcus speciosus and Vryburgia rimariae). One species of Eriococcidae (Ovaticoccus agavium) is presented.

Matile-Ferrero, D. & Pellizzari, G. 2002. Contribution to the knowledge of the scale insects (Hemiptera Coccoidea) from the Aosta Valley (Italy). (In English; Summary In Italian). Bollettino di Zoologia Agraria e di Bachicoltura (Milano) Ser II, 34(3): 347-360. [MatilePe2002]
Notes: This paper presents the results of a survey on the scale insect fauna carried out over different years in the Alpine Aosta Valley (Italy). A total of 54 species have been collected in this Italian region. Of these, 7 are new for the Italian fauna: Neomargarodes festucae, Chaetococcus sulci, Peliococcus marrubii, Rhodania porifera, Eriococcus placidus, Rhizopulvinaria saxatilis and R. spinifera. Two other species previously recorded from the Aosta Valley as Rhizoecus caesii and Mirococcopsis nagyi proved their pertinence respectively to Rhizoecus pratensis and Volvicoccus volvifer. The opportunity is taken to synonymize Antoninella inaudita, n. syn. with Antoninella parkeri, n. comb. The peculiar climate of the Aosta Valley allows the establishment of several thermophilous or xerophilous species, some of which are considered rare species, such as Neomargarodes festucae, Antoninella parkeri, Chaetococcus sulci, Rhizoecus albidus, Rhodania porifera, Peliococcus marrubii, Volvicoccus volvifer, Cerococcus cycliger, Rhizopulvinaria artemisiae, R. spinifera and Quadraspidiotus labiataraum.

Matis, G. 2004. [Features of the protection of apple and pear trees in 2003 and recommendations for 2004.] Znacilnosti varstva jablan in hrušk v letu 2003 in priporocila za leto 2004.) (In Slovenian). SAD, Revija za Sadjarstvo, Vinogradništvo in Vinarstvo 8(4): 177. [Matis2004]
Notes: Information is provided on the occurrence and control of the main pests and diseases encountered in apple and pear orchards in Slovenia in 2003, viz. Venturia inaequalis, Podosphaera leucotricha, Anthonomus pomorum, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus [Diaspidiotus perniciosus], Hoplocampa testudinea, aphids, Leucoptera scitella [L. malifoliella] Cydia pomonella and Panonychus ulmi. A spraying programme for apples as part of an integrated control programme for 2004 is presented.

Matsumoto, T., Itioka, T. & Nishida, T. 2003. Rapid change in the settling behavior of the arrowhead scale Unaspis yanonensis as an avoidance mechanism against introduced parasitoids, Aphytis yanonensis and Coccobius fulvus. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 107(2): 105-113. [MatsumItNi2003]
Notes: Parasitoids are thought to exert immense selection pressures that shape the traits of herbivores. We examined whether two species of parasitoid wasps, Aphytis yanonensis DeBach et Rosen and Coccobius fulvus Compere et Annecke (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), affect the settling behavior of the arrowhead scale Unaspis yanonensis Kuwana (Hemiptera: Diaspididae), in order to demonstrate the evolution of antiparasitism behavior of herbivores using parasitoids in the field. We used the following five methods: a comparison of parasitism risk in different settling behaviors-parasitoid introduction into a parasitoid-free population; a comparison of the settling behavior between parasitoid-present and parasitoid-free populations; a common garden experiment, in which scales were transferred from parasitoid-present and parasitoid-free populations into the same garden; and a laboratory observation of the settling behavior of the first instars derived from the two population categories. Both parasitoids were introduced into a parasitoid-free population in Wakayama in 1987, and the settling mode of the scales was examined in 1987, 1994, and 1995. The introduction of parasitoids modified the scale-settling mode so that more crawlers settled under another scale (called burrowing), which was consistent with the results observed in parasitoid-present (including South China) and parasitoid-free populations. Moreover, only the burrowing scale exhibited a lower parasitism rate compared to scales settling singly and being burrowed. The common garden experiment demonstrated that scales introduced from the parasitoid-present population had a greater proportion of burrowers than the parasitoid-free population, even in the same field cage under parasitoid-free conditions. Laboratory observations demonstrated that the population difference in parasitism rate was principally due to intrinsic differences in the settling behavior of nymphs; some first-instar nymphs derived from the parasitoid-present population burrowed under another scale settled. These results strongly suggest that the natural selection pressure imposed by the parasitoids modified the settling behavior of the arrowhead scale.

Matsumoto, T., Itioka, T. & Nishida, T. 2003c. Cascading effects of a specialist parasitoid on plant biomass in a Citrus agroecosystem. Ecological Research 18(6): 651-659. [MatsumItNi2003c]
Notes: We studied a specialist parasitoid (Coccobius fulvus Compere et Annecke; Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), its host (the arrowhead scale, Unaspis yanonensis Kuwana; Hemiptera: Diaspididae) and the host plant (Citrus unshiu Marc; Rutaceae) to examine the indirect effects, via host-parasitoid interactions, of the parasitoid on plant biomass. We compared plant biomass and herbivore abundance in a system of two trophic levels (plants and herbivores) with a system of three trophic levels (plants, herbivores and parasitoids) using enclosure experiments in an agricultural setting. Each of eight young citrus trees was infested with 40 scales and placed in an enclosure. We introduced three female parasitoids into half of the enclosures and monitored temporal changes in scale density and cumulative parasitism for the subsequent 11 months. Plant biomass was then compared between treatment groups (parasitoids added) and controls (parasitoids excluded). During the experiment, cumulative parasitism increased rapidly in the parasitoid-addition enclosures to a maximum of 89%, and the number of live scales in the control enclosures was approximately 10-fold that in the treatment enclosures. At the end of the experiment, plant biomass was threefold higher in the parasitoid-addition enclosures than in the control enclosures. These results have two implications for terrestrial communities. First, specialist parasitoids, which are the principal natural enemies of most herbivorous insects, can trigger trophic cascades in the same way that generalist predators can. Second, cascading effects can be detected by observing changes in plant biomass. The latter finding is contrary to recent conclusions about top-down cascades (i.e. that trophic cascades are less likely to be observed when plant biomass, rather than plant damage, is considered as the plant-response variable).

Matsumoto, T., Itioka, T. & Nishida, T. 2004. Is spatial density-dependent parasitism necessary for successful biological control? Testing a stable host-parasitoid system. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 110(3): 191-200. [MatsumItNi2004]
Notes: One of the most famous examples of successful, classical biological control in Japan is the introduction of the parasitoids Coccobius fulvus and Aphytis yanonensis against the citrus pest arrowhead scale Unaspis yanonensis. Together, they comprise a host-parasitoid system that has been demonstrated to be stable. To test the conventional theory that successful biological control of pests occurs through the establishment of a low stable equilibrium, brought about by the density-dependent responses of natural enemies to the pest species, sampling was carried out at five sites in the field during 2000 and 2001 to examine the relationship between the rate of parasitism by C. fulvus and the density of its host. The data were analysed using three statistical techniques at nine spatial scales. Contrary to conventional theoretical predictions, each method of analysis detected very little density-dependence at any spatial level in this study. Parasitoid aggregations independent of host density were not sufficient to stabilise host-parasitoid interactions. Our results suggest that neither spatial density-dependent nor density-independent parasitism is necessary for successful biological control, or for the stability of the host-parasitoid system. We propose an alternative mechanism: a spatial refuge induced by parasitoid introduction may stabilise a system.

Matsumoto, T., Itioka, T. & Nishida, T. 2004a. Why can arrowhead scales, Unaspis yanonensis Kuwana (Homoptera: Diaspididae), which burrow and settle below conspecifics, successfully avoid attack by its parasitoid, Coccobius fulvus Compere et Annecke (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae)? Applied Entomology and Zoology. Tokyo 39(1): 147-154. [MatsumItNi2004a]
Notes: When arrowhead scales, Unaspis yanonensis Kuwana (Homoptera: Diaspididae), burrow and settle underneath conspecifics (i.e., burrowers), the burrowers are less vulnerable to attack by the parasitoid wasp Coccobius fulvus Compere et Annecke (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) than scales that settle singly (i.e., singletons). To examine how this differential susceptibility between settling modes occurs during the host-finding and oviposition processes of the parasitoid, we observed the foraging behavior of the parasitoids in the laboratory. Encounter rates between parasitoids and hosts were similar between settling modes. When scales that had been burrowed under (burrowees) were alive, the parasitoids oviposited in them as frequently as in singletons, however, the wasps did not lay eggs in burrowers. When burrowees were dead or parasitized, the parasitoids did not exhibit oviposition behavior and left soon after they had drummed these individuals several times with their antennae. Our results strongly suggest that the parasitoids were unable to identify the burrowers. Based on this study, we discuss which stimuli may be used by the parasitoids as cues to locate hosts.

Matsumoto, T., Itioka, T., Nishida, T. & Inoue, T. 2003a. Introduction of parasitoids has maintained a stable population of arrowhead scales at extremely low levels. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 106(2): 115-125. [MatsumItNi2003a]
Notes: We previously reported the drastic decline of the arrowhead scale, Unaspis yanonensis Kuwana (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) following the introduction of two parasitoid species, Aphytis yanonensis DeBach et Rosen and Coccobius fulvus Compere et Annecke (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), which were used as biological control agents in a Japanese grove of Satsuma mandarin oranges, Citrus unshiu Marc. (Rutaceae). In this study, we examined whether the parasitoids regulated the scale population at lower levels after its initial decline. Specifically, we monitored the population dynamics of the scale and the rates of parasitism by the two parasitoids three times per year for 16 years following the introduction of the wasps. The two parasitoid species maintained a U. yanonensis density at 1/200 of the density prior to their introduction. When we excluded the wasps, the scale population grew at a rate that was more than fivefold that of a control (parasitoid-infested) group. Although the rates of parasitism by C. fulvus fluctuated, they remained at relatively high levels, whereas those of A. yanonensis were 0% over the last 6 years. A repeated-measures ANOVA indicated that scale density remained stable subsequent to its rapid decline. This showed that the parasitoids stabilized the scale population at a lower level than host plant limitations would have dictated, and strongly suggests that C. fulvus alone regulates the scale population density at an extremely low level. The latter finding contradicts other studies which have suggested that the two parasitoid species complement each other in regulating scale density. We discuss whether a behavioral refuge used by the scale against parasitoids, which we have demonstrated in an earlier study, might contribute to the observed stable host-parasitoid system at low densities.

Matsumoto, T., Itioka, T., Nishida T. & Kaneko, S. 2003b. Is one parasitoid enough? A test comparing one with a pair of parasitoid species in the biological control of arrowhead scales. Population Ecology 45(2): 61-66. [MatsumItNi2003b]
Notes: In classic biological control using natural enemies, the question of whether a single species or multiple species should be introduced has been a matter of debate. The introduction of two parasitoids, Aphytis yanonensis and Coccobius fulvus (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), to control the arrowhead scale, Unaspis yanonensis (Hemoptera: Diaspididae), which is a serious pest in Japanese citrus orchards, has been one of the most successful biological control projects in Japan. The success of this program may be explained by two alternative hypotheses: (1) the parasitoid species work complementarily, or (2) only one of them plays a major role. To test which hypothesis is applicable to this host-parasitoid system, we conducted caging experiments and observed temporal changes in the proportion of the parasitisms and the densities of arrowhead scales enclosed with one of the following combinations of parasitoids: (1) A. yanonensis and C. fulvus together, (2) A. yanonensis alone, (3) C. fulvus alone, or (4) neither parasitoid. Parasitisms in the cohorts with A. yanonensis and C. fulvus together and C. fulvus alone rapidly increased to approximately 70%; parasitism with A. yanonensis alone also increased slightly, although it remained consistently lower that those with A. yanonensis and C. fulvus together and C. fulvus. At the end of the experiment, parasitisms with A. yanonensis and C. fulvus together and C. fulvus alone were significantly higher than that with A. yanonensis alone. Parasitism by C. fulvus constituted most of (74%) the parasitism in the cohort with A. yanonensis and C. fulvus together. Further, only C. fulvus suppressed the population growth rates of scales significantly. These results suggest that C. fulvus alone successfully suppresses scale populations as efficiently as both species together do.

Matsumoto, T., Itioka, T., Nishida, T. & Inoue, T. 2004b. A test of temporal and spatial density dependence in the parasitism rates of introduced parasitoids on host, the arrowhead scale (Unaspis yanonensis) in stable host-parasitoids system. Journal of Applied Entomology 128(4): 267-272. [MatsumItNi2004b]
Notes: In 1980, two species of parasitoid wasps Aphytis yanonensis DeBach et Rosen and Coccobius fulvus Compere et Annecke) were introduced to Japan from China as biological control agents to combat the arrowhead scale (Unaspis yanonensis Kuwana). These introductions represent one of the most successful projects in the history of biological control in Japan. To examine whether density dependent parasitism was inevitable for success of biological control, we tried to detect temporal and spatial density dependence in parasitism rates using time-series data of scale density, as well as parasitism, over a 16-year period. The work was conducted in a Satsuma mandarin orange (Citrus unshiu Marc.) orchard in which we previously demonstrated that the system appeared to have stabilized after a decline in scale density following the introduction of the parasitoids. Earlier work also indicated that C. fulvus contributes most to the reduction in, and the stability of, scale density. In this study, we examined: (1) the relationship, on a whole-orchard basis, between scale density and the rates of parasitism by A. yanonensis, C. fulvus, and a combination of the two species; (2) whether parasitism was positively correlated to scale density on a single-tree basis among generations and (3) whether spatial density dependence was detectable within generations on an individual-tree basis. Parasitism by A. yanonensis was temporally density-dependent on scale population density at the whole-orchard level, while parasitism by C. fulvus was not. Parasitism by A. yanonensis or by C. fulvus was rarely positively correlated to scale density at the single-tree level, and spatial density-dependence was hardly detected at all at this level. Most analyses of combined parasitism rates were similar to rates of parasitism by C. fulvus alone. Contrary to conventional wisdom of biological control theory, this study demonstrates that density dependence is not necessarily detected, even in a system in which a natural enemy has long held pest density stable at low levels.

McClure, M.S. 2002. The elongate hemlock scale, Fiorinia externa Ferris (Homoptera: Diaspididae): a new look at an old nemesis. 248-253 In: Onken, B., Reardon, R. & Lashomb, J. (Eds.), Proceedings: Hemlock Woolly Adelgid in the Eastern United States Symposium. Hemlock Woolly Adelgid Infestations 2002. N.J. Agricultural Experiment Station, the State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick. 403 pp. [McClur2002]
Notes: [Symposium on the Hemlock Woolly Adelgid in Eastern North America, conference held February 5-7, 2002, East Brunswick, New Jersey.] F. externa and Nuculaspis tsugae (Marlatt) (Homoptera: Diaspididae) attack Tsuga canadensis in the eastern United States. They often co-exist with hemlock woolly adelgid, Adelges tsugae, and hasten the decline of hemlock. Aspidiotiphagus citrinus Craw (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) was the only parasitoid species recovered from emergence cages or observed during microscopic examination of samples taken from five hemlock forests in Connecticut and one in New York during 2001. Parasitization rates of F. externa by A. citrinus were highly variable at all six sites. In Connecticut, parasitization on new needles (indicative of 2001 parasitoid activity only) averaged 6.3% (range 3.4% to 9.4%) and on old needles (indicating cumulative parasitoid activity during the past two years) averaged 16.2% (range of 10.2% to 24.2%). Parasitization rates of F. externa were substantially higher in New York (18.6% and 40.6% for scales on new and old needles, respectively). These levels of parasitization are similar to those reported in Connecticut decades ago and are insufficient for biological control of F. externa. Larvae and adults of C. stigma and unidentified lacewing species were collected at each site, but in insufficient numbers to suggest their importance in biological control at this time. No pathogens of F. externa or N. tsugae have previously been reported. Microscopic examination of samples collected from 20 trees along a 2.5 km transect through the hemlock forest at Mianus River Gorge Preserve in Bedford, New York on 31 October 2001 revealed that an unknown fungal pathogen has established an epizootic on F. externa and on N. tsugae.

McComie, L.D., Francis, A. & Bowry, K. 2002. Feeding preference of the Australian ladybird beetle Cryptolaemus montrouzieri, on three mealybug pests in St. Kits and Nevis. CARAPHIN News No. 22: 11-12. [McComiFrBo2002]
Notes: Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Paracoccus marginatus and Planococcus minor are compared as preferred hosts for C. montrouzieri.

McCutchan, J.H., Lewis, W.M., Kendall, C. & McGrath, C.C. 2003. Variation in trophic shift for stable isotope ratios of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur. Oikos 102(2): 378-390. [McCutcLeKe2003]
Notes: The use of stable isotope ratios of carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S) to trace pathways of organic matter among consumers requires knowledge of the isotopic shift between diet and consumer. Variation in trophic shift among consumers can be substantial. Among the consumers raised in this study were scale insects (Diaspididae) raised on a single Thai dragon pepper plant (Capsicum frutescens).

McLeod, P., Diaz, J., Vasquez, L. & Johnson, D.T. 2002. Within-plant distribution and sampling of mealybugs in plantain var. FHIA 21. Tropical Agriculture 79(3): 150-153. [McLeodDiVa2002]
Notes: The within-plant distribution of mealybugs (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) was determined on plantain (Musa paradisiaca) var. FHIA 21 grown on a commercial plantation in Chotepe, Honduras, in 1996 and in Calan, Honduras, in 1997. Dysmicoccus sp. was the most common (>97% at Chotepe) mealybug species encountered in visual inspections of plants. In the Chotepe study, mean numbers of mealybugs per sample unit on the pseudostem were 2.07 +/- 0.35, 3.30 +/- 1.50, and 1.79 +/- 0.40 for the lower (ground to 1.5 m), middle (1.5-2.5 m), and upper (>2.5 m) portions. This was equivalent to 94.5% of the total mealybugs sampled. Few mealybugs were detected in debris under plants, on roots and adjacent soil, leaf petioles or blades, or on fruit. In the Calan field in 1997, 78.3% of the total sampled mealybugs were observed on the pseudostem. The pseudostems were often encased in old decaying leaf petioles which appeared to provide an acceptable habitat for mealybug development. Apparent benefits of this habitat were optimum humidity, shelter from rain, an environment favourable to symbiosis with ants, and some protection from natural enemies. A significant correlation between the number of mealybugs on the lower and middle pseudostem with the total mealybugs in the sample was obtained and is described by the equation Y = 1.805 + 1.060X where Y = total mealybugs per plant quadrant and X = the number of mealybugs per sample unit. The sampling procedure did not require excessive labour or time, was non-destructive to the plant, and provided a reliable estimate of the total mealybugs per plant.

McPartland, T. 2004. Ant spray containing d-limonene and methods of making and using the same. Official Gazette of the United States Patent and Trademark Office Patents 1285(5): US 6784211. [McPart2004]
Notes: A food-grade insecticidal composition effective in controlling insects, including mealybugs, which is non-toxic to humans and household animals includes an effective insect-controlling amount of D-limonene, a non-toxic emulsifying agent, and a non-toxic hydrophilic solvent.

Melika, G. & Thuróczy, C. (Eds.) 2002. Parasitic Wasps: Evolution, Systematics, Biodiversity and Biological Control. Agroinform, Budapest. xx + 480 pp. [MelikaTh2002]
Notes: The chapters Chalcid wasps from south Georgia (Japoshvili), Current status and history of biological control in Hungary (Eke) and The parasitoid complex of coccid Sphaerolecanium prunastri Fonscolombe (Homoptera: Coccidae) in the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve in Romania (Moglan) include information on scale hosts.

Mendel, Z., Assael, F. & Dunkelblum, E. 2004. Kairomonal attraction of predatory bugs (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae) and brown lacewings (Neuroptera: Hemerobiidae) to sex pheromones of Matsucoccus species (Hemiptera: Matsucoccidae). Biological Control 30(2): 134-140. [MendelAsDu2004]
Notes: The kairomonal response of potential predators of pine bast scales Matsucoccus Cockerell was investigated using traps baited with female sex pheromones of M. josephi Bodenheimer and Harpaz, M. feytaudi Ducasse, and M. matsumurae Kuwana. In addition to the attraction of conspecific males and a weak cross attraction of congener ones, two guilds of predators were attracted: flower bugs of the genus Elatophilus Reuter and brown lacewings of the genera Hemerobius L. and Sympherobius Banks. E. hebraicus Pericart, E. nigricornis Zetterstedt, E. crassicornis Reuter, H. stigma Stephens, and S. fitscescens (Wallengern) were captured in the West Palearctic region, whereas E. inimica Drake & Harris, H. stigma, and H. stigmaterus Fitch were captured in the US. E. hebraicus alone was attracted to all three pheromones, while all other species responded to one or two of them. The Matsucoccus pheromones are ketones, sharing a common chiral ketodiene moiety. The capture pattern of both predator guilds points to a general mode of kairomonal response with some specificity due to differences in the second side chain of these pheromones. Our findings suggest that further application of Matsucoccus pheromone traps may reveal additional predators which could be used as biological control agents of the noxious pine bast scale species.

Mendel, Z., Dunkelblum, E., Branco, M., Franco, J.C., Kurosawa, S. & Mori, K. 2003. Synthesis and structure-activity relationship of diene modified analogs of Matsucoccus sex pheromones. Naturwissenschaften 90(7): 313-317. [MendelDuBr2003]
Notes: The biological activity of the Matsucoccus spp. sex pheromones and diene modified analogs has been tested in forests of Israel and Portugal in order to explore the structure-activity relationship of the pine bast scale pheromone/kairomone system. The response of the adult predatory bugs, Elatophilus hebraicus and E. crassicornis and of the brown lacewing, Hemerobius stigma is more selective than that of the conspecific Matsucoccus males. The removal of the terminal methyl group from the diene terminus of both pheromones 1 and 2 eliminates all kairomonal activity but retains moderate pheromonal activity. Addition of a methyl group to the diene terminus of pheromones 1 and 2 sustains full pheromonal and kairomonal activities of the Elatophilus spp. but eliminates entirely the kairomonal activity of H. stigma. Subtle designed alterations in the structure of the diene group, typical of all Matsucoccus pheromones, change the mode of the kairomonal activity markedly.

Méndez-Gallegos, S. de J., Panzavolta, T. & Tiberi, R. 2003. Carmine cochineal Dactylopius coccus Costa (Rhynchota: Dactylopiidae): significance, production and use. Advances in Horticultural Science 17(3): 165-171. [MendezPaTi2003]
Notes: One of the colourants with the greatest number of commercial uses is obtained from the haemolymph of the insect known as carmine cochineal Dactylopius coccus. The insect, originally from Mexico or Peru, was first exported from Mexico to Europe in 1523 and was considered a very precious product. Today, cochineal is reared for marketing purposes in Peru, the Canary Islands, Chile, Bolivia, South Africa, Argentina, Mexico and Ecuador. The insects are reared by placing the female cochineal in containers of different materials, on cladodes or on plants of Opuntia ficus-indica. Carminic cochineal is one of the 26 known and certified natural colourants. The active ingredient of the colourant which characterizes the cochineal extract is carminic acid and the quantity of compound found in the insect varies between 10 and 25% of the total dry weight. At present there is a significant demand for natural colourants, also in the industrial sector: in the pharmaceutical industry, in the cosmetic industry and for the preparation of food products. Carminic acid also finds other applications as an indicator of pH in oxidation-reduction and in histology and microscopy.

Mendez, J., Gonzalez, M., Lobo, M.G. & Carnero, A. 2004. Color quality of pigments in cochineals (Dactylopius coccus Costa). Geographical origin characterization using multivariate statistical analysis. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 52(5): 1331-1337. [MendezGoLo2004]
Notes: The commercial value of a cochineal (Dactylopius coccus Costa) sample is associated with its color quality. Because the cochineal is a legal food colorant, its color quality is generally understood as its pigment content. Simply put, the higher this content, the more valuable the sample is to the market. In an effort to devise a way to measure the color quality of a cochineal, the present study evaluates different parameters of color measurement such as chromatic attributes (L*, and a*), percentage of carminic acid, tint determination, and chromatographic profile of pigments. Tint determination did not achieve this objective because this parameter does not correlate with carminic acid content. On the other hand, carminic acid showed a highly significant correlation (r = -0.922, p = 0.000) with L* values determined from powdered cochineal samples. The combination of the information from the spectrophotometric determination of carminic acid with that of the pigment profile acquired by liquid chromatography (LC) and the composition of the red and yellow pigment groups, also acquired by LC, enables greater accuracy in judging the quality of the final sample. As a result of this study, it was possible to achieve the separation of cochineal samples according to geographical origin using two statistical techniques: cluster analysis and principal component analysis.

Mennone, C., Gioia, P., Orioli, G., Santangelo, G., Savino, A. & Mattatelli, B. 2004. [Technical and commercial aspects of integrated and organic cultivation of apricots in Basilicata.] Aspetti tecnici e commerciali dell'albicocco in coltura integrata e biologica in Basilicata. (In Italian). Rivista di Frutticoltura e di Ortofloricoltura 66(6): 24-29. [MennonGiOr2004]
Notes: In the Metaponto region almost 75% of apricot orchards receive integrated management and 15% are organic; it is anticipated that ever more growers will turn to organic systems to meet market demands. In organic orchards disease prevention is preferable to disease control. Scale insects are controlled by winter applications of sulfur and aphids by removing infested shoots. Labour costs are similar for integrated and organic systems except with late cultivars, which require more time spent controlling fruit moths in organic orchards. Organic yields are 10-20% lower than from integrated management but this is offset by higher prices. More than half the apricots produced (60% of integrated and 70% of organic) are processed into purees and juices. The difficulties of converting to organic production include restoration of biodiversity and education of the growers.

Meshram, P.B. & Vijayaraghavan, A. 2004. A new report of Icerya purchasi Maskell (Hemiptera: Margarodidae) as a pest of Plumbago zeylanica Linn. Indian Forester 130(5): 583-584. [MeshraVi2004]
Notes: A new host record for India is Plumbago zeylanica.

Meyerdirk, D.E. 2003. [Manual of the project for biological control of the pink hibiscus mealybug.] Manual del proyecto para el control biológico de la cochinilla rosada del hibisco. (In Spanish). USDA, Marketing and Regulatory Programs : APHIS Plant Protection and Quarantine 1 vol. (loose-leaf). [Meyerd2003]
Notes: Nipaecoccus viridis is the pest discussed.

Meyerdirk, D.E., Muniappan, R., Warkentin, R., Bamba, J. & Reddy, G.V. 2004. Biological control of the papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) in Guam. Plant Protection Quarterly 19(3): 110-114. [MeyerdMuWa2004]
Notes: The papaya mealybug (PM), Paracoccus marginatus, a pest in the Central America and the Caribbean was noted to have established on Guam in April 2002 and was causing serious damage to pawpaws, Plumeria spp., Hibiscus spp. and other plants. The parasitoids Anagyrus loecki, Pseudleptomastix mexicana and Acerophagus papayae totalling 46,200 individuals were introduced from Puerto Rico and field released in Guam from June to October 2002. A reduction of over 99% of papaya mealybug was observed approximately one year after the introduction of these parasitoids. This has reduced risk of introduction of this mealybug to neighbouring islands in the Pacific Region. A biological control system now appears successful and is available for implementation if necessary in other islands in the Pacific region.

Michaud, J.P. 2003. Three targets of classical biological control in the Caribbean: success, contribution, and failure. 335-342 In: Van Dreische, R.G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Washington D.C.. 573 pp. [Michau2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002.] Species discussed include Maconellicoccus hirsutus.

Mikhalko, M.M. 2004. [On southern borders.] (In Russian). Zashchita i Karantin Rastenii No. 4: 12-15. [Mikhal2004]
Notes: The plant quarantine service registered the occurrence of 11 quarantine organisms in the Rostov region, Russia, including San Jose scale [Diaspidiotus perniciosus]. Measures taken by the quarantine service to prevent introduction of weeds, diseases, nematodes and insect pests with import materials are outlined.

Miklaszewska, K. 2002. [Figowiec (fikus) pnacy (Ficus pumila, Ficus repens): protection of home pot plants (27).] Ochrona domowych roslin doniczkowych (27). (In Polish; Summary In English). Ochrona Roslin 46(3): 30-31. [Miklas2002]
Notes: The natural and home conditions suitable for the growth of the ornamental plant, F. pumila are described. The disturbances in its development caused by unfavourable soil and moisture conditions, and occurrence of scales and mites are also discussed.

Miller, L. 2004 (2003). Importation of Fresh Commercial Citrus Fruit. DRAFT Importation of Fresh Citrus Fruit from Peru, . [Miller2004]
Notes: [Subtitle: Grapefruit (Citrus x paradisi Macfad.); Lime (C. aurantiifolia [Christm.] Swingle); Mandarin Orange or Tangerine (C. reticulata Blanco); Sweet Orange (C. sinensis [L.] Osbeck); Sweet Orange (C. sinensis [L.] Osbeck); Tangelo (C. x tangelo J.W. Ingram & H.E. Moore); from Peru into the United States. A Pathway-Initiated Plant Pest Risk Analysis.] Pest species listed include Aonidiella aurantii, Aspidiotus destructor, A. nerii, Asterolecanium sp., Aulacaspis tubercularis, Ceroplastes cirripediformis, C. floridensis, Chrysomphalus aonidum, C. dictyospermi, Coccus hesperidum, C. viridis, Diaspidiotus perniciosus, Dysmicoccus brevipes, Ferrisia virgata, Hemiberlesia lataniae, Icerya purchasi, Lecanium corni, Lecanodiaspis sp., Lepidosaphes beckii, L. gloverii, Nipaecoccus nipae, Orthezia citricola, O. olivicola, O. praelonga, Parlatoria cinerea, P. pergandii, P. ziziphi, Parthenolecanium corni, Phenacoccus madeirensis, Planococcus citri, P. minor, Pinnaspis aspidistrae, P. strachani, Protopulvinaria pyriformis, Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis, Pseudaulacaspis sp., Pseudococcus longispinus, Pulvinaria sp., Saissetia coffeae, S. oleae, Selenaspidus articulatus, Unaspis citri and Vinsonia stellifera.

Miller, D.R., Gimpel, M.E. & Williams, D.J. 2003. Nomenclatural changes in the Diaspididae (Hemiptera: Coccoidea). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 105(4): 940-949. [MillerGiWi2003]
Notes: A database containing taxonomic information on two subfamilies of the diaspidid scale insects of the world is available on the World Wide Web. Several nomenclatural changes need to be validated including: Diaspis amygdali rubra (Maskell) new illustration and lectotype designation; Diaspis barberi Green new junior synonym of D. amygdali rubra and lectotype designation; Pseudaulacaspis ernesti Miller, Gimpel, and Williams a new replacement name for Diaspis grandilobis Green (junior, secondary homonym of Diaspis grandilobis (Maskell)) and new illustration; Diaspis grandilobis Green lectotype designation; Lepidosaphes linearis (Modeer) discussed as a species incertae sedis; Pseudaulacaspis frutescens (Hu) new combination; Lepidosaphes meliae (Tang) new combination; Lepidosaphes lithocarpicola (Tang) new combination, and Lepidosaphes pseudogloverii (Borchsenius), new combination. The correct spelling of an Asian armored scale should be Chionaspis kinshinensis Kuwana, not C. kiushuensis. Twenty-six changes of adjectival species epithets are necessary for gender agreement with the genus.

Miller, D.R. & Miller, G.L. 2002. Redescription of Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Coccoidea: Pseudococcidae), including descriptions of the immature stages and adult male. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 104(1): 1-23. [MillerMi2002]
Notes: Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink, commonly known as the papaya mealybug was first discovered in the Caribbean in 1994 and was collected in Florida in 1998. To facilitate implementation of control measures we have prepared descriptions, illustrations, and keys for all stages of this species including first instar, second-instar male and female, third-instar male (prepupa) and female, fourth-instar male (pupa) and female (adult), and fifth-instar male (adult). Comparisons are given between P. marginatus and other species of Paracoccus as well as other commonly encountered mealybug species in Florida and the Caribbean.

Miller, G.L., Oswald, J.D. & Miller, D.R. 2004. Lacewings and scale insects: a review of predator/prey associations between the Neuropterida and Coccoidea (Insecta: Neuroptera, Raphidioptera, Hemiptera). Annals of the Entomological Society of America 97(6): 1103-1125. [MillerOsMi2004]
Notes: Information on 263 Neuropterida/Coccoidea associations with additional detailed data on the most commonly encountered taxa is presented. Included for each entry, where applicable, is the predator, Coccoidea prey, validation source, prey plant host, and biogeographic origin.

Mishra, D., Mukhopadhyay, A.K. & Pramanik, A. 2004. Biology of the mealybug Phenacoccus bengalensis Pramanik and Ghose, 1999 (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Uttar Pradesh Journal of Zoology 24(2): 155-159. [MishraMuPr2004]
Notes: The biology of the mealybug, P. bengalensis, was studied on sprouted potato tubers in the laboratory at 28.8-32 deg C and 88-96% RH. The nymphs completed their ecdysis at the age of 20.01 plus or minus 2.32 days and all of them became adult females. The females started oviposition at the age of 31-42 days. The preoviposition and oviposition period, fecundity and incubation period of eggs were 14.20 plus or minus 1.93 days, 9.08 plus or minus 1.89 days, 67.42 plus or minus 8.62 eggs per female and 4.57 plus or minus 1.55 days, respectively. The starvation of females had little effect by reducing 22.28% fecundity and 18.50% oviposition period. The longevity of adult female ranged from 47 to 55 (50 plus or minus 2.94) days and the species reproduced parthenogenetically.

Mizuta, T. 2003. Differences in development and reproduction of the mulberry scale, Pseudaulacaspis pentagona Targioni (Hemiptera: Diaspididae), on resistant and susceptible varieties of tea plant. Japanese Journal of Applied Entomology and Zoology 47(3): 91-95. [Mizuta2003]
Notes: Differences in development and reproductive ability of the mulberry scale, Pseudaulacaspis pentagona Targioni, were investigated using resistant and susceptible tea varieties. The developmental period of the second larval instar, the pupal stage, and the period from egg hatching to emergence in males was longer on the resistant varieties than on the susceptible ones. The second instar preoviposition period and period from egg hatching to the beginning of egg-laying in females were also retarded on the resistant varieties. Only 18.5% and 23.8% of neonate female larvae reached the adult stage on the resistant varieties, Hatsumomiji and Sayamakaori, respectively. In contrast, 42.4% and 59.5% of larvae developed to adults on the susceptible varieties, Yutakamidori and Takachiho, respectively. The number of laid eggs and ovarian eggs in females reared on the resistant varieties, Sayamakaori and Hatsumomiji, were reduced to 5.4% and 11.3%, respectively, of the susceptible variety, Takachiho.

Mo, J.H. 2002. Red scale. Monographic Series - NSW Agriculture (2) [Mo2002]
Notes: Descriptions and illustrations are provided for red scale ([Aonidiella aurantii]), which is the most widespread citrus pest in New South Wales, Australia. The mode of infestation, its natural enemies, monitoring and the control measures taken to control red scale are also briefly mentioned. http://www.agric.nsw.gov.au/reader/5279

Mo, J.H. 2002a. Cottony cushion scale. Monographic Series - NSW Agriculture (3): 2 pp. [Mo2002a]
Notes: This paper describes the cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi), the damage it causes, methods for monitoring it, its natural enemies (ladybirds [Coccinellidae] and lacewings [Chrysopidae]), and measures to control it (including integrated pest management).

Mo, J.H. 2003. Longtailed mealybug. Monographic Series - NSW Agriculture No. 2 (January): 3 pp. [Mo2003]
Notes: This paper describes the long-tailed mealybug [Pseudococcus longispinus], the pest attacking all citrus varieties, preferably navel oranges and grapefruits. There are 3 to 4 generations per year in New South Wales (Australia). The female produces around 200 live young (which she deposits under her body) over a 2-3 week period. During summer, the life cycle is completed in around 6 weeks (approx equal to 12 weeks in winter). The honeydew produced by mealybugs encourages the growth of sooty mould, which downgrades fruit quality, and in severe cases lowers general tree health. Mealybugs are often found in sheltered sites. Fortnightly monitoring is critically important in November-December. Their natural enemies include the wasps [Vespidae], lacewings [Chrysopidae] and ladybirds [Coccinellidae]. In navel oranges and grapefruits, action should be taken when 10% or more of the fruits are infested with mealybugs. Action level is 20% for all other varieties. In late November and early December, control is required if the action level is reached before calyx closure. Chemical control measures include petroleum spray oils and soap sprays.

Mo, J. & Philpot, K. 2003. Large-scale field trials of imidacloprid for control of the spined citrus bug. HortScience 38(4): 555-559. [MoPh2003]
Notes: Four large-scale field trials were carried out in 2001 and 2002 in lemon orchards in southwestern New South Wales, Australia, to assess the suitability of imidacloprid as a replacement for endosulfan in controlling the spined citrus bug (SCB), Biprorulus bibax. Imidacloprid was at least as effective as endosulfan in controlling SCB, even when it was applied at a rate corresponding to half of its discriminate dose (100% kill). The application of imidacloprid did not reduce numbers of wasps (Ichneumonidae) and spiders foraging in tree canopies. However, imidacloprid was more toxic than endosulfan to parasitoids of the red scale (Aonidiella aurantii) and to lacewings (Chrysopidae). These negative effects can be minimized by timing the sprays in winter, when SCB adults congregate in neighbouring orange trees and the numbers of natural enemies of citrus pests are generally low.

Mo, T.L. & Zheng, F.Q. 2004. Description of a new species of the genus Epidiplosis felt (Diptera, Cecidomyiidae) from Zhejiang, China. Acta Zootaxonomica Sinica 29(3): 563-565. [MoZh2004]
Notes: In the present paper, Epidiplosis furcata sp. nov. of the genus Epidiplosis Felt, 1908 from Zhejiang Province, China is described and illustrated. The type specimen is deposited in the Collection of Shandong Agricultural University, Taiwan Shandong, China.

Moglan, I. 2002. The parasitoid complex of coccid Sphaerolecanium prunastri Fonscolombe (Homoptera: Coccidae) in the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve in Romania. 346-350 In: Melika, G. & Thuróczy, C. (Eds.), Parasitic Wasps: Evolution, Systematics, Biodiversity and Biological Control. Agroinform, Budapest. xx + 480 pp. [Moglan2002]
Notes: Research was done during 1992-1994. Hosts tree species, distribution, parasitoids and life history information were presented.

Moore, D. 2004. Biological control of Rastrococcus invadens. Biocontrol News and Information 25(1): 17N-27N. [Moore2004]
Notes: Rastrococcus invadens became a serious pest of (especially) mango and citrus in West Africa in the 1980s. Economic losses were high, with mango yields often reduced by 50-90%, and pest infestations also caused social and cultural problems. Surveys for natural enemies were conducted in India and Malaysia, following taxonomic work which identified the likely origin of the pest. Work in India resulted in the provision of two primary encyrtid parasitoids, Gyranusoidea tebygi and Anagyrus mangicola. Gyranusoidea tebygi was released in Togo in 1987-88, rapidly controlled the mealybug in most areas, and spread at around 100 km/year. Anagyrus mangicola was introduced after laboratory studies indicated that it was unlikely to reduce control by G. tebygi and was likely to supplement it in certain situations. Both parasitoids were subjected to high levels of indigenous hyperparasitism, which did not interfere markedly with the control exerted. The mealybug remains under good control; the benefits to African farmers amount to many multiples of research and implementation costs and the project also resulted in the amelioration of many social problems caused by the mealybugs.

Moore, S.D. 2002. Entomopathogens & microbial control of citrus pests in South Africa: a review. SA Fruit Journal 1(3): 30-32. [Moore2002]
Notes: Several pathogens have been recorded from citrus pests in South Africa. These include Sphaerostilbe aurantiicola [Nectria coccophila], Podonectria sp., Fusarium coccinellum and F. lateritium [Gibberella baccata] from California red scale (Aonidiella aurantii); S. aurantiicola from circular purple scale (Chrysomphalus ficus) [C. aonidum]; Myiophagus sp. from citrus mussel scale (Cornuaspis beckii [Lepidosaphes beckii]); Cladosporium oxysporum from citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri); Verticillium lecanii from soft green scale (Pulvinaria aethiopica). Some control recomendations are provided but further investigations into microbial control of southern African citrus pests are strongly recommended.

Moraal, L. 2003. [Forest insects and global climate change.] Insectenplagen op bomen en klimaatsverandering. (In Dutch). Levende Natuur 104 (3): 90-93. [Moraal2003]
Notes: Pest insects on trees are being monitored in The Netherlands since 1946. In recent times we have observed invasions of foreign species such as Haematoloma dorsatum, Thaumetopoea processionea, Pulvinaria regalis and Cameraria ohridella.

More, P.S., Desai, B.D., Jalagaonkar, V.N. & Mule, R.S. 2002. Record of pests infesting arecanut, (Areca catechu Linneaus) and their seasonal incidence in Konkan region of Maharashtra. Indian Journal of Arecanut 4(3): 120-122. [MoreDeJa2002]
Notes: In a study conducted during 1998-99 in Konkan, Maharashtra, India, 10 insect and 2 non-insect pests were found infesting arecanuts. The major pests were Elymnias caudata, Morismus carinatus, Aonidiella orientalis, Cerataphis lataniae, Icerya aegyptiaca, the squirrel Funambulus sp., and the bat Pteropus sp. The minor pests were Oecophylla smaragdina, Odonotermes obesus [Odontotermes obesus], Xyleborus perforans, Diocalandra stigmaticolis, [Diocalandra frumenti] and Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus. The nature of damage and seasonal incidence of the major pests are also discussed.

More, P.S., Desai, B.D., Jalagaonkar, V.N. & Mule, R.S. 2003. Record of pests infesting arecanut, Areca catechu Linneaus and their seasonal incidence. Indian Journal of Arecanut 5(1): 5-8. [MoreDeJa2003]
Notes: Observations on the seasonal dynamics of arecanut pests were recorded at fortnightly intervals from March 1998 to February 1999 at 10 villages of Ranagari district in the Konkan region of Maharashtra, India. Five major insect species, i.e. butterfly (Elymnias caudata), grasshopper (Morismus carinatus), scale (Aonidiella orientalis), aphid (Cerataphis lataniae) and mealy bug (Icerya aegyptiaca), 5 minor insect species, i.e. red ant (Oecophylla smaragdina), termite (Odontotermes obesus), shot hole borer (Xyleborus perforans), stem weevil (Diocalandra stigmaticollis [D. frumenti]) and thrips (Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus), and 2 non-insect species, i.e. striped squirrel (Funambulus sp.) and frugivorous bat (Pteropus sp), were found infesting different parts of arecanut plants. The populations of the butterfly and grasshopper were highest in September, whereas those of scale, aphid and mealy bug were highest in January, May and February, respectively. The populations of the striped squirrel and frugivorous bat were highest in September and March, respectively.

Morishita, M. 2003. Forecasting the occurrence period of 1st. instar nymph in Pseudaulacaspis prunicola (Maskell) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) by using sticky trap. Proceedings of the Kansai Plant Protection Society 45: 31-32. [Morish2003]
Notes: Sticky traps were placed under the branch of peach trees that were infested by Pseudaulacaspis prunicola to forecast the occurrence period of the 1st instar nymph in 2001 and 2002. There were three peaks of occurrence: one is in late April to early May, another in early June and the other in late August.

Morris, A.B., Small, R.L. & Cruzan, M.B. 2002. Investigating the relationship between Cryptococcus fagisuga and Fagus grandifolia in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Southeastern Naturalist 1(4): 415-424. [MorrisSmCr2002]
Notes: The high elevation beech (Fagus grandifolia) gaps of the Great Smoky Mountains have become the killing front of beech bark disease. This insect/fungal pathogen was introduced into Nova Scotia in the late 1800's, and has since spread southward to the Southern Appalachians. In affected stands, mortality of beech stems frequently approaches 90 to 100 percent. We used inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers to assess the relationship between host genotype and degree of pathogen infection in beech trees in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. We used statistical analyses to test the relationship between stem diameter and degree of pathogen infection. We found no correlation between host genotype and degree of infection. We did find a significant positive relationship between stem size and degree of infection. Among three stem size classes, smallest stems (<1.5 cm) were least likely to be infected, while largest stems (>3.0 cm) were most likely to be infected. Implications for future studies are discussed.

Mukunthan, N. & Nirmala, R. 2002. New insect pests of sugarcane in India. Sugar Tech 4(3/4): 157-159. [MukuntNi2002]
Notes: Five new insects were observed infesting sugarcane in Kannur, Kerala, and Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India. The leaf miner Aphanisticus aeneus was found feeding on various Saccharum spp.; however, S. sinense seemed to be the least preferred. A Chrysonotomyia sp., among 14 parasitoids, was found parasitizing the pupae of A. aeneus. Beetles of the leaf scraper Callispa vittata fed on S. barberi, S. officinarum, S. robustum and S. sinense Indian and exotic hybrids, and Indo-American clones. Accessions with pubescent or purple lamina were not preferred. Adults of the white grub Heteronychus annulatus fed on the underground portion of 2- to 3-month-old shoots, resulting in the drying of the central portion of the spindle, forming dead hearts. Adults of the flea beetle Chaetocnema basalis, which fed on sugarcane leaves by scraping lamina surfaces, were active in the morning but remained hidden in leaf whorls during the hot hours of the day. The scale insect Aclerda takahashii was found only in the lower portion of sugarcane stalks as a solitary pest. Attempts to make the crawlers settle in the internodal region through physical barriers were unsuccessful. Information on the morphology of the pests is presented.

Muniappan, R., Bamba, J., Cruz, J. & Reddy, G.V.P. 2003. Current status of the red coconut scale, Furcaspis oceanica Lindinger (Homoptera: Diaspididae) and its parasitoid, Adelencyrtus oceanicus Doutt (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), in Guam. Plant Protection Quarterly 18(2): 52-54. [MuniapBaCr2003]
Notes: The red coconut scale (Furcaspis oceanica), an introduced pest of the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera), had been present in Guam since the early 1970s. It was confined to the central region until 1987 and had spread throughout most of the island by 1996. A parasitoid, Adelencyrtus oceanicus, introduced to control the pest in 1988/89, had also spread throughout most of Guam by 1996. A survey in January/February 2002 of 26 localities showed that the scale was present at very low levels and the parasitoid at high levels compared to a previous survey in 1996. This parasitoid is density independent and it is an effective biological control agent of the red coconut scale.

Muñoz Gonzalez, M. 2002. [Improving color quality in food.] Mejorando la calidad del color en los alimentos. (In Spanish). 123 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 pp. [MunozG2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] Carmine is one of the colors for which doses are recommended to produce the best results.

Myartseva, S.N. 2003. Six new species of the genus Metaphycus Mercet from Mexico (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). Zoosystematica Rossica 12(1): 125-134. [Myarts2003]
Notes: Six new species of the encyrtid genus Metaphycus are described from Mexico: M. celticola sp. nov., M. farfani sp. nov., M. karwinskiae sp. nov., M. sergueii sp. nov., M. superbus sp. nov., and M. tuxpan sp. nov. All new species belong to the insidiosus-group. The soft scale insect Differococcus argentinus, the host of M. celticola, is recorded from Mexico for the first time.

Myartseva, S.N., Ruíz-Cancino, E. & Coronado-Blanco, J.M. 2003. Parasitoids (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) of Saissetia spp. (Homoptera: Coccidae) in Mexico. (In English). Fruits 59: 141-150. [MyartsRuCo2003]
Notes: The genus Saissetia has 47 described species in the world, four of them in Mexico (S. oleae, S. miranda, S. neglecta and S. tolucana). These species attack different crops, including citrus, olives and ornamentals. Most introductions of natural enemies against S. oleae have been undertaken in North and South America, Australia and the Mediterranean countries. However, no natural enemy species have been purposely introduced into Mexico against Saissetia spp. During 1998-2003, samples of Saissetia spp. were collected in the States of Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Oaxaca and Guanajuato; all the emerged parasitoids were determined. Appropriate scientific publications were consulted to find out about any other Saissetia parasitoids recorded from Mexico. Seventeen parasitoid species from five families of Chalcidoidea (Aphelinidae, Encyrtidae, Eupelmidae, Pteromalidae and Signiphoridae) were reared from Saissetia spp. in Mexico. In Mexico, the species of Saissetia prefer ornamental plants and are usually heavily parasitized by several chalcidoids. Native biological control of Saissetia spp. by different parasitoids has been effective for many years in Mexico. As a result, the species of Saissetia are not considered as primary or secondary pests of citrus and ornamentals.

Najafinia, M., Azadvar, M., Namvar, P. & Moghadam, M. 2002. Introduction of Parlatoria crypta (M. Kenzie) as a new pest on olive trees in Iran. Applied Entomology and Phytopathology 70(1): 93-94. [NajafiAzNa2002]
Notes: The Jiroft region of Iran has a unique climate suitable for olive tree development. Several olive nurseries in this region were investigated for pest fauna during 2000-01. Scale insect damage to olive trees was serious and found on leaves, buds, stems and the top part of the tree. Leaf fall and dryness on treetops were common. Adult female (P. crypta scales were 1.5-2 mm in diameter, circular to ellipsoid shape and white to light grey. This is thought to be the first report of this insect as a pest on olive in Jiroft. Earlier reports were from India, Afghanistan and Iraq on mango, apple, peach and Nerium oleander. A positive, significant correlation was also reported between population density and temperature, while a negative correlation was reported for humidity.

Nakahata, T., Itagaki, N., Arai, T., Sugie, H. & Kuwahara, S. 2003. Synthesis of the sex pheromone of the citrus mealybug, Pseudococcus cryptus. Biosciences, Biotechnology and Biochemistry 67(12): 2627-2631. [NakahaItAr2003]
Notes: The sex pheromone of the citrus mealybug (Pseudococcus cryptus), [(1R,3R)-3-isopropenyl-2,2-dimethylcyclobutyl] methyl 3-methyl-3-butenoate, was synthesized from (+)-alpha-pinene in five operational steps in a 43% overall yield. The synthetic pheromone was identical with the natural pheromone in H-1-NMR and mass spectroscopic properties, and showed almost the same pheromonal activity as the natural pheromone.

Nechayeva, G.A., Kuznetsova, V.G. & Nokkala, S. 2004. [New data on the karyotype of Pseudococcus viburni (Sign.) (Homoptera, Coccinea).] (In Russian; Summary In English). Entomologicheskoe Obozrenye 83(1): 23-31. [NechayKuNo2004]
Notes: Karyotype of P. viburni has been studied for the first time using different chromosome staining techniques. The pattern of differential staining of chromosomes and their behaviour in the early embryogenesis of males and females have been analysed. Nucleolar-organizing chromosomes and nucleolar-organizing regions (NORs) have been revealed in the karyotype by the Ag-NOR technique. Content and distribution of constitutive heterochromatin (C-heterochromatin) in chromosomes have been determined by the C-banding technique. Molecular composition of C-heterochromatin has been determined using DNA-specific fluorochromes DAPI and CMA3. P. viburni displays 2n=10, a karyotype symmetrical in structure, holokinetic chromosomes; the largest pair of chromosomes bears a "secondary" constriction situated proximally in every homologue. Sex determining mechanism is the haplo-diploidy of the "lecanoid" type. In the early embryogenesis of males, one haploid chromosome set is heterochromatinized and is genetically inactivated, except for the ribosome gene sites (NORs). Chromosomes of the largest pair are nucleolar-organizing, NORs being situated in the area of the secondary constriction. In every chromosome there are large telomeric and dot interstitial C-heterochromatin blocks. C-blocks consist of both A-T- and G-C-rich DNA clusters. NOR sites in the nucleolar-organizing chromosomes are exceptional showing G-C-rich DNA clusters, but no A-T-rich clusters. In the population examined, B-chromosomes have been found. Their number in cells of the same individual varies from 0 to 2 and 1 B chromosome occurs most frequently. B-chromosomes are large, positively heteropycnotic and consist completely of C-heterochromatin.

Nechols, J.R. 2003. Biological control of the spherical mealybug on Guam and in the Northern Marianas Islands: a classic example of fortuitous biological control. 324-329 In: Van Dreische, R.G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Washington D.C.. 573 pp. [Nechol2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002.] Species discussed include Nipaecoccus viridis.

Nefzaoui, A. & Inglese, P. (Eds.) 2002. Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress on Cactus Pear and Cochineal, Hammamet, Tunisia, 22-28 October, 2000. Acta Horticulturae No. 581. [NefzaoIn2002]
Notes: These proceedings contain 40 papers on the cultivation of cactus pears (Opuntia ficus-indica) and related Opuntia spp. in arid and semi-arid environments. Scales are discussed in Cacti (Opuntia spp.) as a fodder crop for marginal lands in the Mediterranean Basin (Houérou, H.N. le) and Current and potential use of cactus in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia (Haile, M., Belay, T. & Zimmerman, H.G.).

Neuenschwander, P. 2002. Biological control of cassava and mango mealybugs in Africa. 45-59 In: Neuenschwander, P., Borgemeister, C. & Langewald, J. (Eds.), Biological control in IPM systems in Africa. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, U.K.. [Neuens2002]
Notes: This chapter discusses the biological control of cassava mealybug (Phenacoccus manihoti) and mango mealybug (Rastrococcus invadens) in Africa. The biological control agents used (including parasitoids and predators) are mentioned.

Neuenschwander, P., Borgemeister, C. & Langewald, J. (Eds.) 2002. Biological control in IPM systems in Africa. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, U.K.. xxii + 414 pp. [NeuensBoLa2002]
Notes: This book contains 24 chapters containing case studies and research papers on the biological control of pests by naturally occurring agents, exotic agents or by seasonal manipulation in Africa. This book will be of interest to those working in the areas of crop protection, entomology and pest management. An index of terms and species found in the book is provided. One chapter by Neuenschwander (Biological control of cassava and mango mealybugs in Africa) discusses the biological control of cassava mealybug (Phenacoccus manihoti) and mango mealybug (Rastrococcus invadens) in Africa. The biological control agents used (including parasitoids and predators) are mentioned.

Ngeve, J.M. 2003. The cassava root mealybug (Stictococcus vayssierei Richard) (Homoptera: Stictococcidae): a threat to cassava production and utilization in Cameroon. International Journal of Pest Management 49(4): 327-333. [Ngeve2003]
Notes: The spread and severity of Stictococcus vayssierei, a root mealybug of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), was monitored from 1990 to 1998 with 5 cassava genotypes in five sites in the sub-humid forest region of Cameroon. Pest frequency was low (12.5%) in 1990 but rapidly increased to 87.5% in 1994. Pest impact was more severe in the dry season than in the wet season. The improved clones were more tolerant of the pest than the local variety, and infestation was more severe in Nkolnkoumou and Mbalmayo than in the other sites. S. vayssierei adversely affected root yields and root counts; for instance, clone 8034 suffered a 27% depression in root yields and a 33% reduction in root counts. The pest was more severe when cassava was planted on the flat (30 mealybugs/hill) than when planted on ridges (16 adults/hill); plants also sprouted better (91%) when cassava was planted on ridges than when planted on the flat (71%). S. vayssierei infestation was also more severe when cassava was intercropped with maize and groundnuts than when planted alone. Techniques have to be developed for large-scale rearing of S. vayssierei inoculum in the laboratory for use in uniform screening of genotypes by artificial infestation. Monocropping is recommended in areas where pest impact is very severe. Also, disinfestation of cuttings with insecticidal bioproducts should be exploited to reduce pest impact. Finally, rhizosphere biocontrol agents such as endomycorrhizae should be studied to determine their usefulness in controlling the pest under farming conditions in Cameroon.

Nguyen, V.C., Nguyen, V.L. & Pham, V.L. 2002. Development of petroleum-derived spray oil and natural-enemy-based integrated pest and disease management programs for citrus in northern Vietnam. 362-368 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [NguyenNgPh2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Scales species discussed include Aonidiella aurantii and Planococcus citri.

Nia, M., Rizqi, A., Bouchakour & Zemzami, M. 2002. [Development of integrated control in citrus orchards by Domaines Agricoles.] Developpement de la lutte integrée en vergers d'agrumes des Domaines Agricoles. (In French; Summary In English). 175-181 In: [Sixth International Conference on Pests in Agriculture. Vol. 1.] Sixième Conférence Internationale sur les Ravageurs en Agriculture. Tome 1.] AGRO, Montpellier, France. 350 pp. [NiaRiBo2002]
Notes: [Original title: Utilisation des auxiliaires et des pratiques culturales comme moyens alternatifs de protection contre les ravageurs en verger d'agrumes. Conference held 4-6 December 2002 in Montpellier, France.] Pest species discussed include Aonidiella aurantii, Coccus hesperidum, Icerya purchasi, Lepidosaphes beckii, Parlatoria pergandii and Planococcus citri.

Noguera, V., Verdú, M.J., Gómez Cadenas, A. & Jacas, J.A. 2003. [Life cycle, dynamics and natural enemies of Saissetia oleae Olivier (Homoptera: Coccidae) in olive orchards in Alto Palancia (Castellón-Spain).] (In Spanish; Summary In English). Boletín de Sanidad Vegetal, Plagas 29(4): 495-504. [NoguerVeGo2003]
Notes: [Original title: Ciclo biológico, dinámica poblacional y enemigos naturales de Saissetia oleae Olivier (Homoptera: Coccidae), en olivares del Alto Palancia (Castellón).] Two olive orchards located in Alto Palancia (East Spain) were monitored for incidence of S. oleae between April and November 2002. As in other olive-growing areas in the Mediterranean Basin, S. oleae presented one generation, with crawlers peaking during the summer. At that time crawlers represented more than 99% of all living stages. Although both orchards received chemical treatments during the study period, four different microhymenopterans were recovered from S. oleae-infested shoots (Coccophagus lycimnia, Scutellista caerulea, Metaphycus flavus and M. lounsburyi). These could play an important role on regulating S. oleae populations in spring. It would be interesting to repeat this study on non-treated orchards to check if natural mortality factors could keep S. oleae numbers below its economic threshold.

Normark, B.B. 2004. The strange case of the armored scale insect and its bacteriome. PLOS Biology 2(3). [Normar2004]
Notes: [Internet published: http://www.plosbiology.org/plosonline/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020043] Scale insects and their bacteriomes challenge our notion of what an individual is. Is a scale insect's bacteriome a kind of sibling? Is it half sibling, half self? Is it a sterile slave, under control? Is it an extension of the mother, exerting control? In all other organisms, chimeras are temporary and unstable. How have scale insects suppressed the conflicts that normally tear chimeras apart? The author suggests that to approach such questions, we'll have to revive the empirical study of scale insect bacteriomes, combining approaches from recent studies of aphid bacteriomes and of human pregnancy. Lepidosaphes gloverii, Parlatoria oleae and Quadraspidiotus juglansregiae are the insects discussed.

Normark, B.B. 2004a. Haplodiploidy as an outcome of coevolution between male-killing cytoplasmic elements and their hosts. Evolution 58(4): 790-798. [Normar2004a]
Notes: Haplodiploidy (encompassing both arrhenotoky and paternal genome elimination) could have originated from coevolution between male-killing endosymbiotic bacteria and their hosts. In insects, haplodiploidy tends to arise in lineages that rely on maternally transmitted bacteria for nutrition and that have gregarious broods in which competition between siblings may occur. When siblings compete, there is strong selection on maternally transmitted elements to kill males. I consider a hypothetical bacterial phenotype that renders male zygotes effectively haploid by preventing chromosome decondensation in male-determining sperm nuclei. By causing high male mortality, such a phenotype can be advantageous to the bacterial lineage. By eliminating paternal genes, it can also be advantageous to the host female. A simple model shows that the host female will benefit under a wide range of values for the efficiency of resource re-allocation, the efficiency of transmission, and the viability of haploid males. This hypothesis helps to explain the ecological correlates of the origins of haplodiploidy, as well as such otherwise puzzling phenomena as obligate cannibalism by male Micromalthus beetles, reversion to diploidy by aposymbiotic male stictococcid scale insects, and the bizarre genomic constitution of scale insect bacteriomes.

Norris, R.J., Memmott, J. & Lovell, D.J. 2002. The effect of rainfall on the survivorship and establishment of a biocontrol agent. Journal of Applied Ecology 39: 226-234. [NorrisMeLo3000]
Notes: Reference is made to a previous study of the effect of simulated rainfall on Dactylopius opuntiae on biological control of Opuntia ficus-indica.

Nyeko, P., Edwards-Jones, G. & Day, R.K. 2002. Insect herbivores and pathogens of Alnus species in Uganda. Agroforestry Systems 56(2): 117-127. [NyekoEdDa2002]
Notes: Published documentation of insect pests and pathogens associated with Alnus species in Africa is very scarce. We surveyed damaging insects and pathogens, and arthropod natural enemies on Alnus acuminata and A. nepalensis in Kabale and Mbale districts, Uganda between March 1999 and August 2000 in order to identify the range and relative abundance of arthropods and pathogens associated with the Alnus species. Frequently encountered damaging insects on the Alnus species included Apis mellifera, Apion globulipenne, a Systates sp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), Phymateus viridipes, a Lobotrachelus sp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), Coloborrhis corticina and some Chrysomelidae. Some species such as Aphis fabae, Parastictococcus multispinosus and a Cacopsylla sp. (Homoptera: Psyllidae) were observed feeding on other agroforestry tree species and/or crops although they generally occurred at low population intensity. Spiders and parasitic Hymenoptera were the most common natural enemies. Diseases were more severe in nurseries than in the field. Damping-off caused by Fusarium oxysporum, Septoria brown leaf spot and stem canker were the most serious diseases of Alnus. The array of damaging insects and pathogens indicates a potential danger to the cultivation of Alnus species in Uganda as adoption of the species for agroforestry continues to expand in the country. In view of the increasing demand for Alnus species for agroforestry in Uganda, regular pest monitoring and appropriate control strategies are necessary.

O'Dowd, D.J., Green, P.T. & Lake, P.S. 2003. Invasional 'meltdown' on an oceanic island. Ecology Letters 6(9): 812-817. [ODowdGrLa2003]
Notes: Islands can serve as model systems for understanding how biological invasions affect community structure and ecosystem function. Here we show invasion by the alien crazy ant Anoplolepis gracilipes causes a rapid, catastrophic shift in the rain forest ecosystem of a tropical oceanic island, affecting at least three trophic levels. In the forest canopy, new associations between this invasive ant and honeydew-secreting scale insects accelerate and diversify impacts. Sustained high densities of foraging ants on canopy trees result in high population densities of host-generalist scale insects and growth of sooty moulds, leading to canopy dieback and even death of canopy trees.

Okonkwo, J.C. 2002. Evaluation of cassava genotypes for yield and response to biotic stress in Jos Plateau, Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture and the Environment 4(1): 29-35. [Okonkw2002]
Notes: Cassava genotypes TMS 30572, TMS 30555, TMS 40764, TMS 82/0422, NR/85200, NR/8579, NR/8591, NR/85191 and a local variety (Don Riyom) were evaluated for yield and response to some cassava diseases and pests at Kuru, Jos Plateau, Nigeria, in 1996/97 and 1997/98 growing seasons. Fertilizers were applied at 100 kg N, 18 kg P and 20 kg K/ha at 8 weeks after planting. The maximum and minimum air temperatures of the experimental site were low, averaging 23 and 13.2 deg C, respectively. Rainfall records also showed that five months of the year were rain free. The average plant height from first branching was 28.9 cm. Plant growth was retarded and small size tubers were harvested at the end of 12 months. Tuber yield was low, ranging from 4.8-16.1 t/ha. The severity of African cassava mosaic virus infection on cassava plants was higher in the first three months after planting than six months later. Scores for cassava bacterial blight [Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. manihotis] and cassava anthracnose disease [Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f.sp. manihotis] were low, averaging 1.5 and 1.4, respectively, on a scale of 1-5. There was low incidence of mealy bug (Phenacoccus manihoti) and green mites (Mononychellus tanajoa) in the study, implying either absence of the pests or the resistance of the genotypes to the pests. Based on yields and responses of the cassava genotypes to the diseases and pests attacks, TMS 82/0422, TMS 40764, NR/8579 and NR/85200 were promising for production in the Jos Plateau area.

Olivero, G., Chionetti, S., Soldi, G., Ambrogio, P. & Viara, M. 2003. [The hazel nut scale insect and its antagonist.] Lecanio del nocciolo e il suo antagonista. (In Italian). Informatore Agrario 59(16): 72-74. [OliverChSo2003]
Notes: From May 1997, weekly surveys were made in hazelnut stands in seven Italian localities infested with scale insects in order to determine the life cycle. Eulecanium tiliae produces one generation a year, of which the immature females overwinter on buds and twigs before migrating in spring to new shoots where they lay their eggs. These emerge and migrate to the upper leaf surface. The surveys also revealed the presence of Brachytarsus fasciatus, a natural enemy of E. tiliae. The adults emerge in spring and prey on egg-laying scale insects. Autumn applications of barium poly-sulfur, when E. tiliae females are migrating from the leaves to the buds, were effective, as were treatments as the buds swell in early March. These applications did not affect B. fasciatus. Other insect pests can be controlled with insecticides from early April to mid-June.

Olivero, J., García, E., Wong, E., Márquez, A.L. & García, S. 2003. Defining a method to determine the release dose of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Muls. based on the incidence of Planococcus citri Risso in citrus orchards. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): 163-168. [OliverGaWo2003]
Notes: [Integrated control in citrus fruit crops. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002. Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.) Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP).] The use of C. montrouzieri as an exotic predator for the biological control of P. citri (citrus mealybug) dates back to 1892 in California (USA), and from then on, many countries have adopted this method for controlling the pest. Despite the long history behind its use in citrus crops, there is still no consensus about the suitable dose to be applied for a successful control of the mealybug. In this work, we designed a mathematical model to estimate the release doses of C. montrouzieri needed to ensure an effective control of the pest, based on a statistical procedure. In three spring seasons (1998, 1999 and 2002), we noted down the amounts of adult C. montrouzieri released per hectare in many citrus orchards in Malaga, Spain. The initial incidence of citrus mealybug was known in all these orchards, and we monitored the incidence of the pest in a sample of fruits weekly. Finally, we considered that the biological control had been successful if the fruit percentage with citrus mealybug became lower than 5% at least two months after the predator release. With the data collected, we designed a probability model based on the logistic regression method, which allows us to define the release doses suitable for every initial incidence level of P. citri. For this, we assumed different risk margins about the probability of a control success being reached.

Omkar & Pervez, A. 2002. New record of coccinellids from Uttar Pradesh III. Journal of Advanced Zoology 23(1): 63-65. [OmkarPe2002]
Notes: Present communication deals with the distributional record of four coccinellids, viz. Cryptogonus himalayensis Kapur, Pseudaspidimerus flaviceps (Walker), Synona melanaria (Mulsant) and Stethorus sp. predators of aphids, mealy-bugs, pentatomid bugs and mites from the agricultural and horticultural fields of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. A precise account of their diagnostic features, prey-range and distribution has been mentioned.

Omkar & Pervez, A. 2003. Ecology and Biocontrol potential of a scale-predator, Chilocorus nigritus. Biocontrol Science and Technology 13(4): 379-390. [OmkarPe2003]
Notes: Chilocorus nigritus (Fabricius) is a common predator of scale insects, especially Diaspididae. It is an effective colonist, native to India and may easily establish in pest prevalent regions. Several attempts have been made in the recent past to exploit it for the biocontrol of diaspids infesting sugarcane, citrus and other horticultural crops. The scattered information on its global distribution, foraging, prey range and predation habits, growth and development, reproduction, mass rearing and releases is reviewed. The interpretation of the empirical data has been made and inferences drawn, wherever needed. There is an asymmetry in the literature available, since much emphasis has been given to sampling, mass rearing and field releases of the predator, whereas its ecological and reproductive aspects are poorly dealt with. There are a number of gaps in the information, such as, influences of its age, reproductive, adaptive and survival strategies, its role in the guild and artificial diets which require further investigation.

Omkar & Pervez, A. 2004. Predaceous coccinellids in India: Predator-prey catalogue (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Oriental Insects 38: 27-61. [OmkarPe2004]
Notes: A predator-prey catalogue of the Indian predaceous Coccinellidae is presented, which features an updated record of the coccinellid fauna along with their prey range, i.e., aphids, scale insects, mealy bugs, phytophagous mites, whiteflies, nymphs of pentatomid bugs, etc. The catalogue provides the prey record of 261 known predaceous coccinellids of India belonging to 57 genera. Prey record of certain predaceous species is not available. The catalogue lends support to the exploitation of the specific coccinellid predator for the biocontrol of its specific prey. It also reveals the occurrence of many coccinellids at single prey site, showing the potential of many coccinellids against a single prey. Taxonomic relationship of the subfamilies (including tribes) of Coccinellidae with their prey range is also presented.

Orivel, J. & Dejean, A 2002. Ant Activity Rhythms in a Pioneer Vegetal Formation of French Guiana (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Sociobiology 39(1): 65-76. [OrivelDe2002]
Notes: We compared the daily rhythm of activity of four sympatric ant species nesting in Guianian pioneer vegetal formations. Solenopsis saevissima was active all around the clock, but mostly at night. While Pseudomyrmex termitarius and Camponotus blandus were typically diurnal, and C. melanoticus typically nocturnal with a part of the workers transporting brood and nestmates between several nests belonging to the same colony. While S. saevissima workers attended pseudococcids and coccids at the base of different plant species, P. termitarius, C. blandus and C. melanoticus exploited the extrafloral nectaries (EFN) of Passiflora glandulosa (Passifloraceae). They frequently shared the same plant individuals. Camponotus blandus and C. metanoticus workers can also attend the same clusters of aphids sucking the sap of Graminaceae.

Osborn, F., Berlioz, L., Vitelli-Flores, J., Monsalve, W., Dorta, B. & Rodríguez Lemoine, V. 2002. Pathogenic effects of bacteria isolated from larvae of Hylesia metabus Crammer (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 80(1): 7-12. [OsbornBeVi2002]
Notes: H. metabus larvae are susceptible to several pathogens indigenous to the area in which they are found. Some larvae show symptoms characteristic of bacterial infection; they become flaccid and lethargic, and show a marked loss of appetite. We isolated and identified 29 bacterial strains from live, dead and experimentally-infected H. metabus larvae, and evaluated their pathogenic activity. The bacteria which caused mortality in the larvae were: Pseudomonas aeruginosa (60-93.3%), Proteus vulgaris (20%), Alcaligenes faecalis, Planococcus sp. and Bacillus megaterium (10%), at doses of 3-4 x 107. Although P. aeruginosa is a well-known insect pathogen, this is the first report of its pathogenic activity on H. metabus. The potential risk to humans and low virulence make it unlikely that P. aeruginosa could be used in an augmentative biological control programme. However its natural incidence may be enhanced using parasites and predators of H. metabus as carriers.

Otsubo, A.A., Mercante, F.M. & Souza Martins, C. de (Eds.) 2002. (In Portuguese). Aspectos do cultivo da mandioca em Mato Grosso do Sul, I e II seminários sobre a cultura da mandioca em Mato Grosso do Sul. Embrapa Agropecuária Oeste, Dourados, Brazil. [OtsuboMeSo2002]
Notes: Pseudococcidae are discussed in one paper, [Pests of cassava.] Pragas da mandioca. (Farias).

Özsemerci, F. & Aksit, T. 2003. [Investigations on some biological characteristics and population fluctuation of Ceroplastes rusci L. (Homoptera: Coccidae) harmful to fig trees in Aydin province.] Turkiye Entomoloji Dergisi 27(1): 13-25. [OzsemeAk2003]
Notes: [Original title: Aydin ili incir agaclarinda zararli Ceroplastes rusci L. (Homoptera: Coccidae)'nin bazi biyolojik özellikleri ve popülasyon degisimi.] A study was conducted from 1999 to 2000 in Aydin Province, Turkey to investigate the population fluctuation and biological characteristics of Ceroplastes rusci on fig trees. Leaf and shoot samples were collected periodically at 15-day intervals between May and October and once a month between November to April from Incirliova (Erbeyli village) and Buharkent districts. All biological stages, either alive, dead or parasitized, were counted on the infested shoots or leaves. Ceroplastes rusci overwintered as second and third instar nymphs, young female and mature female on shoots of fig trees in Aydin. They had 2 generations per year. Females laid an average of 750 plus or minus 10.4 eggs. Males of Ceroplastes rusci were obtained at low density from the leaves of fig trees. Ceroplastes rusci preferred the upper side to the underside portion of the leaves. Ceroplastes rusci nymphs, which were most susceptible to insecticides, were found in orchards at the first generation in June and at the second generation in August. Parasitoids were obtained culture cages where parasitized individuals were placed and predators were obtained from the branches of the fig trees. The predators were identified as Chilocorus bipustulatus, Scymnus subvillosus, Scymnus rubromaculatus, Synharmonia conglobata [Oenopia conglobata] and Eublemma scitula [Coccidiphaga scitula]. The parasitoids were identified as Tetrastichus ceroplastae [Aprostocetus ceroplastae], Metaphycus dispar, Coccophagus lycimnia, Scutellista cyanea [Scutellista caerulea] and Pachyneuron concolor [P. muscarum]. One hyperparasitoid, i.e. Tetrastichus ceroplastophilus, was obtained. The parasitization rate was higher in Incirliova than in Buharkent district. The highest parasitization rate was obtained from females followed by third and second instar nymphs, laid egg females and first instar nymphs.

Padmanaban, B. & Daniel, M. 2003. Natural enemies of the oriental yellow scale, Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead) (Homoptera: Diaspididae). Indian Journal of Entomology 65(3): 422-424. [PadmanDa2003]
Notes: The natural enemies of A. orientalis infesting arecanut were surveyed in Kerala and Karnataka, India during 1992. A. orientalis colonized arecanut leaves, leaf sheaths, inflorescences, and tender and mature nuts, as well as banana leaves planted in arecanut gardens. Aside from A. orientalis, Lepidosaphes sp. and Chionaspis dilata were found infesting the bunches and leaves of arecanut. Chilocorus circumdatus, Chilocorus nigritus, Scymnus, Pseudospidimerus flaviceps, Podothrips, Aleurodothrips fasciapennis and predaceous mites were found infecting armoured scales infesting arecanut.

Palacios Mendoza, C., Hernández Ramón, N., Cázares Celina, L. & Hernández Héctor, G. 2002. [Control of the wild cochineal with biodegradable products.] Control de la cochinilla silvestre con productos biodegradables. (In Spanish). 51-54 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 p. [PalaciHeCa2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] Various concentrations of two promising products are compared for the percentages of mortality caused at three stages of Dactylopius opuntiae.

Pan, W.X., Qian, Y.C., Zhu, W. & Jiang, X.F. 2003. Occurrence and control of Pseudaulacaspis pentagona in the Northern Zhejiang. Journal of Zhejiang Forestry Science and Technology 23(1): 44-46. [PanQiZh2003]
Notes: Observations on the occurrence and morphology of Pseudaulacaspis pentagona, a plum pest, in northern Zhejiang, China, showed 3 generations of P. pentagona every year. The nymph and female adult damaged 2-year-old plum branches resulting in yield decrease and even plant death. The peak period of the first generation nymph occurred in mid- and late-May (when the fruit nears maturation period). Pesticide application immediately after harvesting and 15 days after harvesting showed 89.1% efficacy.

Pan, Z.P., Zeng, L., Ye, W.F., Pan, Z.P., Zeng, L. & Ye, W.F. 2002. [The natural enemies and biological control of the loblolly pine mealybug, Oracella acuta.] (In Chinese). Chinese Journal of Biological Control 18(1): 36-38. [PanZeYe2002]

Pandey, R.R. 2002. Mass Production of Anagyrus ananatis Gahan (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) for the Augmentative Biological Control of Pink Pineapple Mealybug ... University of Hawaii, . 263 pp. [Pandey2002]
Notes: [Title continues: Dysmicoccus brevipes (Cockerell) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Ph.D. Thesis. Marshall W. Johnson, Advisor.] Pink pineapple mealybug (PPM), Dysmicoccus brevipes (Cockerell) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae), transmits Pineapple Mealybug Wilt Associated Virus (PMWaV) (Closteroviridae: Closterovirus) in Hawaii. In the presence of PMWaV, feeding by PPM induces Mealybug Wilt of Pineapple, which can completely devastate a pineapple planting if PPM is not managed. Studies were conducted to develop an augmentative biological control program for PPM management using the encrytid endoparasitoid Anagyrus ananatis Gahan. Use of vermiculite in PPM rearing protocols effectively removed PPM generated honeydew that commonly entrapped mealybugs and interfered with collection of PPM individuals from squash. Infestation of Kobocha squash with mature adult PPM produced more than 2200 mature adult PPM (?0.6 mg) per kg squash in about 8 weeks. The size of parasitized PPM significantly affected A. ananatis body size, which partially determined the parasitoid's reproductive ability. PPM weighing ?0.6 mg produced normal sized A. ananatis. The lower developmental threshold (To) for A. ananatis was 12.65°C. Total heat accumulation required for development from egg to adult was 265 and 275 Degree Days (DD) for males and females, respectively. Eggs began hatching after accumulating 22 DD and larval development was completed after 88–110 DD. Anagyrus ananatis pupae can be stored at 10.1°C (below the To) for one week, if preconditioned at 14.8°C (above the To) for one week, without significant effects on their survival and reproductive abilities. Big headed ant (BHA), Pheidole megacephala F. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), effectively reduced A. ananatis parasitization of PPM to almost half of that recorded in its absence. Increased A. ananatis densities increased PPM parasitization in the presence of BHA, which suggested that augmentative field releases might help suppress PPM even when ants are present. The disruptive effects of BHA on A. ananatis parasitism could potentially be neutralized by doubling (via augmentative release) the densities of A. ananatis that provide effective PPM suppression in the absence of BHA. The most common weed hosts of PPM included rhodes grass, Chloris gayana, and wire grass, Eleusine indica, which were found in both mowed and unmowed weed bands within disturbed areas around pineapple plantings. No mealybugs collected from these weeds produced parasitoids.

Pantoja, P.A., Follett, P.A. & Villanueva-Jiménez, J.A. 2002. Pests of papaya. 131-156 In: Peña, J., Sharp, J. & Wysoki, M. (Eds.), Tropical Fruit Pests and Pollinators: Biology, Economic Importance, Natural Enemies and Control. CABI Publishing, . 448 pp. [PantojFoVi2002]
Notes: Thirty-eight species (28%) from 24 genera and six families of scale insects affect papaya. Two families, Diaspididae and Coccidae, represent 66% of the scale insects reported and 19% of the total number of arthropods related to papaya. Scale pests of papaya covered in this chapter include Aonidiella aurantii, A. comperei, A. inornata, A. orientalis, Aspidiotus excisus, A. macfarlanei, Asterolecanium pustulans, Chrysomphalus dictyospermi, Coccus discrepans, C. hesperidum hesperidum, C. longulus, Drepanococcus chiton, Dysmicoccus nesophilus, Eucalymnatus tessellatus, Ferrisia virgata, Howardia biclavis, Icerya purchasi, I. seychellarum, Milviscutulus mangiferae, Morganella longispina, Nipaecoccus viridis, Paracoccus marginatus, Parasaissetia nigra, Philephedra tuberculosa, Planococcus citri, Protopulvinaria pyriformis, Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis, Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli, P. pentagona, Pseudococcus jackbeardsleyi, P. longispinus, P. viburni, Pseudoparlatoria ostreata, Saissetia oleae oleae, S. coffeae and Steatococcus samaraius. Distribution, biology, biological control, damage and monitoring and control are discussed. [Available on the internet at http://www.cabi-publishing.org/Bookshop/Readingroom/0851994342/0851994342Ch5.pdf on September 2003.]

Papadopoulos, A.P. 2004. Protected cultivation 2002: in search of structures, systems and plant materials for sustainable greenhouse production, proceedings of the XXVI International Horticultural Congress. Acta Horticulturae No. 633: 536 pp. [Papado2004]
Notes: [Conference held in Toronto, Canada, 11-17 August, 2002.] These proceedings contain 67 papers on various aspects of protected cultivation, especially greenhouse production. One paper covering mealybug information is integrating cultural management practices and biological control to suppress citrus mealybug (Shrewsbury, Bejleri & Lea-Cox).

Pasqualini, E. & Civolani, S. 2002. Mimic-Confirm (a. i. Tebufenozide): a tool for a soft and ecologically sound pest control in pear orchards. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 25(11: 97-106. [PasquaCi2002]
Notes: [OBC/WPRS Working Group Pesticides and Beneficial Organisms. Proceedings of the meeting at San Michele All'Adige, Trento, Italy, 3-6 October, 2001. Vogt, H. & Heimbach, U. (Eds.). Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP).] An investigation regarding the side effects of two insecticide application strategies was carried out. Two chemical control programmes for codling moth (Cydia pomonella) and for the main leafroller species (Pandemis cerasana) were compared. One programme ("soft") was based exclusively on tebufenozide applications, and the other one ("conventional") was based on traditional insecticides (the exclusive use of tebufenozide was chosen only for experimental requirement, without considering the resistance management). The study was carried out in the Ferrara District (Italy) on a pear (cultivars Abbè Fétel and Bartlett) orchard in 1998, 1999 and 2000. Visual and inventory methods (depending from the insect species and the developmental stage) were used for sampling. The main pest species sampled were Cydia pomonella, P. cerasana, Cacopsylla pyri and Quadraspidiotus perniciosus [Diaspidiotus perniciosus]. Anthocoris nemoralis, coccinellids and syrphids were the beneficial ones. The results showed the reliability of the control strategy based on tebufenozide (no difference with regard to damaged fruits in comparison with the traditional one). This strategy gave smaller side effects on the beneficials, mainly regarding A. nemoralis young larvae. It has been possible to measure the lower insecticide use: both in quantitative and qualitative terms (toxicological classes).

Passaro, L.C. & Webster, F.X. 2004. Synthesis of the female sex pheromone of the citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 52(10): 2896-2899. [PassarWe2004]
Notes: The citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso) is a common pest in the Southern U.S. and the Mediterranean. Two alternative syntheses of the female sex pheromone, (1R)-(+)-cis-2,2-dimethyl-3-isopropenyl-cyclobutane methanol acetate, have been developed. Key transformations include an allylic oxidation of (1R)-(+)-alpha-pinene to (+)-R-verbenone, oxidative decarboxylation using RuCl3-NaIO4, and methylenation with Zn/CH2Br2/TiCl4.

Pathak, S.K. & Yadav, D.N. 2003. Mass rearing technique of Eublemma scitula Ramb. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) an important predator of Brown scale, Saissetia coffeae Walker. Journal of Biological Control 17(1): 91-94. [PathakYa2003]
Notes: Three different methods were used to develop suitable laboratory techniques for mass rearing of Eublemma scitula Ramb. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) an important predator of brown scale insect Saissetia coffeae Walker (Homoptera: Coccidae) a serious pest of pointed gourd, Trichosanthes dioica Roxb. in and around Anand, Gujarat. Out of these rearing methods, namely, a) on pointed gourd leaves, b) on green potato sprouts and c) on pumpkin fruits, the method c), which involved either releasing E. scitula eggs (c 1) or larvae (c 2) on pumpkin fruit with growing scale population was observed to be the best for mass rearing of the predator with seed to yield ratio of 1:0.63 and 1:0.73 in c 1 and c 2, respectively. On average, 69.4 and 73 pupae could be produced in methods c 1 and c 2, respectively, from a single pumpkin in a single generation of the scale, within two months (October to November). This technique was found to be suitable for mass rearing of E. scitula to augment the predator during June-July for suppression of the host S. coffeae at its initial stage of infestation. Limitations observed in other methods of rearing were described.

Patra, B. & Bera, S. 2002. Record of scale insect infestation on Christella spp. from West Bengal. Proceedings of the Zoological Society (Calcutta) 55(2): 21-24. [PatraBe2002]
Notes: Infestation of coccids (Paralecanopsis sp. Family Coccidae, sub Family Eriopeltinae) on Christella dentata (Forssk) Brownsey & Jermy and C. hispidula (Decne) Holtt. (Thelypteridaceae) is recorded in the present paper. The abaxial surface of the leaflets along the veins are found severely infested by the insects. The sedentary 2nd-instar female scale insects have long marginal setae as anchoring devices. Similar body sculpture of the scale insect and its host fern leaflets is suggestive of a unique camouflage to protect the insects from predation.

Paz Zamorano Rojas, M. de la 2002. [[Association of Nopaltepec Cochineal A.L.P.R.] Asociación de Grana Cochinilla Noopaltepec A.L.P.R. (In Spanish). 105 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 pp. [PazZam2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This association was formed in 1999 to promote Dactylopius coccus establishment on prickly pear for carmine production in this region.

Pellizzari, G. 2003. [Hemiptera Coccoidea new or little known for the Italian fauna.] Hemiptera Coccoidea nuovi o poco noti per l'Italia. (In Italian; Summary In English). Bollettino di Zoologia Agraria e di Bachicoltura (Milano) 35(2): 99-106. [Pelliz2003]
Notes: Peliococcus chersonensis, Trionymus radicum (Pseudococcidae), Stotzia ephedrae (Coccidae) and Quadraspidiotus mairei (Diaspididae) are recorded for the first time in Italy. New distributional data are reported for Chaetococcus sulcii, Peliococcus manifectus, Phenacoccus asphodeli Goux, Dysmicoccus multivorus, Volvicoccus volvifer (Pseudococcidae), Protopulvinaria pyriformis (Coccidae), Aspidiotus spinosus, Chionaspis lepineyi, Dynaspidiotus ephedrarum, Adiscodiaspis ericicola, Rungaspis capparidis (Diaspididae).

Pemberton, R.W. 2003. Potential for biological control of the lobate lac scale, Paratachardina lobata lobata (Hemiptera: Kerriidae). Florida Entomologist 86(3): 353-360. [Pember2003]
Notes: The lobate lac scale insect, Paratachardina lobata lobata (Chamberlin) (Kerriidae: Coccoidea: Hemiptera), a recent invader of southern Florida from India and Sri Lanka, now infests more than 160 economic and native plants in at least 49 plant families. It is killing wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera L.) and coco plum (Chrysobalanus icaco L.), valued native and horticultural plants in many locations. Intensive insecticide use in infested natural and residential areas is an unsuitable control approach because of the large numbers of plants infested, the high cost, and probable damage to non-target organisms. Biological control is a much-needed solution for lobate lac scale. No parasitism has been detected in Florida. The lobate lac scale is native to India and Sri Lanka, occurring in localities south of 16 degrees N. latitude. The known host range includes some of the same species and families of host plants as it does in Florida, plus other plant groups on which it has yet to be detected in Florida. The natural enemies of the lobate lac scale have not been previously sought nor studied, but those of the related true lac scale of commerce are relatively well known, and some of these appear to have potential for biological control of the lobate lac scale. The most important natural enemies are predaceous Lepidoptera and Chrysopa species, and parasitic encyrtid and euplophid chalcidoid wasps. The chalcidoid wasps, with narrower host ranges, appear to be more suitable as potential biological control agents. Among these, Tachardiaephagus tachardiae Howard (Encyrtidae), seems particularly promising. It attacks the lobate lac scale, is known only from lac scale hosts, is not hyperparasitic, is one of the most important parasitoids of lac scale, has 9-12 generations per year, and occurs in the same climatic conditions as occur in southern Florida. It is recommended that this wasp and two other important parasitoids of the true lac scale, T. somervilli Madhihassen (Encyrtidae) and Coccophagus tschirchii Madhihassen (Eulophidae), be acquired and evaluated as potential biological control agents of the lobate lac scale. Explorations for unknown natural enemies of lobate lac scale in India and Sri Lanka should also be undertaken in locations with climatic similarity to that of southern Florida. Host specificity testing of species belonging to Florida's 12 native scale families (Coccoidea) and allied Hemiptera is advisable to define the potential host ranges and thus the safety of candidate biological control agents. The prospects of effective and safe biological control appear to be good. No native lac scales (Kerriidae) occur in Florida, and parasitoids are known that appear to be both narrow specialists and damaging to their host lac scales.

Pemberton, R.W. 2003a. Invasion of Paratachardina lobata lobata (Hemiptera: Kerriidae) in south Florida: a snapshot sample of an infestation in a residential yard. Florida Entomologist 86(3): 373-377. [Pember2003a]
Notes: [http://www.fcla.edu/FlaEnt/fe86p373.pdf] A recent insect invader in South Florida, the lobate lac scale (Paratachardina lobata lobata) attacked 55% (37/67) of the plant species in 63% (19/30) families at a sampled site. Many important plants in southern Florida were attacked including: tropical fruits (grapefruit, mango, lychee and sugar apple), native plants (wild coffee, laurel oak and wax myrtle), and important landscape trees and shrubs (black olive, hibiscus, Surinam cherry, and gardenia). Some plants such as wax myrtle are killed by the scale. Research to develop control methods is urgently needed.

Peña, J.E. 2004. Integrated pest management and monitoring techniques for mango pests. Acta Horticulturae 645: 151-161. [Pena2004]
Notes: [VII International Mango Symposium, Recife, Brazil. Pinto, A.C.Q., Pereira, M.E.C, Alves, R.E. (Eds.)] A good sampling and monitoring program for insects and mites is essential for implementing an integrated pest management program for mango pests. While some progress has been made for individual species, precise and pro-active sampling programs in mango agroecosystems continue to be in their infancy. Mango flowers are attacked by midges, leafhoppers, caterpillars, thrips, as well as mites. The spatial distribution of Rastrococcus invadens Williams a polyphagous mealybug infesting leaves, flowers and fruits was studied by Boavida et al. (1992) who developed binomial sampling plans for estimating population levels.

Peña, J.E., Nadel, H., Barbosa-Peira, M. & Smith, D. 2002. Pollinators and pests of Annona species. 197-221 In: Peña, J., Sharp, J. & Wysoki, M. (Eds.), Tropical Fruit Pests and Pollinators: Biology, Economic Importance, Natural Enemies and Control. CABI Publishing, . 448 pp. [PenaNaBa2002]
Notes: Scale species listed as pests include Abgrallaspis cyanophyllis, Aonidiella orientalis, Aspidiotus destructor, Ceroplastes rubens, Chrysomphalus aonidum, C. dictyospermi, Coccus hesperidum, C. longulus, Ferrisia virgata, Hemiberlesia palmae, Howardia biclavis, Kerria communis, Parasaissetia nigra, Icerya aegyptiaca, Ischnaspis longirostris, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Philephedra tuberculosa, Planococcus citri, P. pacificus, Pseudaulacaspis pentagona, Pseudococcus aonidum, P. lilacinus, P. longispinus, P. maritimus, Pseudotectococcus anonae, Saissetia coffeae, S. oleae and Tachardia labata. [Available on the internet at http://www.cabi-publishing.org/Bookshop/Readingroom/0851994342/0851994342Ch7.pdf on September 2003.]

Peri, E., Colazza, S., Saiano, F., Ramirez, S. & Alonzo, G. 2002. Females sex pheromone of oleander scale: quantitative aspects of its production and release. IOBC/WPRS Bulletin 25: 1-5. [PeriCoSa2002]
Notes: Sex pheromone of the oleander scale, Aspidiotus nerii Bouché (Homoptera: Diaspididae) was investigated to define its chemistry. Quantification of sex pheromone emitted by female of oleander scale was performed using headspace solid phase microextraction (SPME) subsequently analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS), adopting a cyclobutane derivative standard of oleander scale sex pheromone chemically synthesized as a standard. The headspace SPME of the volatile emission from about 30 virgin female oleander scales from a Sicilian population monitored for several days allowed individuating the initial point of sex pheromone production in females twenty-seven d-old. The amount of pheromone production has been determined in 10 pg for single scale per day.

Petty, G.J., Stirling, G.R. & Bartholomew, D.P. 2002. Pests of pineapple. 157-195 In: Peña, J., Sharp, J. & Wysoki, M. (Eds.), Tropical Fruit Pests and Pollinators: Biology, Economic Importance, Natural Enemies and Control. CABI Publishing, . 448 pp. [PettyStBa2002]
Notes: Scale species listed as pests include Aspidiotus nerii, Aulacaspis maculata, Diaspis boisduvalli, Diaspis bromeliae, Dysmicoccus brevipes, D. neobrevipes, Ferrisia virgata, Geococcus coffeae, Melanaspis smilacis, Orthezia praelonga, Phenacoccus solani, Planococcus citri, Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis, Pseudischnaspis anassarum and Pseudococcus longispinus. [Available on the internet at http://www.cabi-publishing.org/Bookshop/Readingroom/0851994342/0851994342Ch6.pdf on September 2003.]

Peña, J., Sharp, J. & Wysoki, M. (Eds.) 2002. Tropical Fruit Pests and Pollinators: Biology, Economic Importance, Natural Enemies and Control. CABI Publishing, . 448 pp. [PenaShWy2002]
Notes: Insect and other pests cause major economic damage on fruit crops in the tropics. However, some insects are beneficial and have a role in pollinating flowers, thus enabling fruit set. This book reviews these injurious and beneficial organisms and how they might be controlled to enhance fruit production and quality. Chapters that discuss scales include Tropical Citrus Pests (Smith & Peña), Pests and Pollinators of Mango (Waite), Pests of Papaya (Pantoja, Follett & Villanueva-Jiménez), Pests of Pineapple (Petty, Stirling & Bartholomew), Pollinators and Pests of Annona Species (Peña, Nadel, Barbosa-Pereira & Smith), Pests and Pollinators of Avocado (Wysoki et al.), Pests of Guava (Gould & Raga), Pests of Litchi and Longan (Waite & Hwang) and Passion Fruit (Aguiar-Menezes, Menezes, Cassino & Soares).

Pimentel, D. 2002. Biological Invasions: Economic and Environmental Costs of Alien Plant, Animal, and Microbe Species. CRC Press, Boca Raton et al.. 369 pp. [Piment2002]
Notes: Sections included in this book that mention scale insects are Alien invertebrates in New Zealand (Barlow & Goldson), Environmental and economic costs of invertebrate invasions in Australia (Canyon et al.) and Alien invertebrate animals in South Africa (Lach et al.).

Pimentel, D. (Ed.) 2002a. Encyclopedia of Pest Management. Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York. 929 pp. [Piment2002a]
Notes: Encyclopedia articles that cover information on scales include Forest pest management (insects) (Allen), Insect-vectored crop diseases (Burnett & Kawchuk), Augmentative controls (Daane, Mills & Tauber), Ornamental crop pest management (insects) (Gotoh & Hong), Biological control of weeds (insects and mites) (Harris), Fruit crop pest management (insects and mites) (Quilici), Cultural controls (Rajendran) and Heterozygosity and genetic polymorphism in parthenogenetic animals (White).

Pina, T., Estela, E. & Verdú, M.J. 2003. Lemon variety preferences by Aonidiella aurantii (Homoptera: Diaspididae). Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): 123. [PinaEsVe2003]
Notes: [Integrated control in citrus fruit crops. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002. Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.) Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP).] An essential aspect of beneficial insect mass rearing programme is to know which is the best host plant that optimizes pest growth and consequently improves natural enemy development. California red scale, A. aurantii is one of the species whose host plant range has been extensively studied. Lemons, grapefruits, oranges, mandarins and different varieties of squash and potatoes have been used for this purpose. However, no work has been carried out on the preferences of red scale inside the lemon group. Lemon is the host plant that is often employed in laboratory studies and the second host plant, after squash, for mass rearing projects. Furthermore, in the field, lemon is the most susceptible citrus species to red scale attack. The effect of different lemon cultivars on the development and survival of California red scale was evaluated. The tested cultivars, Eureka, Verna, Fino, Lisbon and Villafranca, were obtained from the germplasm bank of Instituto Valenciano de Investigaciones Agrarias in Spain.

Pina, T., Martínez, B. & Verdú, M.J. 2003. Field parasitoids of Aonidiella aurantii (Homoptera: Diaspididae) in Valencia (Spain). Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): 109-115. [PinaMaVe2003]
Notes: [Integrated control in citrus fruit crops. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002. Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.) Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP).] California red scale, Aonidiella aurantii is considered a citrus key pest in Spain. Nowadays, red scale is controlled using non-selective organophosphate pesticides. Fortunately, there is a trend throughout the world to minimize the use of insecticides in citrus and to promote the control of pests by the use of natural enemies. The first step previous to natural enemies releases is to know field parasitoid structure and to study parasitoid interaction. A survey was carried out in a citrus field in València (east coast of Spain). As a result, two parasitoids were found: Aphytis chrysomphali and Aphytis melinus. Aphytis chrysomphali was the predominant species. Aphytis melinus was mainly found on third instar female scales and Aphytis chrysomphali on male scales. The sex ratio was 1:1 for Aphytis melinus and it was dependent on the host size. Only females of Aphytis chrysomphali were found.

Pink hibiscus mealybug ({Maconellicoccus hirsutus} (Green) 2003. Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Apopka & Gainesville, FL. [PinkHiMe2003]
Notes: General information, illustrations, host list, chemical, biological and mechanical control recommendations. [Available on the internet at http://www.doacs.state.fl.us/~pi/enpp/ento/pink.htm on September 2003.]

[Pink hibiscus mealybug {Maconellicoccus hirsutus} (Green)]. 2002. (In Spanish). Program aid (Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture) No. 1605S: 2 pp. [Pinkhime2002]
Notes: [Original title: Cochinilla rosada del hibisco Maconellicoccus hirsutus (clasificación de Green).] This brief illustrated report issues an alert for this pest of fruits, vegetables, fiber-producing plants and ornamentals. [Available on the internet at http://www.aphis.usda.gov/oa/pubs/phmidcar_sp.pdf on September 2003.]

Pino Moreno, J.M.P. & Ramos-Elorduy, J. 2002. Pragmatic uses of cochineal - (Homoptera: Dactylopiidae). 353-364 In: Stepp, J.R., Wyndham, F.S. & Zarger, R.K. (Eds.), Ethnobiology and biocultural diversity: Proceedings of the 7th International Congress of Ethnobiology. Instituto de Biologia UNAM, Mexico City, Mexico. 720 pp. [PinoMoRa2002]
Notes: [Conference held in Athens, Georgia, October 2000.] This paper covers the practical industrial uses of cochineal (Dactylopius coccus), including its taxonomy, hosts, historical background and production. The market for cochineal-derived pigments, as well as its economic importance for the ethnic groups that live in rural areas where cochineal is found are discussed.

Pinto, A.C.Q., Pereira, M.E.C. & Alves, R.E. 2004. Proceedings of the Seventh International Mango Symposium, Recife City, Brazil, 22-27 September, 2002. Acta Horticulturae 645: 695 pp. [PintoPeAl2004]
Notes: These proceedings contain 92 papers on various aspects of mango production, including propagation, genetics and breeding, plant nutrition, plant physiology, plant protection, crop management, storage, postharvest systems and postharvest decay, fruit processing and technology, and marketing. Papers that cover scale information include Effect of fruit bagging on sanitation and pigmentation of six mango cultivars (Guzmán Estrada), The control of mango scale in commercial orchards through the use of the predatory beetle, Cybocephalus binotatus (Le Lagadex) and integrated pest management and monitoring techniques for mango pests (Peña).

Pitana, O.O.R., Mwansata, G., Akinyemia, S.O.S., Adebayoa, O.S. & Akinlosotub, T.A. 2002. Effect of mango mealybug and sooty mould attack on mango and the impact of the released Gyranusoidea tebygi Noyes on yield. (In English; Summary In French). Fruits 57: 105-113. [PitanaMwAk2002]
Notes: The mango mealybug Rastrococcus invadens is a pest of horticultural crops, especially mango. Though this fact has been demonstrated and its parasitoid, Gyranusoidea tebygi, released for its control in many countries, quantitative information on the damage inflicted by the mealybug and post-release mango fruit production are still scanty. This study was therefore undertaken to investigate the damage caused by mango mealybug and its associated sooty mould on mango plants and to assess mango fruit production after the release of G. tebygi in 1989. Laboratory experiments were set up to determine the effect of different populations of mango mealybug (0, 5, 10, 20, and 40 adults/cage) on the chemical constituents of mango leaves. The mould associated with the mango mealybug was identified and its effect on leaf temperature was studied. A mango orchard was studied for fruit production from the time of fruitlessness in 1990 to 1998 when fruit yield peaked. The resultant effect of the parasitism of mango mealybug by G. tebygi was monitored on the chemical composition of mango leaves during this period. Protein, fat, carbohydrate, ash, crude fibre and moisture contents were depleted with increase in mealybug population. The isolated mould fungus Capnodium mangiferae was found to raise leaf temperature of infected mango seedlings. The population density of G. tebygi was found to be negatively but significantly correlated with mango mealybug population and positively correlated with mango fruit yield. Parasitism was highly correlated with mealybug population and yield, and was considered a major factor in the control of the pest and the subsequent increase in mango fruit yield. Rainfall did not have a significant impact on yield, mealybug population or sooty mould score. The injury inflicted by R. invadens and its associated mould, and the enhancement of mango fruit production by the activities of G. tebygi on the mealybug was discussed.

Plumb, R.T. 2002. Other vectors. Advances in Botanical Research 46: 99-203. [Plumb2002]
Notes: Mealybugs (Pseudococcidae) are among the insects reviewed and the species mentioned include Pseudococcus longispinus and Dysmicoccus brevipes.

Podsiadlo, E. & Lambdin, P.L. 2003. Morphology of the first instar and the second instar female of Lecanodiaspis morrisoni Takahashi, 1950 (Hemiptera: Coccinea: Lecanodiaspididae). Polskie Pismo Entomologiczne 72(4): 335-342. [PodsiaLa2003]
Notes: Detailed morphological studies and illustrations are presented for the first instar and the second instar female of L. morrisoni. The first instar is distinguished by possessing a single posterior spiracular seta, two quinquelocular pores lateral to the spiracles, a slightly bent arched plate, the anal plates joined medially, and the presence of two stout setae on the margin of the anal plate. The second instar female is distinguished by the lack of legs, the presence of the spiracular indentations, reticulate margins of the anal plates, and more numerous pores and setae when compared to the first instar.

Pollini, A. 2002. Efficacy and selectivity of a mineral oil specialty applied alone or in tank mix with sulphur in formulation WG against Quadraspitiotus perniciosus (Comstock) on pears and peach tree. (In English; Summary In French). 85-91 In: [Sixth International Conference on Pests in Agriculture. Vol. 1.] Sixième Conférence Internationale sur les Ravageurs en Agriculture. Tome 1.] AGRO, Montpellier, France. 350 pp. [Pollin2002]
Notes: [Conference held 4-6 December 2002 in Montpellier, France.] During 2002 in Emilia-Romagna region (Italy), two trials were carried out on peach and pear tree to verify its efficacy and its selectivity when applied for the control of the San José scale (Quadraspidiotus perniciosus).

Pons, L. 2004. On the lookout for scaley invaders: knowledge is key to keeping foreign scale insects at bay. Agricultural Research 51(12): 18-19. [Pons2004]
Notes: This article reports on the efforts of the ARS (Agricultural Research Service) to identify and contain destructive scale insects. Among those mentioned are the newest: Andaspis punicae, Aulacaspis tubercularis, Ceroplastes rusci, Paracoccus marginatus, Paratachardina lobata and Parlatoria ziziphi.

Pons, L. 2004a. Knowledge is key to keeping foreign scale insects at bay in USA. International Pest Control 46(2): 94-95. [Pons2004a]
Notes: Species discussed include Andaspis punicae, Aulacaspis tubercularis, A. yasumatsui, Ceroplastes rusci, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Paracoccus marginatus, Paratachardina lobata, Parlatoria ziziphi and Planococcus ficus.

Poorani, J. 2003. A new species of Telsimia Casey (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) predatory on arecanut scale from Karnataka, India. Entomon 28(1): 51-53. [Pooran2003]
Notes: Telsimia flavomaculata sp. n. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), predatory on arecanut scale, Lepidosaphes sp. (Homoptera: Diaspididae), is described from Karnataka, India.

Porcelli, F., Guerra, G.B., Stingi, N. & Guario, A. 2004. [Infestations of Trabutina mannipara, a pest of tamarisk.] Infestazioni di Trabutina mannipara, fitofago delle tamerici. (In Italian). Informatore Agrario 60(20): 71-73. [PorcelGuSt2004]
Notes: The popularity of tamarisk, particularly that of Tamarix gallica increased in Italy despite the wood fragility and the small size of trees. Due to the rustic appearance and high adaptability of trees to saline environments (sandy and clay ones), the tree is commonly used to line streets and in protective hedges facing the coastal fronts. Information is presented on the insect pest Trabutina mannipara. Illustrations are included to demonstrate different stages in pest development including neanides in follicles, adult insects on a tree branch, an adult female, larvae of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri predatory on Trabutina, follicles of adult females with eggs and first nianides. The main natural enemy found was C. montrouzieri predatory on larvae, neanides and adults, followed by the less common Hymenoptera parasitoids and the rarely found predatory Scymnus kiesenwetteri. Results of investigations revealed a constant increase in the spread of T. mannipara mealybugs in the urban environment of the coastal Apulia region. Good pest control was achieved with white mineral oil.

Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. 2002a. México before the worldwide production of cochineal. CACTUSNET NEWSLETTER (FAO International Technical Cooperation on Cactus) No. 7: 3-5. [PortilVi2002a]
Notes: This paper discusses issues relating to Dactylopius coccus production in Mexico, such as weather conditions, competitors, natural enemies, labor requirements, and fluctuating price of cochineal.

Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. 2002c. [The cochineal and its wild relatives in Mexico: a subject for study.] La grana cochinilla y sus parientes silvestres en México: Un caso pendiente de estudio. (In Spanish). 80-82 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 p. [PortilVi2002c]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This paper lists the nine species of Dactylopius and suggests that the wild relatives of the cultivated one, D. coccus need to be reexamined.

Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.) 2002b. (In Spanish). [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 pp. [PortilVi2002b]
Notes: Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This conference brought together production, industry, and research on natural dyes, mainly from cochineal.

Prakh, S.V. & Storchevaya, E.M. 2003. [Resistance of fruit crops to damage by the San Jose scale.] (In Russian). Zashchita i Karantin Rastenii No. 11: 41 pp. [PrakhSt2003]
Notes: The San Jose scale [Diaspidiotus perniciosus] is a dangerous pest of fruit, ornamental and forest plantations in the Kuban region, southern Russia. The greatest damage is caused to apple, pear, myrobalan plum [Prunus cerasifera] and peach. Investigations of the degree of damage in fruit crops, measured on a scale of 0-4, were conducted in the Krasnodar region. Apple was the most damaged crop, followed by plum, myrobalana plum, quince, sour cherry, apricot, pear, peach and sweet cherry in the central zone of orchard plantations. Quince and apple were the most affected crops in the northern zone. Investigations were conducted during 2001-02 to study reactions of apple cultivars to insect damage. Of 45 cultivars studied, none was free from infestations. Jonared was the most resistant cultivar, followed by Grieve Rouge, King David, Mackintosh, Prima, Renet Simirenko, Renet shampanski?, Spartan, Welsy and Starking.

Prasad, N., Jaiswal, A.K. & Kumar, K.K. 2004. Energy requirement in lac production. AMA, Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin America 35(1): 54-58. [PrasadJaKu2004]
Notes: Lac is a natural resin secretion and protective covering of tiny lac insects Kerria lacca which is produced mainly in India, Thailand, Indonesia, Myanmar and China. Butea monosperma (palas), Zizyphus mauritiana [Ziziphus mauritiana] (ber) and Schleichera oleosa (kusum) are the major commercial lac host trees in India. Mostly it is the tribals in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Gujarat and Assam that undertake the production. Approximately three million people are engaged in the production of lac in India. On an average, India produces 18 thousand tonnes of lac per year. It is an export-oriented product. Some 80% of the country's total production is exported that earns approximately 16-22 million US dollars as foreign exchange annually. Lac production involves a very simple operation that does not require any skill and requires less time than other agricultural operations. The pruning of host trees, bundling of broodlac twigs, tying of broodlac on trees for infestation, removal of used up broodlac sticks (phunki) from trees, harvesting of crop and lac scraping are the basic operations in lac production. These operations are carried out manually with the help of locally available traditional tools. The energy requirements in the production of lac from palas, ber and kusum were 11.68, 3.33 and 4.71 GJ/t in the first year and 10.25, 2.94 and 4.00 GJ/t in the subsequent years. The specific energy requirements in lac production from different lac hosts are comparable with specific energy requirements in the production of paddy, maize, wheat and gram. However, the returns from per tonne of lac is several times higher than the returns from the crops cited above. Human energy only is the input used in lac production unlike crop production where, apart from human energy, animal, mechanical and electrical energies and a variety of services such as post-harvest technology are used. With a view to meeting an increased demand for lac in the global market (being a natural and an eco-friendly product) and to generate additional employment, lac production should be promoted.

Prinsloo, G.L. 2003. Revision of the mealybug parasitoids of the genus Pseudoccobius Timberlake (Hymenoptera : Encyrtidae) from South Africa. African Entomology 11(1): 77-89. [Prinsl2003]
Notes: The following six new species of mealybug parasitoids of the encyrtid genus Pseudococcobius Timberlake are described from South Africa: akares, ancylus, dolus, san, vibex and vinealis. Comments are given on the identity of the genus and generic placement of two extra-limital species, namely P. quingueguttatus (Girault) and P. melleicorpus (Girault); the latter species is synonymized with P. terryi (Fullaway). A key is provided for the recognition of the known species of Pseudococcobius.

Puchalska, M., Orlinska, M., Ackacha, M.A., Polec Pawlak, K. & Jarosz, M. 2003. Identification of anthraquinone coloring matters in natural red dyes by electrospray mass spectrometry coupled to capillary electrophoresis. Journal of Mass Spectrometry 38(12): 1252-1258. [PuchalOrAc2003]
Notes: [Conference title: 21st Informal Meeting on Mass Spectrometry held in Antwerp, Belgium, May 11-15, 2003] Capillary electrophoresis with UV/visible diode-array detection (DAD) and electrospray mass spectrometric (ESI-MS) detection were used for the identification of anthraquinone color components of cochineal, lac-dye and madder, natural red dyestuffs often used by ancient painters. For the purpose of such analysis, ESI-MS was found to be a much more appropriate detection technique than DAD one owing to its higher sensitivity (detection limits in the range 0.1-0.5 mug ml(-1)) and selectivity. The method developed made it possible to identify unequivocally carminic acid and laccaic acids A, B and E as coloring matters in the examined preparations of cochineal and lac-dye, respectively. In madder, European Rubia tinctorum, alizarin and purpurin were found. The method allows the rapid, direct and straightforward identification and quantification of components of natural products used in art and could be very helpful in restoration and conservation procedures.

Quilici, S. 2002. Fruit crop pest management (insects and mites). 313-316 In: Pimentel, D. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Pest Management. Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York. 929 pp. [Quilic2002]
Notes: Icerya purchasi is mentioned as an example of classical biological control by Rodolia cardinalis.

Quiroz E., C. 2003. [Phytophagous insects and mites associated with pecan, Carya illinoinensis Koch, and the situation in Chile.] (In Spanish). Revista Fruticola 24(3): 99-104. [Quiroz2003]
Notes: [Original title: Insectos y acaros fitófagos asociados al pecano, Carya illinoinensis koch, y su situación en Chile.] Notes are given on the most important pests of pecan worldwide. The main groups of arthropod pests of pecan in Chile are listed, including mites (Eotetranychus lewisi and Panonychus ulmi), Hemiptera (Eulecanium spp. and Pseudococcus viburni), Thysanoptera (Frankliniella occidentalis and F. australis) and borer (Dexicrates robustus). Notes are given on the characteristics and importance of each group.

Raciti, E., Saraceno, F. & Siscaro, G. 2003. Mass rearing of Aphytis melinus for biological control of Aonidiella aurantii in Sicily. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): 125-134. [RacitiSaSi2003]
Notes: [Integrated control in citrus fruit crops. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002. Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.) Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP).] A mass rearing of the aphelinid Aphytis melinus, the main biological control agent of California red scale (Aonidiella aurantii) in Sicily, has been started in 1995 within a Regional Extension Service IPM program. The rearing, maintained in an insectary of the Regional Phytosanitary Service, had the aim to produce parasitoids in order to verify their efficacy in controlling the pest through augmentative releases. The beneficial has been reared, from 2000, on a parthenogenetic strain of Aspidiotus nerii, originally supplied by the INRA laboratory of Valbonne (France). Further observations on the main biological features of the wasp have been started in collaboration with the Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie fitosanitarie of the University of Catania (Italy). The biological parameters will be employed to compare the commercial and indigenous strains to evaluate the possibility of using the indigenous strains in biological control programmes, due to the uncertain field results given by the commercial strains.

Radhakrishnan, B., Matthew, T.B., Premila, K.S. & Mohan, P. 2003. New report of mealybugs occurring inside the perianth of immature nuts in coconut. Insect Environment 9(2): 53-54. [RadhakMaPr2003]
Notes: In a study conducted in Vellayani, Kerala, India, for one year, to determine the presence of mealybugs inside the perianth of immature nuts in coconut, Dysmicoccus brevipes and Pseudococcus longispinus were observed. This is thought to be the first report of D. brevipes in Kerala on coconut. The morphology, biology, host plants, and distribution of D. brevipes and P. longispinus is briefly discussed.

Rae, D.J. 2002. Use of spray oils with synthetic insecticides, acaricides and fungicides. 248-284 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [Rae2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Species mentioned include Aonidiella aurantii, Hemiberlesia lataniae, H. rapax and Quadraspidiotus (=Comstockaspis) perniciosus.

Rajendran, B. 2002. Cultural controls. 174-178 In: Pimentel, D. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Pest Management. Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York. 929 pp. [Rajend2002]
Notes: Burning ratoon fields and subsequent sowing of wheat followed by a green manure and then planting sugarcane is recommended for suppressing sugarcane scale insect, Melanaspis glomerata.

Raman, A. 2003. Cecidogenetic behavior of some gall-inducing thrips, psyllids, coccids, and gall midges, and morphogenesis of their galls. Oriental Insects 37: 359-413. [Raman2003]
Notes: Several plant species belonging to diverse and unrelated families of Angiospermae respond to insect action by developing a gall. Development of a gall is a complex phenomenon that involves subtle alterations initiated at critical and specific points of time during plant differentiation. Galls are truly modified plant tissues; however, galls arise as a sequel to insect attack only, ensuring a suite of adaptations to the inducing insect. Natural selection seems to favour those insects that are able to introduce a perturbation in the plant growth and developmental process. Unlike the free-living insects, gall-inducing insects display an imperative demand of a particular plant species to complete their life-cycles; such a relationship includes specialized feeding and reproductive behaviours, high levels of specificity to host plants, and contribution to the dynamics of the evolution of the gall-inducing guild. Against this background, this review summarizes and analyses morphogenesis of some galls induced by thrips, psyllids, coccids and gall midges in the context of the behaviour of the inducing agents, studied mostly from subtropical peninsular India. The review concludes with a comparative synthesis of the available information on insect-induced galls in general, and in the particular context of galls induced by thrips, psyllids, coccids and gall midges from other biogeographical regions, and the biologies of those insects.

Raman, A., Schaefer, C.W. & Withers, T.M. (Eds.) 2004. Biology, Ecology and Evolution of Gall-Inducing Arthropods. Vol. 1. Science Publishers, New Hampshire. 774 pp. (2 vols.) [RamanScWi2004]
Notes: This monograph, a set of two volumes places greater emphasis on the biology, behavior, and evolution of the gall-inducing arthropod and of associated organisms; the dynamics of the host-plant response remain in the background. The book deals with the biology and ecology of acarines, hemipteroids, coleopteroids and hymenopteroids. It also includes chapters on the biology, ecology, and evolution of several minor or less-known groups of gall inducers. A special effort has been made to incorporate extensive chapters on gall-inducing Coleoptera, chloropids, and chalcidoids including the braconids and fig wasps. Chapters on whiteflies and dipteran leafminers should broaden our understanding of the galling habit in other groups of arthropods. In addition to the biological and ecological information on these arthropods, each chapter also provides information on their evolution, in most instances, viewed against the evolution of their host plants. One chapter is Gall-inducing scale insects (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea) (Gullan, Miller, & Cook).

Rasmy, A.H., Momen, F.M., Zaher, M.A. & Abou-Elella, G.M. 2003. Influence of diet on life history and predatory capacity of Amblyseius zaheri Yousef & El-Brolossy (Acari: Phytoseiidae). Insect Science and its Application 23(1): 31-34. [RasmyMoZa2003]
Notes: Laboratory experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of diet on the biology and predation capacity of the phytoseiid mite Amblyseius zaheri Yousef & El-Brolossy. The predatory mite was able to develop and reproduce when fed on nymphs of the two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch, nymphs of the citrus brown mite Eutetranychus orientalis Klein, motile stages of the eriophyid mite Eriophyes dioscoridis Soliman & Abou-Awad, eggs of the scale insect Parlatoria ziziphus Lucas, nymphs of the whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Genn.) and pollen grains of date palm, Phoenix dactylifera. The predatory mite’s development was fastest on a diet of nymphs of Er. dioscoridis. All of the diets led to a female-biased progeny, which was most pronounced in predators fed on date palm pollen. The results are discussed in light of the biological control capacity of the phytoseiid mite.

Razafindrakoto, C. & Bontemps-Subielos, N. 2002. [Use of "Manipueira", liquid extract of cassava roots against the armored scale insects, Aonidomytilus albus (Homoptera: Diaspidide) cassava crop pests in Madagascar.] (In English; Summary In French). 321-329 In: [Sixth International Conference on Pests in Agriculture. Vol. 1.] Sixième Conférence Internationale sur les Ravageurs en Agriculture. Tome 1.] AGRO, Montpellier, France. 350 pp. [RazafiBo2002]
Notes: [Conference held 4-6 December 2002 in Montpellier, France. Original title: Utilixation du "Manipueira", extrait liquide derive de farine du mnioc contre les cochenilles du genre Aonidomytilus albus (Homoptera: Diaspididae) ravageurs de cultures du manioc a Madagascar.] Cassava stems infested by cassava scale genus of Aonidomytilus albus have low germination. Furthermore, using infested cuttings favor early pest attacks. Chemical control is too expensive. A natural extract of manipueira is being tested as an insecticide.

Rebek, E.J. & Sadof, C.S. 2003. Effects of pesticide applications on the euonymus scale (Homoptera: Diaspididae) and its parasitoid, Encarsia citrina (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 96(2): 446-452. [RebekSa2003]
Notes: Novel biorational insecticides are rapidly replacing more toxic, broad-spectrum compounds to control pests of ornamental plants. These new formulations are widely regarded as safe, effective, and environmentally sound with minimal impact on nontarget organisms. We tested several biorational and traditional insecticides for their ability to control euonymus scale, Unaspis euonymi (Comstock), and their potential impacts on the aphelinid parasitoid, Encarsia citrina (Crawford). Soil-applied acephate and foliar-applied pyriproxyfen exhibited superior control of euonymus scale, but also reduced numbers of surviving E. citrina. Imidacloprid failed to control euonymus scale and decreased parasitism by E. citrina. Thus, the potential impact of a pesticide on biological control is not necessarily predicted by its potential longevity, mode of delivery, or its toxicity to the target pest. Finding the best fit of a compound into an integrated pest management program requires a consideration of all these factors and direct study of effects on the natural enemies of pests. [Available on the internet a http://esa.edoc.com/economic/v96n2/v96n2p446.pdf on September 2003.]

[Recommendations for management of fungal diseases and insect pests of grapes.] 2003. (In Portuguese). Recomendações para o manejo das doenças fúngicas e insetos pragas da videira. EMATER/RS, Porto Alegre, Brazil. 72 pp. [RecommMaFu2003]
Notes: Methods of control of fungal diseases on grapes are listed, including evasion, exclusion, eradication, regulation, resistant varieties, and protection and therapy using fungicides. Notes are given on the use of phosphorus fertilizers for the control of mildew, winter treatments and the use of copper. The main arthropod pests of grapes in Brazil are the margarodid Eurhizococcus brasiliensis, the phylloxerid Daktulosphaira vitifoliae [Viteus vitifoliae], the coccids Parthenolecanium persicae, the margarodid Icerya schrottkyi, diaspidids, Aethalion reticulatum, the tarsonemid Polyphagotarsonemus latus, Tetranychus urticae, chrysomelids, the tephritid Anastrepha fraterculus, wasps and bees, and Formicidae. Brief notes are given on the control of each of these taxa.

Reggiani, A., Cornale, R., Maini, S. & Pellizzari, G. 2003. [Observations on biology and distribution of Heliococcus bohemicus Sulc (Rhynchota, Pseudococcidae) in the vineyards of Emilia-Romagna Region (Italy).] Informatore Fitopatologia 53(6): 42-45. [ReggiaCoMa2003]
Notes: [Original title: Note biologiche e distribuzione di Heliococcus bohemicus Sulc (Rhynchota Pseudococcidae) nei vigneti dell'Emilia-Romagna.)]. The distribution and biology of H. bohemicus have been investigated in the Po river valley (Emilia-Romagna region, Bologna and Modena provinces) from 1996 to 2000. The mealybug was found uniformly distributed in the vineyards together with Planococcus ficus, the most dangerous mealybug species of grape (Vitis vinifera). H. bohemicus was recorded on grape, Populus nigra and on host plants previously not recorded such as Clematis vitalba and Tussilago farfara. The data on biology were in agreement with results already reported for Veneto region: the species has two generations per year, is bisexual and ovoviviparous; overwintering is carried out by nymphs. Presently, H. bohemicus is not dangerous to grape, probably because of its particular ethological habits that constantly expose the species to environmental conditions. In some years, parasitization by natural enemies can reach 60%.

Reitz, S.R. & Trumble, J.T. 2002. Competitive displacement among insects and arachnids. Annual Review of Entomology 47: 435-465. [ReitzTr2002]
Notes: Competitive displacement is the most severe outcome of interspecific competition. For the purposes of this review, we define this type of displacement as the removal of a formerly established species from a habitat as a result of direct or indirect competitive interactions with another species. We reviewed the literature for recent putative cases of competitive displacement among insects and arachnids and assessed the evidence for the role of interspecific competition in these displacements. We found evidence for mechanisms of both exploitation and interference competition operating in these cases of competitive displacement. Many of the cases that we identified involve the operation of more than one competitive mechanism, and many cases were mediated by other noncompetitive factors. Most, but not all, of these displacements occurred between closely related species. In the majority of cases, exotic species displaced native species or previously established exotic species, often in anthropogenically-altered habitats. The cases that we identified have occurred across a broad range of taxa and environments. Therefore we suggest that competitive displacement has the potential to be a widespread phenomenon, and the frequency of these displacement events may increase, given the ever-increasing degree of anthropogenic changes to the environment. A greater awareness of competitive displacement events should lead to more studies documenting the relative importance of key factors and developing hypotheses that explain observed patterns. Phenacoccus manihoti is one of the species discussed.

Remadevi, O.K. & Raja Muthukrishnan 2002. A note on infestation of a new coccid pest, Hemilecanium imbricans (Green) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) on Swietenia macrophylla King. Annals of Forestry 10(2): 359-360. [RemadeRa2002]
Notes: This paper describes the severity, incidence and morphology of Hemilecanium imbricans which was found sucking the sap of Swietenia macrophylla during the months of February-March. This is the first report of H. imbricans on S. macrophylla.

Resh, V.H. & Cardé, R.T. (Eds.) 2003. Encyclopedia of Insects. Academic Press (Elsevier Science), Amsterdam et al.. [ReshCa2003]
Notes: Three sections contain information about scale insects: Agricultural Entomology (Kogan & Prokopy), Biological Control of Insect Pests (Van Driesche & Huddle) and Sternorrhyncha (Gullan & Martin).

Retuerto, R., Fernandez-Lema, B., Rodriguez-Roiloa & Obeso, J.R. 2004. Increased photosynthetic performance in holly trees infested by scale insects. Functional Ecology 18(5): 664-669. [RetuerFeRo2004]
Notes: Changes in plant physiological features after herbivory may alleviate the adverse effects of herbivores. We examined the ability of Ilex aquifolium (European Holly) plants to compensate for scale insect (Coccus sp.) herbivory through increased photosynthesis. Based on assumptions of the source-sink hypothesis, we predicted that scale insects, by inducing supplementary sinks for photosynthates, would increase photosynthesis. Photosynthetic performance was evaluated by measuring chlorophyll fluorescence parameters in plants growing under natural light and temperature at the field station of the University of Santiago (northwest Spain). We measured photosynthesis on infested leaves of infested trees; scale-free leaves of infested trees; and scale-free leaves of scale-free trees. The insect infestation significantly increased photosynthetic efficiency. The effects of scale insects on photosynthesis were particularly enhanced by high temperature and light. Scale insects also altered the photosynthesis of leaves not directly affected by the insects. Our study showed that changes in the balance between source and sink tissues, induced by scale insects, may partly explain host plant photosynthesis. We suggest that increased feeding rates of scale insects promoted by high temperature and light conditions would increase the carbon demand of infested plants, resulting in greater compensatory photosynthesis.

Ribeiro, K.T., Codeco, C.T. & Fernandes, G.W. 2003. Local and regional spatial distribution of an eruptive and a latent herbivore insect species. Austral Ecology 28(2): 99-107. [RibeirCoFe2003]
Notes: In this work, we investigated the spatial distribution of two sessile insect herbivores over the entire range of their host plant, Coccoloba cereifera a sclerophyllous shrub endemic to Serra do Cipo, Brazil. The two insects have very distinct life histories and dispersal behaviours and we hypothesized that their classification into behavioural syndromes could be used to predict their spatial distribution patterns. Abgrallaspis cyanophylli (Homoptera) is an armoured scale insect that fits well into the eruptive syndrome. Stenapion aff. contrarium (Coleoptera) is a petiole borer with wide search capabilities, which fits into the latent syndrome. We expected that Abgrallaspis would follow the host plant aggregation pattern whereas Stenapion would be distributed more uniformly through the region and be less affected by host aggregation. We counted the number of attacked and non-attacked ramets within two perpendicular belt transects as well as within a 20 m x 20 m quadrat placed over a dense shrub aggregation. Local quadrat covariance methods were used to estimate the spatial pattern of each insect. At fine scales, we found Stenapion evenly distributed over the host plant and Abgrallaspis with a significantly aggregated pattern. This finding is in accordance with our hypothesis. At larger scales, however, this pattern was lost and the results were largely variable. We conclude that the classification of insects into behavioural syndromes may be useful to predict distribution patterns at fine scales. At larger scales, however, history and chance events may be more important.

Richard, A., Rivière, C., Ryckewaert, P., Come, B. & Quilici, S. 2003. [A new pest on vanilla plantations in Reunion Island, the vanilla scale, Conchaspis angraeci. (In French; Summary In English). Phytoma No. 562: 36-39. [RicharRiRy2003]
Notes: This widespread species has caused serious damage in Reunion on vanilla over the past three years. Distribution on the island, life cycle, host plants and natural enemies are reviewed in this paper.

Robles Martínez, A. 2002. [Response of the cochineal (Dactylopius coccus Costa) to different forms of prickly pear.] Respuesta de la grana cochinilla (Dactylopius coccus Costa) a diferentes formas de nopal. (In Spanish). 85-87 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 p. [Robles2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] The experiment described in this paper seeks to identify the most appropriate variety of prickly pear for cultivating cochineal.

Rodrigo, E. & Garcia-Marí, F. 2003. The process of colonization of growing citrus fruits by three diaspidid species. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): 107. [RodrigGa2003]
Notes: [Integrated control in citrus fruit crops. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002. Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.) Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP), Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.)] The process of invasion of the fruit surface by three species of armoured scale insects (Lepidosaphes beckii, Parlatoria pergandii and Aonidiella aurantii), was studied in citrus orchards in València, Spain. By means of sticky tape traps located around the branches, three moments of intense crawler migration were detected throughout the year. The circulation of crawlers increased over the year and they moved preferentially outwards in the tree canopy. The three species invaded the fruits continuously during the period of fruit growing, starting at a very early stage of fruit development by crawlers of the first generation. Differences were observed in settling and fruit invasion behaviour between the three species. First generation crawlers of L. beckii and P. pergandii tended to settle under the fruit calyx, but not A. aurantii. During the second generation, most scales of A. aurantii originated from the reproduction of females already settled on the fruit, while L. beckii and P. pergandii came preferentially from other tree substrates or from females settled under the fruit calyx.

Rodriguez, L.C. & Pascual, U. 2004. Land clearance and social capital in mountain agro-ecosystems: the case of Opuntia scrubland in Ayacucho, Peru. Ecological Economics (Amsterdam) 49(2): 243-252. [RodrigPa2004]
Notes: Opuntia scrublands are important ecological-economic systems in rural Andean areas. They provide goods for peasants' diet and animal feed, as well as cochineal insects, a highly valued source of dyes. Land clearance on these scrublands promotes changes in land use, from nonproductive wilderness to cochineal and fruit harvest areas, grazing lands, and fuel-wood supply zones. Here we empirically explore the role of social capital on land clearance, based on a case study of the Humanga region of Ayacucho, Peru. The literature on social capital is showing evidence of the positive effect of social capital on development actions and on environmental conservation in rural areas of developing countries such as participatory forest management. Here, the notion of social capital is captured by the idea that some features of social organization, such as networks, facilitate coordination and cooperation within the peasant communities that help in managing different economic activities, both on- and off-farm. The habilitation of the scrublands in the Andean mountain environment could be generating negative externalities as a consequence of altering the vegetation cover such as soil erosion. Because the benefits arising from land clearance activities are obtained by cochineal collecting households and the negative environmental effects are costs imposed upon noncochineal collectors, the social capital associated with scrubland habilitation could be perverse from an agro-environmental viewpoint and a revision of some government policies and of some NGOs actions for rural development through the promotion of various community networks in this deprived area could be needed.

Rodríguez Fuentes, A. 2002. [Preliminary experience in the cultivation of cochineal (Dactylopius coccus) in Cuba.] Experiencia preliminar en el cultivo de grana (Dactylopius coccus) en Cuba. (In Spanish). 88 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 p. [Rodrig2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This abstract discusses the examination of cochineal for the purpose of reintroducing it into Cuba.

Rohe, W. & Maschwitz, U. 2003. Carton nest building and trophobiont manipulation in the south-east Asian ant Dolichoderus sulcaticeps (Mayr 1870) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Journal of Natural History 37(23): 2835-2848. [RoheMa2003]
Notes: Dolichoderus sulcaticeps, a rare canopy living dolichoderine ant, was studied in the rainforest of Malaysia. It forms large polycalyc colonies comprising partial nests on trees and climbers. The three dimensional multichambered partial nests are situated on the leaf underside. Fibrous nest material is gathered from the surface of the nesting plants and soaked with water from the plant surface. Building activity, therefore, is strictly dependent on the presence of rainfall or dew. Within the cell with plant leaf surface contact, as well as on free feeding sites, non specific coccid and membracid throphobionts, are tended. Free feeding sites are permanently protected. Mealybugs are transported between existing and new free feeding sites, as well as to and from nest pavilions, especially during their construction or destruction. Prey hunting has not been observed in D. sulcaticeps. The workers, however, recruit to offered dead prey, and scavenged. During the day they were permanently on the surface of plants around their nests and feeding sites.

Rojas Ayala, G., Guillén Velásquez, N. & Moises Salas, M. 2002. [Biological control of the "queresa de la tuna" (Diaspis echinocactus (echinocacti?) Bouche) by means of Aphytis lepidosaphes (Opuntia ficus indica Miller) in the valley of Cañete 2000-2001.] (In Spanish). 89 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 pp. [RojasAGuMo2002]
Notes: [Original title of paper: Control biológico de la "Queresa de la tuna" (Diaspis echinocactis (echinocacti? Bouche) mediante Aphytis lepidosaphes (Opuntia ficus indica Miller) en el Valle de Cañete 2000-2001. Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This abstract reports on an experiment to determine the biological cycle and some morphological aspects of Diaspis echinocacti.

Roque-Albelo, L. 2003. Population decline of Galapagos endemic Lepidoptera on Volcán Alcedo (Isabela Island, Galapagos Islands, Ecuador): an effect of the introduction of the cottony cushion scale? (In English; Summary In French). Bulletin de l'Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, Entomologie 73: 177-180. [RoqueA2003]
Notes: By eliminating its food plant, Darwiniothamnus tenuifolius, the cottony cushion scale, Icerya purchasi (Insecta, Homoptera, Margarodidae), may have extirpated three Lepidoptera species (i.e. Semiothisa cerussata, Platyptilia vilema and Tebenna galapagoensis) from the east slope of Volcán Alcedo, Isabela Island, Galapagos Archipelago, Ecuador.

Rothwangl, K.B., Cloyd, R.A. & Wiedenmann, R.N. 2004. Effects of insect growth regulators on citrus mealybug parasitoid Leptomastix dactylopii (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 97(4): 1239-1244. [RothwaClWi2004]
Notes: In this study, we measured the effects of three commonly used insecticides classified as insect growth regulators, on the encyrtid parasitoid Leptomastix dactylopii (Howard) when parasitizing citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso). Kinoprene, pyriproxyfen, and azadirachtin were evaluated in both petri dish and a cage experiment at label-recommended rates to measure their effects on the mortality, parasitization rate, and sex ratio of L. dactylopii. Insecticides were applied to petri dishes and plants either immediately before, 24 h before, or 48 h before release of the parasitoid. Kinoprene applied 24 h before parasitoid release caused 100% mortality of L. dactylopii in petri dishes within 48 h. Mortality rates for L. dactylopii exposed to azadirachtin and pyriproxyfen did not exceed 5% regardless of release time. There were no release time x insecticide interactions on L. dactylopii parasitization rate. The insecticide alone, however, did significantly affect parasitization rates of L. dactylopii on P. citri; the kinoprene treatment significantly reduced L. dactylopii parasitization rates compared with azadirachtin and pyriproxyfen. In a cage experiment with coleus, Solenostemon scutellarioides (L.) Codd, applications of both pyriproxyfen and kinoprene resulted in fewer P. citri parasitized by L. dactylopii than azadirachtin or the control. The sex ratio was equivalent in the petri dish experiment, whereas in the cage experiment the sex ratio was biased toward males, particularly for the kinoprene treatment. Based on the results from this study, we suggest that kinoprene is not compatible with releases of L. dactylopii to control citrus mealybugs.

Saboori, A., Hosseini, M. & Hatami, B. 2003. Preference of adults of Allothrombium pulvinum Ewing (Acari: Trombidiidae) for eggs of Planococcus citri (Risso) and Pulvinaria aurantii Cockerell on citrus leaves in the laboratory. Systematic and Applied Acarology 8: 49-54. [SaboorHoHa2003]
Notes: The adults of A. pulvinum have a wide range of prey. Herein, we determine the prey range of these adults and report eggs of Planococcus citri and Pulvinaria aurantii [Chloropulvinaria aurantii] as new prey for adults of this mite in northern Iran. We examined the preference of A. pulvinum for eggs of Planococcus citri and Pulvinaria aurantii in no-choice and two-choice tests. The experiments were conducted on sour orange (Citrus aurantium) leaf discs over a 24-h period at 26 plus or minus 1 deg C, 75.5% RH and a 12:12-h light:dark photoperiod. The predatory mite preferred Planococcus citri eggs over Pulvinaria aurantii eggs (P<0.05), and the mean number of eggs consumed by adults of A. pulvinum in the two-choice test was higher than that in the no-choice test. The potential of A. pulvinum as a biological control agent against these two important citrus pests from that region is discussed.

Sadof, C.S. 2002. Scale insects on shade trees and shrubs. Ornamentals and Turf (Cooperative Extension Service, Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service) E-29-W: 6 pp. rev. [Sadof2002]
Notes: [http://www.entm.purdue.edu/Entomology/ext/targets/e-series/EseriesPDF/E-29.pdf] Information on general scale life cycle, control measures, illustrations and tables are provided. Species covered include Asterolecanium variolosum, Carulaspis juniperi, Chionaspis furfura, C. heterophyllae, C. pinifoliae, Gossyparia spuria, Lepidosaphes ulmi, L. yanangicola, Melanaspis obscura, Neolecanium cornuparvum, Parthenolecanium fletcheri, Pulvinaria innumerabilis, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus, Toumeyella liriodendri, T. parvicornus and Unaspis euonymi.

Sadof, C.S., Neal, J.J. & Cloyd, R.A. 2003. Effect of variegation on stem exudates of coleus and life history characteristics of citrus mealybug (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). Environmental Entomology 32(3): 463-469. [SadofNeCl2003]
Notes: Both defensive and nutritional hypotheses have been used to explain the improved performance of sucking insects on variegated plants. With portions of leaves unable to photosynthesize, variegated plants are likely to have less carbon assimilate to allocate to the production of defensive compounds than green plants. Alternatively, like plants grown in the shade, improved response of sucking insects on variegated plants may be caused by greater mobility of amino acid nitrogen and carbohydrates in the phloem to fuel compensatory production of leaves. We examined amino acid and sucrose content of stem exudate collected from red-variegated, yellow-variegated, and green-leafed coleus plants, Solenostemon scutellarioides (L.) Codd, and their relation to life history characteristics of citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso), to test these defensive and nutritional hypotheses. Although higher concentrations of both total amino acids and sucrose were found in green- and red-leaved plants, these quantitative measures were uncorrelated with life history parameters of mealybugs. In contrast, our analysis of qualitative measures of amino acid composition supported both defensive and nutritional hypotheses. Green-leafed plants had the greatest levels of shikimic acid precursors and lowest levels of other nonessential amino acids. Life history characteristics of citrus mealybugs were correlated negatively with increasing proportions of shikimic acid precursors and positively with increasing proportions of other nonessential amino acids. Thus, our studies of life history and stem chemistry indicate that improved suitability of variegated plants is consistent with both carbon- and nutrient-based theories of plant defence.

Salisbury, A. & Booth, R.G. 2004. Rodolia cardinalis (Mulsant), the Vedalia ladybird (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) feeding on Icerya purchasi Maskell, cottony cushion scale (Hemiptera: Margarodidae) in London's gardens. British Journal of Entomology and Natural History 17(2): 103-104. [SalisbBo2004]
Notes: The Vedalia ladybird Rodolia cardinalis (Mulsant), a cosmopolitan species native to Australia, is reported from two locations in London for the first time. Its continued presence will depend to a great extent on the survival of its prey, the recently established scale Icerya purchasi Maskell.

Sams, C.E. & Deyton, D.E. 2002. Botanical and fish oils: history, chemistry, refining, formulation and current uses. 19-28 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [SamsDe2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Chemical control of Aspidiotus destructor, Mesolecanium nigrofasciatum and Quadraspidiotus perniciosus is mentioned.

Sands, D.P.A. & Van Driesche, R.G. 2003. Host range testing techniques for parasitoids. 41-53 In: Van Dreische, R.G. (Ed.), First International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA-Forest Service FHTET-03-05, Washington, D.C.. 573 pp. [SandsVa2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, January 14-18, 2002] This paper provides information on the host range of parasitoids and predators intended for use as biological control agents. Hosts discussed include Aonidiella aurantii, Aspidiotus nerii, Ceroplastes destructor and C. sinensis.

Satyanarayana, C., Babu, R.K.Y. & Manjunatha, M. 2003. Preliminary studies on botanicals against Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green). Insect Environment 9(3): 114-115. [SatyanBaMa2003]
Notes: The efficacy of the extracts (5%) of Ocimum canum [O. americanum] leaf, Clerodendron inerme [Clerodendrum inerme] leaf, Rauwolfia serpentina [Rauvolfia serpentina] leaf, Parthenium hysterophorus flower, Azadirachta indica seed, Curcuma longa root, Brassica juncea seed, Piper nigrum seed and Eucalyptus citriodora leaf in comparison with 0.05% phosphamidon (30 ml) was investigated against M. hirsutus. Observations on mortality were recorded at 6, 12, 24 and 36 h after the treatment (spraying of 30 ml of the 5% extracts prepared). Phosphamidon was significantly superior over the rest of the treatments, recording 80.00% mortality. Among the extracts, the highest percentage (68.50%) mortality was recorded from A. indica and the lowest (29.00%) from E. citridiora. The graded impact of the botanicals was confirmed by the observations made on the growth and development of M. hirsutus after the imposition of the treatments. The highest percentage (49.00%) of individuals that completed metamorphosis was recorded with E. citriodora treatment, followed by Curcuma longa treatment (39.60%). However, the growth and development of the insect was not observed with O. canum, Clerodendron inerme, R. serpentina, A. indica and phosphamidon treatments.

Schlick-Steiner, B.C., Steiner, F.M., Schodl, S. & Seifert, B. 2003. Lasius austriacus sp.n., a central European ant related to the invasive species Lasius neglectus. Sociobiology 41(3): 725-736. [SchlicStSc2003]
Notes: Lasius austriacus sp.n., a xerothermophilic ant with mainly subterranean life habits, is described. L. austriacus was found to be associated with the grass mealybug Euripersia europaea Newstead 1897.

Schmutterer, H. 2002. [Additional first German records of scale insects and description of Spinococcus kozari n. sp. (Coccina).] Weitere Erstnachweise von Schildlausarten in Deutschland und Beschreibung von Spinococcus kozari n. sp. (Coccina). (In German; Summary In English). Entomologische Nachrichten und Berichte 46(4): 239-241. [Schmut2002]
Notes: Seven species of scale insects, including an eriococcid and six pseudococcids, were recorded in Germany for the first time. A new species, Spinococcus kozari sp. nov., was found on Geranium sanguineum, whereas all other species feed on grasses, mainly under the leaf sheaths. Two species, Phenacoccus hordei and Trionymus phalaridis [Pseudococcus phalaridis], were already collected during the fifties but identified only now. Considering the seven species recorded for the first time and the new species, the number of outdoor German scale insect species has risen to 145.

Schmutterer, H. & Hoffmann, C. 2003. [On the scale insects of Baden-Wuerttemberg and neighbouring areas (Coccina).] Zur Schildlausfauna von Baden-Wuerttemberg und benachbarten Gebieten (Coccina). (In German). Entomologische Nachrichten und Berichte 47(1): 13-17. [SchmutHo2003]
Notes: 64 species of scale insects were collected during several excursions in the federal state of Baden-Wuerttemberg and in adjacent areas of Switzerland, Austria, Bavaria and France. Three species were new for the German fauna. Numerous species were collected in the region of the Kaiserstuhl, which is the warmest part of Germany.

Schneider, N. & Tanson, S. 2003. [The Pulvinaria of Luxembourg (Hemiptera, Coccidae).] Les cochenilles pulvinaires (Hemiptera, Coccidae) du Luxembourg. (In French). Bulletin de la Société des Naturalistes Luxembourgeois (103): 87-92. [SchneiTa2003]
Notes: Pulvinaria vitis (L.) is the only indigenous species of the scale genus Pulvinaria. Recently, P. floccifera (Westwood), P. hydrangeae (Steinweden) and P. regalis Canard invaded the country and became established without problems.

Schowalter, T.D. & Ganio, L.M. 2003. Diel, seasonal and disturbance-induced variation in invertebrate assemblages. 315-328 In: Basset, T.D., Kitching, R., Miller, S. & Novotny, V. (Eds.), Arthropods of Tropical Forests: Spatio-temporal Dynamics and Resource use in the Canopy. Cambridge University Press, . 490 pp. [SchowaGa2003]
Notes: Canopy invertebrates are a diverse group in forest ecosystems. They represent important food resources for other animals, and they can alter canopy structure and, therefore, canopy atmosphere and canopy-forest floor interactions. Accordingly, factors that influence spatial and temporal patterns in the structure of invertebrate assemblages and herbivory are important in the understanding of ecosystem structure and function. We sampled canopy invertebrate assemblages and leaf area missing (LAM) on representative early and late successional tree species, during day and night, in wet and dry seasons, and in plots representing light and severe hurricane disturbance at the Luquillo Experimental Forest Long Term Ecological Research Programme site in Puerto Rico, and during wet and dry seasons at the Fort Sherman Canopy Crane site in Panama. We expected to find significant variation in canopy invertebrate abundances and assemblage structure among tree species and between diel, seasonal and annual sampling periods. Many species and functional groups showed the expected differences in abundance among tree species, reflecting feeding preferences. Contrary to our hypothesis, no species showed significant diel or seasonal patterns of abundance, although LAM showed significant seasonal and annual variation. Significant interaction among tree species and years was observed for four of five Coccoidea analysed (Ceroplastes rubens, Coccus acutissimus, Protopulvinaria pyriformis and Vinsonia stellata (stellifera)), for combined Coccoidea, a mirid (Itacoris) species, and for three of four functional groups (sap suckers, predators and detritivores) analysed, primarily reflecting disturbances by hurricane or drought. The fifth species of coccoid (a pseudococcid species) was significantly affected by tree species. A species of Tropiduchidae (Ladella stali), combined Lepidoptera and the folivore functional group approached significant responses. In particular, the sap-sucker functional group and individual species of Coccoidea and Itacoris were most abundant following hurricanes (1991 and 1999). However, some species of Homoptera showed opposite responses to changes in environmental conditions. The detritivore functional group (primarily Psocoptera and Blattidae) was most abundant during the drought period (1994-95). Predators were more abundant following hurricanes or during drought, reflecting elevated prey availability. Data on the responses of assemblages of canopy invertebrates to temporal variation in environmental conditions are necessary to predict effects of environmental changes on canopy communities and consequent effects on ecosystem structure and function.

Schroeder, T. & Richter, E. 2003. The horse chestnut scale insect Pulvinaria regalis Canard, 1968 (Homoptera, Coccidae): A new pest on urban trees in Braunschweig, Lower Saxony, Germany. (In German). Braunschweiger Naturkundliche Schriften 6(4): 803-812. [SchroeRi2003]
Notes: Since its first observation in England in the 1960s the introduced horse chestnut scale insect Pulvinaria regalis has spread over Europe. Until now, it was observed in the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Switzerland and at least in Ireland. In Germany P. regalis appeared first in the north Rhine region in 1989. Since that time it spread to the south and north of Germany and was observed in Braunschweig in 2002 on single lime trees (Tilia sp.). During a first survey in July 2003 in the urban center of Braunschweig P. regalis was found on trees of Tilia, Acer, and Aesculus hippocastanum. P. regalis is univoltine with an enormous reproductive capacity. The first larval stage spreads with the wind to new host trees. The host spectrum of this polyphagus species covers trees of 24 families. These facts explain its tremendous rate of spreading. Until now, there is not enough information about long-term effects of infestation and the necessity of control measures. But since the female adults pollute the trunks and main branches with the white waxy wool of their egg sacks they at least reduce the ornamental value. Control methods with native antagonists are under investigation at the moment.

Schulthess, F., Chabi-Olaye, A. & Gounou, S. 2004. Multi-trophic level interactions in a cassava-maize mixed cropping system in the humid tropics of West Africa. Bulletin of Entomological Research 94(3): 261-272. [SchultChGo2004]
Notes: Multi-trophic level interactions in a mixed crop, involving cassava and maize, were studied in derived-savanna in Benin, West Africa. Two trials were planted, one during the short rainy season two months before onset of the dry season and one during the long rainy season in spring. Key pests under study on maize were the noctuid Sesamia calamistis Hampson and the pyralids Eldana saccharina Walker and Mussidia nigrivenella Ragonot, and on cassava, the exotic mealybug, Phenacoccus manihoti Matile-Ferrero and its encyrtid parasitoid Apoanagyrus lopezi De Santis. Both crops received insecticide treatments to assess the crop loss by a pest species. For cassava, cropping system had no effect on parasitism by A. lopezi.

Schweizer, H., Luck, R.F. & Morse, J.G. 2003. Augmentative releases of Metaphycus sp. nr. flavus against citricola scale on oranges in the San Joaquin Valley of California: Are early releases better than late ones? Journal of Economic Entomology 96(5): 1375-1387. [SchweiLuMo2003]
Notes: We conducted an augmentative release trial with the encyrtid parasitoid Metaphycus sp. nr. flavus (Howard) against citricola scale, Coccus pseudomagnoliarum (Kuwana), in three citrus orchards in the San Joaquin Valley of California. Three parasitoid release timings (14 October-13 November, 4 January-5 February, and 26 February-16 March; hereinafter "early," "intermediate," and "late") were compared with a no-release check. Approximately 2,400 female parasitoids were released per central release tree. Late releases were associated with reduced scale survival on the release trees but no evidence of scale suppression was found on adjacent trees. Early and intermediate releases resulted in less pronounced scale suppression than late releases. Intermediate and late, but not early, releases were associated with an increase in the numbers of recovered female M. sp. nr flavus. Early releases, however, increased the numbers of recovered male Metaphycus spp. Thus, at the time of early releases, the scales may have been too small for the production of female parasitoids. A multiple regression model relating the degree of scale mortality in one orchard to the levels of recovered female Metaphycus helvolus (Compere), M. sp. nr. flavus, or M. luteolus (Timberlake) (these latter two species are morphologically indistinguishable), and Coccophagus spp., suggested that the number of Coccophagus spp. females followed by M. helvolus females, were most strongly associated with scale mortality.

Schweizer, H., Morse, J.G. & Luck, R.F. 2003. Evaluation of Metaphycus spp. for suppression of black scale (Homoptera: Coccidae) on southern California citrus. Environmental Entomology 32(2): 377-386. [SchweiMoLu2003]
Notes: We compared the performance of three Metaphycus spp, (Hymenoptera: Eneyrtidae) as potential biological control agents of black scale, Saissetia oleae (Olivier), on southern California citrus. Metaphycus sp. nr. flavus (Howard) Metaphycus helvolus (Compere), and Metaphycus luteolus (Timberlake) were released into sleeve cages covering black scale infested citrus branches. As indicators of biological control, we assessed scale survival and the percentage of scales parasitized by Metaphycus spp. Three release timings were evaluated (11 November, 24 December, and 28 Feburary), For each release date, terminals, were retrieved on three occasions (0.5-1 mo after release, 1.5-2.5 mo after release, and immediately before female scales began reproducing, i.e., mid-May to mid-june). Only M. sp. nr. flavus significantly reduced black scale survival and increased parasitism rates compared with background levels. Metaphycus helvolus showed a tendency to reduce scale survival, although no effect of M. luteolus was evident. To further evaluate M. sp. nr. flavus, an open-field release experiment was performed. An excess of 2,700 female parasitoids per tree, released over a period from January to April, significantly reduced black scale survival and increased parasitism on the trees where the parasitoids were liberated. A tendency of increased scale parasitism on trees adjacent to release trees was observed, but no effect on scale survival was evident. Given our results, and considering that M. sp. nr. flavus can be reared on brown soft scale, Coccus hesperidum L., which is easier to rear than black scale, the required host for M. helvolous, developing M. sp. nr. flavus as an augmentatively released biological control agent against black scale may result in more economic biological control than is the case with the currently released M. helvolus.

Seepersad, J., Ganpat, W. & Zijp, W. 2002. Trinidad & Tobago: contracting for extension communications services -- the Hibiscus Mealy Bug information campaign. 99-103 In: Rivera, W.M. (Ed.), Contracting for agricultural extenison: international case studies and emerging practices. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. [SeeperGaZi2002]
Notes: This chapter discusses the experiences of the Ministry of Agriculture in Trinidad and Tobago using commercial mass media agencies to produce and disseminate extension messages on the identification and control of the Pink Hibiscus Mealy Bug. The impact, sustainability, and replicability of the extension arrangement are discussed, as well as the lessons learned from the case.

Sengonca, C. 2002. Conservation of natural enemies. 141-143 In: Pimentel, D. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Pest Management. Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York. 929 pp. [Sengon2002]
Notes: Saissetia oleae is among the species mentioned as controllable by biological control agents.

Sengonca, C. & Arnold, C. 2003. Development, predation and reproduction by Exochomus quadri-pustulatus L. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) as predator of Pulvinaria regalis Canard (Homoptera: Coccidae) and its coincidence with the prey in the field. Zeitschrift für Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz 110(3): 250-262. [SengonAr2003]
Notes: The present study aimed to investigate the development, predation and reproduction of Exochomus quadripustulatus L. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) at alternating temperatures of 9/19 +/- 1 degreesC and 12/24 +/- 1 degreesC as well as constant 25 +/- 1 degreesC, feeding exclusively on eggs and nymphs of Pulvinaria regalis Canard (Homoptera: Coccidae). Additionally, its coincidence with the prey in the city of Bonn was examined in 1995 and 1997, respectively. In the laboratory, the mean developmental duration of E. quadripustulatus decreased significantly at increasing temperatures. It was 57.1 days at 9/19 degreesC and 44.7 days at 12/24 degreesC as well as 28.3 days at 25 degreesC. The total number of P. regalis eggs consumed by E. quadripustulatus larvae decreased significantly with increasing temperatures. Hibernating E. quadripustulatus female consumed 10. 13 mg of biomass in the form of P. regalis nymphs at 9/19 degreesC and 9.69 mg at 12/24 degreesC, respectively. E. quadripustulatus adapted its life cycle to the climatically induced postponement in the development of P. regalis observed in 1997. Due to the very good predation of larvae and adult E. quadripustulatus on P. regalis, the sufficient reproduction of P. quadripustulatus while feeding exclusively on P. regalis and the coincidence with the prey observed on amenity trees in the city of Bonn, E. quadripustulatus has to be considered as a promising predator of P. regalis.

Sentenac, G. & Kuntzmann, P. 2003. [Study of scale insects and their antagonists associated with vineyards in Bourgogne and Alsace during 2000 to 2002.] (In French). Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(8): 247-252. [SentenKu2003]
Notes: [Original title: Étude des Cochenilles et des antagonistes qui leur sont associés dans des vignobles en Bourgogne et en Alsace de 2000 a 2002. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group: Integrated Protection and Production in Viticulture held in Volos, Greece, 18-22 March, 2003, C. Lozzia (Ed.)] The natural enemies of the coccids Parthenolecanium corni and Pulvinaria vitis were studied in vineyards in Bourgogne and Alsace (France), and the pseudococcids Phenacoccus aceris in Alsace and Heliococcus bohemicus in Bourgogne. A total of 23 species of primary and secondary parasitoids were collected during 2000-02. The main parasitoids of H. bohemicus were Leptomastidea bifasciata, Anagyrus szodensis and Ericydnus sipylus, while Anagyrus schoenherri was the main parasitoid of P. aceris. Metaphycus insidiosus was the main parasitoid of P. corni. General predators were also observed.

Sether, D.M. 2002. Pineapple mealybug wilt-associated viruses: Vectors, impacts, and dynamics. University of Hawaii, . 182 pp. [Sether2002]
Notes: [Ph.D. Thesis; John S. Hu, Advisor.] Mealybug wilt of pineapple (MWP) is a devastating disease worldwide, the etiology of which is unknown. Two closteroviruses, Pineapple mealybug wilt associated virus-1 (PMWaV-1) and PMWaV-2, were identified in pineapple from Hawaii and around the world. Both viruses are transmitted by pink pineapple mealybugs, Dysmicoccus brevipes, and grey pineapple mealybugs, D. neobrevipes. PMWaV-2 was shown to be an integral factor in MWP etiology. Typical MWP symptoms developed in pineapple plants infected with PMWaV-2 that were exposed to mealybugs. MWP did not develop in PMWaV-1-free or PMWaV-l-infected plants that were exposed to mealybugs or in plants infected with PMWaV-1, PMWaV-2, or both viruses if kept mealybug-free. MWP resulted in a 35% reduction in yield when compared to yields of PMWaV-free plants. Yield reductions were dependent on time of MWP symptom development; the earlier the expression of symptoms the greater the impact on plant crop fruit yield. Both PMWaV-1 and PMWaV-2 suppressed yield in the ratoon crop. Spatial analysis of PMWaV-2 spread and MWP symptom expression in mealybug-inoculated pineapple plots showed patterns of aggregation within rows and within beds but not between beds. Initial occurrence of MWP symptomatic plants showed underdispersed which was consistent with the random occurrence of PMWaV-2 plants. After six months of mealybug exposure, patterns of both PMWaV-2 incidence and MWP were overdispersed. PMWaV-1 and PMWaV-2 were detected in MWP symptomatic and healthy looking pineapple samples from around the world but PMWaV-2 infection was correlated with 100% of the MWP symptomatic samples that were PNIWaV-1-free. PMWaV-2 infection occurs at a lower frequency than PMWaV-1 infection in the Hawaiian grown pineapple selections and several hybrids. Infections of at least one PMWaV were found in 73% of the pineapple accessions maintained at the USDA-ARS National Clonal Germplasm Repository in Hilo, HI. No plants commonly found growing near or in pineapple fields were identified as hosts for PMWaV-1 and no pineapple germplasm was immune to PMWaV-1. PMWaV-1 was eliminated through bud propagation from infected crowns.

Sforza, R., Boudon-Padieu, E. & Greif, C. 2003. New mealybug species vectoring Grapevine leafroll-associated viruses-1 and-3 (GLRaV-1 and-3). European Journal of Plant Pathology 109(9): 975-981. [SforzaBoGr2003]
Notes: Many grape viruses, such as filamentous Grapevine leafroll-associated viruses in the Closteroviridae family, are spread primarily through infected propagating material. However, there is increasing evidence that leafroll disease is spread in the field by insect vectors, namely mealybugs and other scale insects. This study was carried out in the northern wine-growing regions of France where Grapevine leafroll-associated virus-1 and -3 (GLRaV-1 and -3) are the most widespread grape Ampelovirus species. The vineyards were inspected for presence of mealybug and scale insects and grapes infected by GLRaV-1 and -3. Mealybugs, Heliococcus bohemicus, Phenacoccus aceris (Pseudococcidae) and the soft scale insect Parthenolecanium corni (Coccidae), were capable of a transmission efficiency of 14%, 23% and 29% respectively. GLRaV-1 and -3 infections that resulted from virus transmission were confirmed with DAS-ELISA using polyclonal antibodies. This is the first report of GLRaV-1 and -3 transmission by mealybug and coccid species in France, and the first report of the ability of H. bohemicus and Phenacoccus aceris to transmit these viruses to grapevines. The relevance of these findings with regards to maintenance of virus-free grapevine stocks and to control leafroll spread in commercial vineyards is discussed.

Shaaban, A.R., Hafez, A.A. & Badary, H. 2003. Survey and dynamics of natural enemies of the Mediterranean black scale, Saissetia oleae (Homoptera: Coccidae) in Egypt. (In English; Summary In Arabic). Egyptian Journal of Agricultural Research 81(1): 113-123. [ShaabaHaBa2003]
Notes: Twenty-nine natural enemies (11 parasitoids and 18 predators) of the Mediterranean black scale (Saissetia oleae) were recorded in a survey conducted in Egypt during 1998-2000. The population dynamics of the five hymenopterous parasitoids, i.e. Metaphycus bartletti, M. flavus, Microterys flavus [M. nietneri], Diversinervus elegans and Scutellista cyanea [S. caerulea], were studied in a Northern Coast site during 1998-99 and 1999-2000. Metaphycus bartletti was the most effective parasitoid of Saissetia oleae on olive trees with maximum rates of parasitism of 23.0 and 24.5% during 1998-99 and 1999-2000, respectively. The population dynamics of 6 predators were studied at the same site. Two peaks were recorded annually for Chilocorus bipustulatus, Chrysoperla carnea, Coccinella undecimpunctata, Orius sp., and Scymnus syriacus. Exochomus flavipes and Orius sp. were recorded at low populations throughout the study.

Shen, J., Lou, B.G., Jin, G.L., Sun, S.S. & Gao, Q.K. 2003. Experiment on control of Matsucoccus matsumurae by several insecticides. (In Chinese; Summary In English). Journal of Zhejiang Forestry Science and Technology 23(2): 27-28. [ShenLoJi2003]
Notes: The efficacy of imidacloprid, abamectin, supracide and omethoate in controlling M. matsumurae were determined. The highest control of the pest was achieved with the application of imidacloprid followed by abamectin.

Shi, L. & Chen, X.M. 2003. [Study on experimental population of cochineal insect (D. confusus (Cockerell))] (In Chinese). Forest Research 16(3): 254-261. [ShiCh2003]
Notes: A study on the population dynamics of cochineal insect (Dactylopius confusus) in the lab is carried out by using artificial climate cases. The method is to set 8 kinds of combinations of temperature, humidity and light according to orthogonal design and then establish the life tables of the insect. The temperature has four levels: 15, 20, 25degreeC, and 30degreeC, and the relative humidity has two levels: 60% and 80%, while the light also has two levels: 980 lx and 60 lx. Through observations and analysis of several generations, the results indicate that the cochineal insect cannot finish generations under 15degreeC associated conditions, while at associated conditions of temperatures 20, 25, 30degreeC, the insect can finish generations, but comparing from the amount of eggs, generation inclination indexes and the sizes of the female adults, 25degreeC associated conditions are the best. The results also indicate that average hatching percentage of egg is about 50 and the survival percentage is probably 70 at 20apprx30degreeC, and that the number of females is more than that of the males in the cochineal populations, environmental factors have large effect on the sex ratio of the cochineal insect and the generation inclination index usually surpasses 20. The development starting point temperature of the insect is 9.0degreeC, and effective accumulated temperature of one generation is 822.9 day-degrees. The results of multifactor analysis of variance show that temperature is the most remarkable factor to affect development of the insect.

Shin, H.C., Lee, S.M., Lee, K.S. & Kim, Y.K. 2003. Analysis on the recovering and damage caused by Matsucoccus thunbergianae in Pinus thunbergii stand. KFRI Journal of Forest Science (Seoul) 66: 1-10. [ShinLeLe2003]
Notes: This study was carried out to analyse the effective management plan through a comparative analysis of stand structure between recovering and previously damaged areas in a young forest, dominated by Pinus thunbergii, damaged by Matsucoccus thunbergianae. Results revealed severe damage of the young forest in terms of height and diameter at breast height of damaged young trees. It is thus recommended to thin young forests for prevention and remediation, and for the effective management of M. thunbergianae. After clear felling of the southern and northern slope in the P. thunbergii stand, the seedlings were more abundant in the former than in the latter. Native species, Pinus thunbergii, Quercus variabilis and Q. serrata, showed better growth rates in terms of tree height and diameter at butt section than the Chamaecyparis obtusa plantation. The results indicate that natural regeneration would be better than artificial forestation for recovering the damaged area in P. thunbergii stands.

Shivankar, V.J. & Rao, C.N. 2002. Studies on selectivity of certain botanicals against Mallada boninensis Okamoto (Chrysopidae: Neuroptera). Indian Journal of Citriculture 1(1): 6-9. [ShivanRa2002]
Notes: The green lacewing, Mallada boninensis is an important predator of citrus insect pests viz., citrus blackfly, psylla, leaf miner, aphids and mealybugs. Ethanol extracts of six locally available plant products (Alpinia galanga, Acorus calamus, Nerium odorum, Vitex negundo, Cymbopogon nordus and Azadirachta indica) were evaluated for their selectivity against the 2nd instar larvae of M. boninensis. The larval mortality of M. boninensis was significantly less in case of Alpinia galanga than other botanicals irrespective of the time lapse after treatment except at 12 HAT. The results revealed that Alpinia galanga and Acorus calamus were safer to M. boninensis larvae as compared to other botanicals tested.

Shrewsbury, P.M., Bejleri, K. & Lea-Cox, J.D. 2004. Integrating cultural management practices and biological control to suppress citrus mealybug. Acta Horticulturae No. 633: 425-434. [ShrewsBeLe2004]
Notes: [Conference: Protected cultivation 2002: in search of structures, systems and plant materials for sustainable greenhouse production, proceedings of the XXVI International Horticultural Congress, Toronto, Canada, 11-17 August, 2002, Papadopoulos, A.P. (Ed.).] The citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), is one of the most common and damaging insect pests in greenhouses and protected cultures. Pesticides are frequently used, often unsuccessfully, to control this pest. Our objective was to determine the influence of water and nutrient management practices on mealybug populations and their impact on the efficacy of augmentative releases of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), a mealybug predator. Studies were conducted on Heuchera micrantha 'Palace Purple' growing in protected culture. Plants received 3 rates of nitrogen: low (25 ppm/week), medium (75 ppm/week), and high (150 ppm/week). Within each fertilizer treatment, plants were either water stressed or not water stressed. In the absence of predators, citrus mealybug populations increased dramatically on water stressed plants receiving high and low levels of fertilizer. C. montrouzieri reduced mealybug populations and consistently had the greatest impact on mealybugs where mealybugs were the most abundant, regardless of fertilizer or water treatment. In the presence of predators, mealybug populations are regulated by predation rather than mealybug interactions with fertilizer or water. This data suggests plant management practices that avoid high or low rates of fertilization of water stressed plants should reduce the outbreak potential of citrus mealybug. If mealybug outbreaks do occur, implementing augmentative biological control with C. montrouzieri should be effective regardless of fertilization and irrigation practices.

Shrivastava, A.K., Srivastava, D.C., Solomon, S., Srivastava, M.K. & Singh, I. 2003. Physiological characters imparting resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses in sugarcane. Sugar Tech 5(3): 105-120. [ShrivaSrSo2003]
Notes: Sugarcane genotypes have been known to possess differential resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses which adversely affect sugarcane and sugar productivity per se. This review is an effort to elucidate physiological characteristics imparting resistance/tolerance to biotic stresses including insect pests (such as Pseudococcidae) and diseases and abiotic stresses such as drought and waterlogging. Certain physiological attributes such as tight leaf sheaths imparted multiple resistance against internode borer, pyrilla and lygaeid bugs; aged canes imparted resistance to mealybugs, eye spot and rust diseases and waterlogged conditions. Similarly, polyphenol oxidase [catechol oxidase] activity related to resistance against red rot and waterlogged conditions. Resistance to certain stresses is also confounded with a number of other morphological or physiological characteristics. These characteristics could be considered as physiological basis for resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and also used as a marker for marker-assisted selection in directed breeding programmes.

Sikora, R.A., Gowen, S., Hauschild & Kiewnick, S. (Eds.) 2004. Proceedings of the IOBC WPRS Working Group 'Multitrophic Interactions in Soil and Integrated Control', 'Thinking in Lines - from Research to Market Products' and 'Biological Mechanisms Affecting Nematode Management'. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 27(1): 302 pp. [SikoraGoHa2004]
Notes: [Conference held in Bad Honnef, Germany, 1-4 June 2003, Einsiedeln, Switzerland, 2-4 November 2000 and Reading, UK, 5-6 September, 2001.] These proceedings contain 48 papers on the multitrophic interactions in soil and integrated control of plant pests and diseases. Papers on bacteriology, mycology, entomology and nematology, as well as those on specific pests and diseases are included. Papers on the biological control of plant pests and diseases by soil microorganisms are included. One paper discusses mealybugs. Effect of soil nutrients on the growth, survival and fecundity of insect pests of rice: an overview and a theory of pest outbreaks with consideration of research approaches (Jahn).

Siles Alvarado, S., Centeno Alvarez, M. & Lopez Serrato, J.R. 2002. [Analytical evaluation of the quantification of carminic acid and the establishment of the optimum temperature for extraction.] Evaluaciones analíticos de cuantificación de ácido carmínico y establecimiento de la temperatura óptima de extracción. (In Spanish). 143-145 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 pp. [SilesACeLo2002]
Notes: Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This paper describes an experiment designed to develop an analythical method for carmine extraction.

Siles Alvarado, S., Centeno Alvarez, M.M., Lopez Serrato, J.R., Cobian Portillo, G. & Flores Alarcón, G. 2002a. [Integral project for the industrial production of cochineal.] Proyecto integral para la producción industrial de grana y carmín. (In Spanish). 146-147 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 pp. [SilesACeLo2002a]
Notes: Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This paper outlines a plan to improve industrial production of cochineal.

Silva A., G., Rodríguez M., J.C. & Bernal, J.S. 2004. [Revision of fundamentals for the management of resistance to insecticides/acaricides in fruit orchards.] Revisión de los fundamentos para el manejo de la resistencia a insecticidas/acaricidas en frutales. (In Spanish). Revista Fruticola 25(1): 27-34. [SilvaARoBe2004]
Notes: An overview is given of the chemical control of arthropod pests in orchards. Insecticide resistance is defined and the management of resistance is outlined. Resistance management strategies include moderation, saturation and multiple attack. The situation of fruit pests in Chile regarding resistance is discussed, with reference to Cydia pomonella (on apples), C. molesta, Myzus persicae, Eriosoma lanigerum, Frankliniella occidentalis, Pseudococcus spp. (on grapes), Tetranychus urticae, Panonychus ulmi and Brevipalpus chilensis. Evaluation of resistance and rational use of pesticides, including effective recommended dosages, persistance, impact on natural enemies, cross resistance, synergists, and mixtures, are discussed. The role of natural enemies resistant to insecticides is also considered.

Silva, R.A. da, Busoli, A.C. & Chagas Filho, N.R. 2004. [Biological aspects of Coccidophilus citricola Brèthes, 1905 (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae).] Aspectos biológicos de Coccidophilus citricola Brèthes, 1905 (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Ciencia Rural 34(3): 667-672. [SilvaBuCh2004]
Notes: The biological development of the predator C. citricola was studied under controlled conditions (24 plus or minus 2 deg C, 70 plus or minus 10% relative humidity, and 12-h photoperiod), with Aspidiotus nerii as prey. The duration and viability of the embryonic period (9.54 days and 78.33%), 1st larval stage (4.22 days and 90.00%); 2nd larval stage (92.85 days and 100.00%), 3rd larval stage (2.94 days and 97.22%), 4th larval stage (3.22 days and 94.29%), final larval phase (13.25 days and 82.50%), pre-pupal period (2.57 days and 100.00%), pupal phase (5.70 days and 100.00%), and larva-adult period (21.53 days and 82.50%) were determined. The pre-oviposition, oviposition and post-oviposition periods lasted 8.20, 73.47 and 8.53 days, respectively. The total number of eggs per female was 114.13 and the number of eggs per female was 1.54 per day. The females lived longer (90.20 days) than the males (974.13 days).

Silva, R.A. da, Guerreiro, J.C., Michelotto, M.D. & Busoli, A.C. 2003. [Development and predation behavior of Coccidophilus citricola Brèthes, 1905 (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) on Aspidiotus nerii Bouché, 1833 (Hemiptera: Diaspididae).] Boletín de Sanidad Vegetal, Plagas 29(1): 9-15. [SilvaGuMi2003]
Notes: [Original title: Desenvolvimento e comportamento de predação de Coccidophilus citricola Brèthes, 1905 (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) sobre Aspidiotus nerii Bouché, 1833 (Hemiptera: Diaspididae).] The objective of this study was to evaluate the development and predation behaviour of C. citricola on A. nerii scale in the laboratory. The mass rearing of C. citricola and A. nerii was accomplished under controlled conditions (at temperature of 24 plus or minus 2 deg C, relative humidity of 70 plus or minus 10% and photophase of 12 h). The mean number of A. nerii (2nd stage) nymphs serving as hosts during the larval phase of C. citricola was 46.38 plus or minus 1.90. In the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th stages, the number of nymphs serving as hosts was 4.94 plus or minus 0.59, 7.0 plus or minus 0.61, 10.69 plus or minus 0.76 and 23.75 plus or minus 1.38, respectively. The mean number of adult scales predated during the larval phase of the coccinellid was 5.25 plus or minus 0.26. More females of C. citricola preyed on A. nerii specimens than the males, the number of host specimens was 3.51 plus or minus 0.38 and 2.05 plus or minus 0.27, respectively. The adults of C. citricola preyed on significantly more nymphs (4.25 plus or minus 0.29) than adults (1.30 plus or minus 0.13) of the scale.

Silva, R.A. da, Michelotto, M.D., Busoli, A.C. & Barbosa, J.C. 2004. [Predation of Diaspididae by Coccidophilus citricola larvae at different temperatures.] Predacao de Diaspididae por larvas de Coccidophilus citricola em diferentes temperaturas. (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Ciencia Rural 34(5): 1321-1325. [SilvaMiBu2004]
Notes: Predation of Aspidiotus nerii, Chrysomphalus aonidum, Selenaspidus articulatus and Parlatoria cinerea by Coccidophilus citricola at 19, 24 and 29 plus or minus 1 deg C was studied. S. articulatus was the most preferred prey at all temperatures. The increase in the temperature reduced predation of Chrysomphalus aonidum nymphs, but increased predation of S. articulatus.

Singh, S.K. 2002. Record of coccid, Ceroplastodes cajani Maskell on pigeon pea in Uttar Pradesh. Insect Environment 8(2): 64. [Singh2002]
Notes: This paper reports the first record of coccid, C. cajani as a pest of pigeon pea in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India. At the Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, field infestation by this insect was 16.5 and 21.00% during 2000-2001 and 2001-2002, respectively. The maximum population of coccid was recorded in November and December. The coccid infestation was characterized by sickly, wilted and dried up plants. Dirty white, hemispherical scales congregated on stems where these insects fed continuously.

[Sixth] International Conference on Pests in Agriculture. 2002. (In French; Summary In English). [Sixth International Conference on Pests in Agriculture. Vol. 1.] Sixième Conférence Internationale sur les Ravageurs en Agriculture. Tome 1. AGRO, Montpellier. [350 pp.] [InternCoPe2002]
Notes: [Conference held 4-6 December, 2002 in Montpellier, France.] Papers include Inventory of scale insects in tropical green houses in France and knowledge of their parasitic Hymenoptera, previous to development of biological control (Germain, Matile-Ferrero, Picart, Delvare & Piron).

Smith, D. & Peña, J.E. 2002. Tropical citrus pests. 57-101 In: Peña, J., Sharp, J. & Wysoki, M. (Eds.), Tropical Fruit Pests and Pollinators: Biology, Economic Importance, Natural Enemies and Control. CABI Publishing, . 448 pp. [SmithPe2002]
Notes: Among the scale pests listed are Aonidiella aurantii, A. citrina, A. orientalis, Aspidiotus neri, Ceroplastes brevicauda, C. cirripediformis, C. destructor, C. floridensis, C. rubens, C. rusci, C. sinensis, Chrysomphalus aonidium, C. dictyospermi, Coccus elongatus, C. hesperidum, C. longulus, C. pseudomagnoliarum, C. viridis, Icerya purchasi, Lepidosaphes beckii, L. gloverii, Nipaecoccus viridis, Orthezia praelonga, Paracoccus burnerae, Parlatoria cinerea, P. pergandi, P. zizyphus, Planococcus citri, Protopulvinaria pyriformis, Pseudococcus calceolarie, P. citri, P. citriculus, P. comstocki, P. cryptus, P. longispinus, P. viburni, Pulvinaria aethiopica, P. aurantii, P. polygonata, P. psidii, Saissetia coffeae, S. neglecta, S. nigra, S. oleae, Selenaspidus articulatus, Unaspis citri and U. yanonensis. [Available on the internet at http://www.cabi-publishing.org/Bookshop/Readingroom/0851994342/0851994342Ch3.pdf on September 2003.]

Soika, G. & Labanowski, G. 2003. [Insects occurring on shoots and trunks of ornamental trees and shrubs.] Owady zasiedlajace pnie i pedy drzew i krzewów ozdobnych. (In Polish; Summary In English). Zeszyty Naukowe Instytutu Sadownictwa i Kwiaciarstwa w Skierniewicach 11: 89-97. [SoikaLa2003]
Notes: In Poland during 1995-2002, 14 insect species were found living on shoots and trunks of ornamental trees and shrubs in ornamental nurseries, botanical gardens and urban areas. They were divided into two groups, depending on the kind of damage and the place of feeding: insects boring holes inside trunks and those feeding on shoots and bark of trees. The first group was represented by Cryptorhynchus lapathi, Agrilus sinuatus and Synanthedon formiciformis. In the second group, 11 species of insects were identified: Aphrophora salicina, Gossyparia spuria, Pseudochermes fraxini, Pulvinaria sp., Lepidosaphes ulmi, Parthenolecanium corni, Eulecanium tiliae, Dreyfusia piceae, Pineus strobi, Pterocoma salicis and Plocamaphis brachysiphon.

Soldi, G., Ambrogio, P. & Viara, M. 2003. The hazel nut scale insect and its antagonist. Informatore Agrario 59(16): 72-74. [SoldiAmVi2003]
Notes: From May 1997, weekly surveys were made in hazelnut stands in 7 Italian localities infested with scale insects in order to determine the life cycle. Eulecanium tiliae produces one generation a year, of which the immature females overwinter on buds and twigs before migrating in spring to new shoots where they lay their eggs. These emerge and migrate to the upper leaf surface. The surveys also revealed the presence of Brachytarsus fasciatus, a natural enemy of E. tiliae. The adults emerge in spring and prey on egg-laying scale insects. Autumn applications of barium poly-sulfur, when E. tiliae females are migrating from the leaves to the buds, were effective, as were treatments as the buds swell in early March. These applications did not affect B. fasciatus. Other insect pests can be controlled with insecticides from early April to mid-June.

Soria, S. de J., Mello, R.P. de & Oliveira, A.M. de 2004. [New records on Prolepsis lucifer (Wiedemann, 1928) (Diptera, Asilidae) as a predator of Eurhizococcus brasiliensis (Hempel in Wille, 1922) (Hemiptera, Margarodidae) in field conditions in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Entomología y Vectores 11(2): 323-331. [SoriaMeOl2004]
Notes: Several vineyards located in a traditional viticulture region of Caxias do Sul, State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, were surveyed looking for information regarding the occurrence of P. lucifer (Diptera, Asilidae) predating E. brasiliensis (Hemiptera, Coccoidea, Margarodidae). Results indicated that P. lucifer was present at rates that varied between 1.2 larvae per plant in Caxias do Sul and 1.4 larvae per plant in Bento Gonçalves. The population densities of E. brasiliensis varied between 18 nymphs per plant in Caxias do Sul and 8 nymphs per plant in Bento Gonçalves. Furthermore, results of population fluctuation studies of both insects indicated a coincidence in the period of emergence of adults of both species around the summer solstice of the Southern Hemisphere. Populations of immature stages of both insects, on the other hand, indicated erratic pattern of fluctuation, with peaks going up and down without a clear tendency. It was observed, however, that the populations of E. brasiliensis tend to diminish with time, with the proximity of the end of the sampling period in December of 1993. It was interpreted to be a result of a reduction of availability of both hosts (Vitis sp. and Ficus carica) due to the damage by the pest. The verification that P. lucifer was found widely distributed in the populations of E. brasiliensis points out its potential as a biological control agent within a context of integrated management of insect pests of fruits.

Soroker, V., Nelson, D.R., Bahar, O., Reneh, S., Yablonski, S. & Palevsky, E. 2003. Whitefly wax as a cue for phoresy in the broad mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Acari: Tarsonemidae). Chemoecology 13(4): 163-168. [SorokeNeBa2003]
Notes: Broad mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus exhibits a specific phoretic relationship with whiteflies. Under field conditions, most broad mites, caught in sticky traps, are attached to whiteflies. The effect of whitefly waxy particles on broad mite behaviour was studied using wax from the whitefly Aleyrodes singularis and from the mealybug Planococcus citri. Broad mites were not only attracted specifically to the A. singularis waxy particles-treated leaf areas but were also attached to leaf trichomes in this area. The results of this study suggest the importance of olfactory cues from the whitefly waxy particles in the recognition process of the phoretic host and/or the induction of the attachment behaviour to whitefly legs or leaf trichomes.

Spooner Hart, R., Tesoriero, L., Hall, B., Page, F., Learmonth, S. & Conlan, D. 2002. Progress towards pest and disease management in Australian olive production. Advances in Horticultural Science 16(3/4): 218-224. [SpooneTeHa2002]
Notes: With the rapid expansion of the Australian olive industry during the past decade, plantings have been made in many parts of Australia including both temperate and subtropical regions, where summer-dominant rainfall may present production problems. Australia appears to be free of many cosmopolitan olive pests and diseases such as olive moth (Prays oleae), olive fly (Bactrocera oleae) and olive knot (Pseudomonas savastanoi), although some species such as black scale (Saissetia oleae) and peacock spot (Spilocaea oleagina) are widely distributed. Australia also has several native pests of cultivated olive, including olive lace bug, Froggattia olivinia and Queensland fruit fly, Bactrocera tryoni. The industry has identified sustainable pest and disease management as a key priority, and a national project has been funded by the Australian Government through the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.

Stansly, P.A. 2003. Unusual infestation of California red scale (Homoptera: Diaspididae) in southern Florida: apparent interactions with pesticides and weather. 6 In: Annual Meeting. 2003 Florida State Horticultural Society. June 8-10, Sheraton World Resort, Orlando. Florida State Horticultural Society, . [Stansl2003]
Notes: [Citrus Section. http://www.lal.ufl.edu/fshs/Meetings/2003/Abstracts/Citrusabstracts2003.pdf] California red scale (CRS), Aonidiella aurantii (Maskell) was virtually unknown in Florida citrus until an unprecedented, though short-lived outbreak occurred in 1998. This abstract notes the rise and fall of this scale population on Florida citrus since its appearance, weather conditions, and the impact of chemical control.

Stathas, G.J., Eliopoulos, P.A., Bouras, S.L., Economou, L.P. & Kontodimas, D.C. 2003. The scale Parthenolecanium persicae (Fabricius) on grapes in Greece. IOBC/WPRS Bulletin 26(8): 253-257. [StathaElBo2003]
Notes: [Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group: Integrated Protection and Production in Viticulture held in Volos, Greece, 18-22 March, 2003, C. Lozzia (Ed.)] The phenology of the scale insect P. persicae was studied in vineyards in southern Greece during 2001-2002. The experimental procedure consisted of sampling from infested vines, field assessments and examination of yellow sticky traps. P. persicae was found to be univoltine in Greece. It overwintered as a second-instar nymph. Adults emerged in April, while oviposition was observed from early May until late June. Crawlers hatched in May, and during the rest of the summer period, the scale was present as first- and second-instar nymphs. From late September until the following spring, the whole population of P. persicae consisted of second-instar nymphs. Two Metaphycus species parasitized the scale insect, and the parasitism level was up to 52%. The predator Chilocorus bipustulatus was recorded as a natural enemy of the scale insect.

Stathas, G.J., Kavallieratos, N.G. & Eliopoulos, P.A. 2002 (2001). The wax scale Ceroplastes sinensis Del Guercio on citrus in central Greece. Bollettino di Zoologia Agraria e di Bachicoltura (Milano) 33(3): 513. [StathaKaEl2002]
Notes: [Special Issue: Proceedings of the ISSIS IX International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies held at The University of Padua, Italy, Sept. 2-8, 2001.] [abstract of poster] This study deals with biological and ecological aspects of the scale Ceroplastes sinensis Del Guercio (Homoptera: Coccidae) on citrus in central Greece.

Stathas, G.J., Kavallieratos, N.G. & Eliopoulos, P.A. 2003. Biological and ecological aspects of Chinese wax scale, Ceroplastes sinensis Del Guercio (Hemiptera : Coccidae): a two-year study from Central Greece. Australian Journal of Entomology 42(3): 271-275. [StathaKaEl2003]
Notes: Biological and ecological aspects of the scale Ceroplastes sinensis are investigated on citrus in central Greece through regular samplings during 1999-2001 on Citrus sinensis (Sapindales: Rutaceae) in Attiki County. The scale was univoltine. Overwintering stages were the third-instar nymph and the adult female. From the end of May until the end of June the population comprised preovipositing females. Oviposition occurred from mid-June until mid-July and hatching took place during July. First- and second-instar nymphs were recorded from the end of July until the end of August, and from mid-August until the end of September, respectively. Third-instar nymphs appeared at the end of August and were present until the beginning of September. Some of the population of third-instar nymphs reached the adult stage during October and November, whilst the remainder completed development in the following April. Small numbers of male nymphs were recorded during October and November. The mean fecundity of adult females was 3260+/-770 eggs per female. The most abundant natural enemy of C. sinensis was Scutellista caerulea (Fonscolombe) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae), whose eggs, larvae and pupae were found in up to 42% of the total live population of the scale. Two predators, Chilocorus bipustulatus (L.) and Exochomus quadripustulatus (L.) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), were also observed.

Steidle, J.L.M. & van Loon, J.J.A. 2003. Dietary specialization and infochemical use in carnivorous arthropods: testing a concept. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 108(3): 133-148. [SteidlVa2003]
Notes: For the location of hosts and prey, insect carnivores (i.e., parasitoids or predators) often use infochemical cues that may originate from the host/prey itself but also from the food of the host/prey, a food plant, or another feeding substrate. These cues can be either specific for certain host/prey complexes or generally present in various complexes, and the reaction of the carnivores to these cues is either innate or learned. According to the concept on dietary specialization and infochemical use in natural enemies, the origin and specificity of the infochemical cues used and the innateness of the behavioural response are dependent on the degree of dietary specialization of the carnivore and its host/prey species. This concept has been widely adopted and has been frequently cited since its publication. Only few studies, however, have been explicitly designed to test predictions of the concept. Thus, more than 10 years after publication and despite its broad acceptance, the general validity of the concept is still unclear. Using data from about 140 research papers on 95 species of parasitoids and predators, the present literature study comparatively scrutinises predictions from the concept. Phenacoccus manihoti is one of the species mentioned.

Stepp, J.R., Wyndham, F.S. & Zarger, R.K. (Eds.) 2002. Ethnobiology and biocultural diversity: Proceedings of the 7th International Congress of Ethnobiology. Instituto de Biologia UNAM, Mexico City, Mexico. 720 pp. [SteppWyZa2002]
Notes: [Conference held in Athens, Georgia, October 2000.] This book, intended for scholars in anthropology, ecology and related fields, as well for professionals in conservation and indigenous rights organization, contains 57 research and commentary papers from 50 of the world's leading ethnobiologists. Specific themes include the acquisition, persistence and loss of traditional ecological knowledge; intellectual property rights and benefit sharing, ethnobiological classification, medical ethnobotany, ethnoentomology, ethnobiology and natural resource management, homegardens and agricultural and traditional knowledge. One paper mentions scales, Pragmatic uses of cochineal (Homoptera Dactylopiidae) (Pino Moreno, J. M. Ramos-Elorduy, J.).

Stimmel, J.F. 2002. Nuculaspis pseudomeyeri (Kuwana), a scale insect on evergreen conifers (Homoptera: Diaspididae) Regulatory Horticulture (Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture) 28: 27-29. [Stimme2002]
Notes: Notes on hosts, distribution, field description, life history, damage, economic importance and control.

Stouthamer, R. 2003. The use of unisexual wasps in biological control. 93-113 In: van Lenteren, J.C. (Eds.), Quality Control and Production of Biological Control Agents CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. 327 pp. [Stouth2003]
Notes: Unisexual reproduction has long been seen as a clear advantage for wasps to be applied in biological control projects. The discovery that the mode of reproduction in parasitoid wasps may be manipulated from sexual to unisexual and vice versa will allow biocontrol workers to test the advantage of either mode of reproduction for biological pest control. A review is presented here of the cases of unisexual reproduction found in parasitoid wasps. Species discussed in this context include the California red scale, and Unaspis yanonensis.

Sudoi, V., Koske, S.K. & Langat, J.K. 2002. Managing tea pests using petroleum oil spray: 1. Scale insects (Ceroplastes sp.). Tea 23(2): 68-71. [SudoiKoLa2002]
Notes: A field trial in Kenya using a scale insect susceptible clone BB35 whose yield potential is above 3 t ha-1 year-1 was conducted to determine how three options of Ceroplastes scale insect control relate to the yield of tea. Sprays of petroleum oil at 0.1% were used in the field either alone or mixed with 0.01% permethrin for the control of Ceroplastes sp. on tea. The degree of scale control was 84.6, 75.6 and 52.3% for petroleum oil and permethrin mixture, permethrin alone and petroleum oil alone, respectively. Tea yield varied in the plots with mean yields in the three-year period ranging between 3.1 t ha-1 in the untreated control and 3.3 t ha-1 in permethrin-treated plot. In 1996, the untreated control recorded significantly lower tea yield compared to the treated plots. Tea yields increased as a result of controlling the scale insects by 3.8, 5.2 and 7.0% in petroleum oil/permethrin mixture, petroleum oil alone and permethrin alone, respectively. The yield advantage of the scale insect control over the three-year period was low due to its low population in the affected plots and during the year of pruning. This suggests that for proper management of scale insects, petroleum oils or permethrin alone could be integrated with cultural practice such as pruning of tea for a more sustainable management of the scale insects.

Sugonyaev, E.S. 2002. Chalcid wasps (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea), parasites on soft scales (Homoptera, Coccidae) in Vietnam. VIII. Tonkinencyrtus paradoxus gen. et sp. n., a new genus and species of the family Encyrtidae. Entomologicheskoe Obozrenye 81(3): 723-725. [Sugony2002]
Notes: Tonkinencyrtus paradoxus gen. et sp. nov. is described from Vietnam. This chalcid has been bred from a female of the pseudococcid Eucalymnatus tessellatus living on Citrus grandis [C. maxima].

Sugonyaev, E.S. & Voinovich, N.D. 2003. On the geographic distribution and host linkages of phytophagous chalcids of the subfamily Mongolocampinae (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea, Tetracampidae) living on Nitraria spp. (Nitrariaceae), with descriptions of their immature stages. (In Russian). Entomologicheskoe Obozrenye 82(2): 310-320. [SugonyVo2003]
Notes: Data on geographical distribution of Nitraria species from the Schoberianae section and phytophagous chalcid wasps from the subfamily Mongolocampinae associated with them are given. The authors hypothesize that the ecological substitution of mongolocampines by armored scales (Homoptera, Diaspididae) on Nitraria retusa from the Tridentatae section points to the probably different history of the insect complex formation on plant species from the two sections.

Sun, J.H., Clarke, S.R., DeBarr, G.L. & Berisford, C.W. 2004. Parasitoid complex of the mealybug Oracella acuta (Lobdell) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), in Georgia, USA. Journal of Entomological Science 39(1): 11-22. [SunClDe2004]
Notes: The parasitoid complex of the mealybug Oracella acuta (Lobdell) was examined in two field populations in Georgia in 1995-96. Allotropa n. sp. and Zarhopalus debarri Sun were the primary endoparasitoids emerging from O. acuta. Adult abundance varied seasonally, with Allotropa n. sp. numbers peaking in June and Z. debarri in September. Parasitism rates of female O. acuta exceeded 60% at one site and ranged from 24 to 29% at the other site. The adult female was the preferred host stage for parasitism (76%), though Allotropa n. sp. and the endoparasitoid Acerophagus coccois E. Smith occasionally utilized second and third instar females as hosts. These two species exhibited gregarious parasitism, with up to 5 Allotropa n. sp. or 4 A. coccois emerging from a single host. Adult longevity of female and male Z. debarri averaged 6.4 and 5.3 days, respectively, and access to a food source usually increased adult lifespan. Female Z. debarri contained an average of 119 eggs, compared to 74 eggs per female for Allotropa n. sp.

Sun, J.H., Clarke, S.R., DeBarr, G.L. & Berisford, C.W. 2004a. Interspecific competition between two parasitoids of the mealybug, Oracella acuta (Lobdell) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). Journal of Entomological Science 39(1): 136-139. [SunClDe2004a]
Notes: The interspecific competition between Allotropa sp. nov. and Zarhopalus debarri was evaluated to aid in the design of a biological control programme for O. acuta in China. Entire seedlings or individual branches of Pinus elliottii var. elliottii infested by the pest were placed in greenhouse cages. The parasitoid adults and mummified O. acuta were obtained from the pine samples and developing insects were reared to emergence. Allotropa sp. nov. produced 15% more F1 adults than Z. debarri when single females were enclosed separately. When pairs of each species were caged together and forced to compete for hosts, Allotropa sp. nov. females produced a similar number of progeny as Allotropa sp. nov. females caged alone, while Z. debarri females produced 80% fewer progeny compared to those caged alone. Newly emerged and mated Allotropa sp. nov. females showed active searching behaviour, while those of Z. debarri rarely moved. There was no evidence of multiparasitism on O. acuta. Both species preferred adults, but Allotropa sp. nov. may produce multiple progeny and can utilize early instars when adults are scarce.

Sun, Y.Y., Li, K. & Chen, X.M. 2003. [Status and prospects of Schleichera oleosa's propagation.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Scientia Silvae Sinicae 39(5): 129-132. [SunLiCh2003]
Notes: The physiology, biology and ecology of some host plants of lac insect [Kerria lacca] including Schleichera oleosa, is presented. The propagation potential of S. oleosa in China is discussed.

Sun, J.H. & Zhang, Y.Z. 2003. Effects of insecticide application on Oracella acuta (Lobdell) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) population and its two dominant parasitoids. Acta Entomologica Sinica 46(4): 466-472. [SunZh2003]
Notes: The effects of insecticide application on loblolly pine mealybug, O. acuta and its two dominant parasitoids, Allotropa sp. and Zarhopalus debarri, were investigated using yellow sticky traps. The results revealed that the Oracella population responded positively to the intensity of insecticide use, which had adverse effects on its two parasitoids. In fact, the outbreak of the mealybug was largely due to this adverse effect of insecticides on its parasitoids. Orchards with high intensity use of insecticides resulted in higher Oracella population density and vice versa. Comparison of three orchards with three levels of insecticide use further demonstrated the effectiveness of the parasitoids in regulating mealybug populations. Significantly more males of Zarhopalus sp. were caught than females, which indicated a sex preference for yellow in this species. A strong positive correlation exists between Oracella and its parasitoids but this relationship can be disrupted by the heavy use of insecticides.

Sunil, J., Prashanth, M., Rabindra, R.J. & Rao, N.S. 2003. Production and use of coccinellid predators. Technical Bulletin (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) No. 32: 26 pp. [SunilPrRa2003]
Notes: This bulletin provides a general morphological description of coccinellids, and briefly discusses different coccinellid groups based on their choice of prey (aphids, scales and mealybugs) and aspects of their biology are tabulated (egg, larval, pupal and adult longevity and female fecundity). It emphasizes the use of coccinellids in the biological control of insect pests, and presents mass production procedures for coccinellid predators (and their prey), including Cryptolaemus montrouzieri, Brumoides suturalis, Scymnus coccivora, Chilocorus nigrita, Pharoscymnus horni, Coccinella septempunctata, Cheilomenes sexmaculata, Curinus coeruleus and Harmonia octomaculata.

Suzuki, K. 2004. [Occurrence of California red scale (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) on citrus in southern Mie prefecture and chemical control of it. (In Japanese). Annual Report of the Kansai Plant Protection Society No. 46: 87-88. [Suzuki2004]

Tabatadze, E.S. & Loladze, Z.P. 2002. Neem-Azal-T/S against coccids. Zashchita i Karantin Rastenii No. 12: 30 pp. [TabataLo2002]
Notes: Laboratory experiments with citrus and grape were conducted to test the efficacy of Neem-Azal-T/S against Planococcus ficus, Coccus hesperidum, Ceroplastes sinensis, Lopholeucaspis japonica, Lepidosaphes beckii and L. gloverii. Data are tabulated on efficacy against female insects and larvae. Results confirmed its efficacy under laboratory conditions.

Takagi, M. 2003b. Biological control of citrus scale pests in Japan. 351-355 In: Van Dreische, R.G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Washington D.C.. 573 pp. [Takagi2003b]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002.] Species discussed include Ceroplastes rubens, Icerya purchasi and Unaspis yanonensis.

Takagi, S. 2003. Some burrowing diaspidids from eastern Asia (Homoptera: Coccoidea). Insecta Matsumurana 60: 67-173. [Takagi2003]
Notes: Twenty-five species of scale insects belonging to 18 genera, four tribes, and two subfamilies of the family Diaspididae from Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Japan are dealt with. Twenty-four species and 14 genera are described as new. The females of all the 25 species are cryptic on the plant body, burrowing into the epidermis of the bark or leaves, under the dense cover of trichomes on the lower surface of the leaves, or among the dense erect hairs on the twigs. Morphological modifications in the adult females are not uniform. Generally, the trullae are dentate or serrate and the dorsal ducts are few and slender. These tendencies are apparently associated with burrowing, but are not without exception. The marginal glanduliferous processes of the pygidium are much reduced in some species, but are well represented in others. Two species are highly advanced burrowing forms in view of the fact that the adult females form extraordinarily large burrows, in which the male crawlers with much shortened legs stay to complete their metamorphosis. One species is an unusual form of uncertain relationship, but the other shows little morphological modification except for the body shape as compared with non-burrowing related forms. Burrowing starts in the second-instar female, which is similar to the adult female especially in the pygidial appendages. In some species, the second-instar males also burrow, and they are homomorphic, being similar to the adult and second-instar females of the same species in the pygidial appendages. However, not all homomorphic second-instar males burrow. Heteromorphic forms of the second-instar male have been observed in seven species among the examined Diaspidini, and they are variable especially in the structure of the pygidial margin. Heteromorphism in the second-instar male could be due to atavism but, in their morphology, most of the heteromorphic forms observed in this study apparently reflect the change effected in the female in adaptation to burrowing.

Takagi, S. 2003a. Notes on two Lepidosaphidine scale insects described from Japan (Homoptera, Coccoidea, Diaspididae). Japanese Journal of Systematic Entomology 9(2): 171-175. [Takagi2003a]
Notes: Long-pending questions about the taxonomic identities of two lepidosaphidine scale insects described from Japan are explained. Mytilaspis (Lepidosaphes) buzenensis Kuwana, 1909, is not identifiable with accuracy on the basis of the original description, whereas the type specimens were lost. It is very close to Lepidosaphes laterochitinosa Green, 1925, especially in having a thoracic incrassitation, but it is distinct from the latter in the incrassation occurring mainly on the dorsal surface. There are, however, other forms that are very similar to these species, requiring further studies on the relationships among all of them. Pallulaspis quercus Takahashi, 1957, is based on the second instar female, which was erroneously interpreted as the adult female by the original author. Circumstantial evidence indicates that it is identical with Lepidosaphes glaucae Takahashi, 1932. Surveys at the type localities are necessary for confirming the suppositions about the identities of L. buzenensis and P. quercus.

Takano, T. & Tanno, M. 2003. Effect of vapor-heat on Tetranychus urticae (Acarina: Tetranychidae) and Pseudococcus comstocki (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) on fresh winter pumpkins. (In English; Summary In Japanese). Research Bulletin of the Plant Protection Service Japan No. 39: 19-22 [TakanoTa2003]
Notes: All developmental stages of the two-spotted spider mite (T. urticae) and Comstock mealybug (P. comstocki) on fresh winter pumpkins (Cucurbita moschata) were exposed to hot vapour treatment at 47 deg C for 0, 5, 10, 20, 40, 60 or 120 min. The two-spotted spider mite adult was likely to be the most tolerant to the heat treatment of all developmental stages of the two pests. All stages of the two pests were killed completely by vapour heat treatment for 120 min at 47 deg C.

Takano, T., Tsuchiya, Y., Sakaguchi, T. & Masaki, S. 2004. Irradiation effects on insect pests of cut flowers. (In English; Summary In Japanese). Research Bulletin of the Plant Protection Service Japan No. 40: 25-32. [TakanoTsSa2004]
Notes: The two spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae), which was more tolerant of irradiation than the other tested species of cut flower pests, such as the American serpentine leafminer (Liriomyza trifolii), the Comstock mealybug (Pseudococcus comstocki), the melon thrips (Thrips palmi), the onion thrips (Thrips tabaci), the green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) and the common cutworm (Spodoptera litura), was submitted to gamma ray irradiation at a dose of 400 Gy, at a commercial irradiation facility, under actual plant quarantine conditions, with Alstroemeria sp., stock (Matthiola incana) and carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus) as typical imported cut flowers. As a result of the irradiation, approximately 17000 eggs and 1400 female adults were completely sterilized. Injury to the flowers was controlled to some degrees, but some injury was observed depending on flower cultivars.

Takeda, M. 2004. Effects of temperature on oviposition in overwintering females and hatch in first-generation larvae of Pseudaulacaspis pentagona (Hemiptera: Diaspididae). Applied Entomology and Zoology. Tokyo 39(1): 15-26. [Takeda2004]
Notes: Overwintering females of Pseudaulacaspis pentagona (Targioni) entered a reproductive diapause, and the ovary development in females collected before December 22 was retarded at 20 C under short (L10 : D14) and long (L15 : D9) days. In contrast, ovarian eggs in females collected after the beginning of the year developed normally. The author examined the effects of temperature on the development of overwintering females that infested tea branches and on the hatch of the first generation at various constant temperatures. The base temperature was determined to be 10.5 degreesC and 10.9 degreesC for 50% of the females to begin laying eggs and for the egg hatch to reach a peak, respectively. Seasonal changes in oviposition of the overwintering generation and hatch of the first generation were monitored from 1998-2002 at Kanaya, Shizuoka Prefecture. When the base temperature was assumed to be 10.5 C and day-degrees (DD) were summed from January 1, 50% of the females began laying eggs when an average of 149 DD had accumulated, and the peak of hatching coincided with an average of 288 DD. The logistic equation y=1/[1+exp(-(alpha(0) + alpha(1)x))] (y, proportion of parous females or hatch; x, DD accumulations; alpha(0) and alpha(1), constants) was used to model a sequence of the population events and to predict the optimum timing of insecticide application for controlling the first-generation larvae of P. pentagona.

Talhouk, A.M.S. 2002. Insects and mites injurious to crops in Middle Eastern countries. American University of Beirut Press, Beirut, Lebanon. 269 pp. [Talhou2002]
Notes: This second edition provides updated information on the comprehensive morphology, distribution, and biology of significant pest species of the orders Acarina, Thysanoptera, Orthopetera, Hemiptera, Homoptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera. Further emphasis is given to their monitoring methods, biological control, and cultural practices. Special attention to the subject of economic entomology makes this book indispensable for field entomologists. With the addition of 15 color plates, this is a convenient handbook for the identification and management of more than 300 pests. It is an essential reference and a useful teaching tool, benefiting students of Middle Eastern agriculture and entomology. Species discussed include Icerya purchasi, Nipaecoccus viridis, Planococcus citri, Pseudococcus citriculus, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Didesmococcus unifasciatus, Ceroplastes rusci, Aspidiotus nerii, Aonidiella aurantii and Parlatoria blanchardii.

Tandon, P.L., Ballal, C.R., Jalali, S.K. & Rabindra, R.J. (Eds.) 2003. Biological Control of Lepidopteran Pests. Proceedings of the Symposium of Biological Control of Lepidopteran Pests, July 17-18, 2002, Bangalore, India Society for Biocontrol Advancement, Bangalore, India. iii + 354 pp. [TandonBaJa2003]
Notes: These proceedings contain 4 sections (predators, parasitoids, pathogens and biointensive pest management) discussing papers on the biological control of lepidopteran pests. One paper containing scale information is: Relative efficacy of some Trichogramma spp. for management of lepidopteran predators of lac insect, Kerria lacca (Kerr) under field conditions (Bhattacharya et al.).

Tao, M., Chen, G.H. & Yang, B.L. 2002. A preliminary study of parasitic wasps infesting Eulecanium gigantean (Shinji) around Kunming. Journal of Yunnan Agricultural University 17(3): 225-227. [TaoChYa2002]
Notes: An investigation was carried out in 1999 and 2000 in Yunnan, China, of the species of parasitic wasps infesting Eulecanium gigantean [Eulecanium giganteum]. Five natural enemies were identified, including Blastothrix sericaei [Blastothrix sericea], Metaphycus pulvinariae, Coccophagus hawaiuensis [Coccophagus hawaiiensis], Metaphycus pulvinariae, and 2 unidentified species of Coccophagus. The first two species were predominant, with a parasitic rate of 88.3%. They offered a certain level of control of the population size of E. giganteum.

Tao, M., Chen, G.H. & Yang, B.L. 2004. [A preliminary report on natural enemies of Parlatoria pergandii in the central part of Yunnan Province.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Entomological Knowledge 41(2): 161-163. [TaoChYa2004]
Notes: A preliminary investigation on the natural enemies of P. pergandii Comstock in peach, apple and pear orchards was carried out in 2000 and 2001 in Kunming and Qujing, Yunnan Province, China. Seven species of parasitic insects and three species of predatory insects were found. The seven species of parasitic insects belonged to Encyrtidae and Aphelinidae, and Aphytis proclia was the predominant parasitoid, consisting of 79.7% all of P. pergandii parasitoids. The three predatory species belonged to Coccinellidae, and Chilocorus bijugus [C. infernalis] was the predominant predator.

Tao, M., Chen, G.H., Yang, B.L. & Huang, J.H. 2003. [Studies on life history of Ceroplastes rubens Maskell and its natural enemies in Kunming.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Southwest China Journal of Agricultural Sciences 16(3): 38-41. [TaoChYa2003]
Notes: C. rubens is an important insect pest of some ornamental plants and fruit trees. It had one generation a year in Kunming, China. The most abundant population of its first-instar nymph was observed from early to mid-May and adult emergence was observed in the end of August. The impregnated female adults overwintered. Four species of its predatory natural enemies belonged to Coccinellidae and Chrysopidae, and 17 species of its parasitic natural enemies belonging to Eulophidae, Encyrtidae, Pteromalidae, Aphelinidae and Eupelmidae. Tetrastichus ceroplasteae was the most important parasitoid of the pest, which accounted for 42.55% of all parasitoids, followed by Anysis saissetiae and Blastothrix sp., accounting for 20.33% and 14.63%, respectively. The change of population density of the three parasitoids above would affect the fluctuation of the whole parasitoid community.

Tatematsu, Y., Someya, H., Kaneda, M., Miyoshi, S. & Yamada, J. 2004. [The diagnosis of armored scale insects found on citrus in Japan: discrimination between Parlatoria cinerea (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) and related species.] (In Japanese; Summary In English). Research Bulletin of the Plant Protection Service Japan No. 40: 145-148. [TatemaSoKa2004]
Notes: Armoured scale insects found on citrus in Japan were studied by morphological and electrophoretic methods to develop a diagnostic program. P. cinerea closely resembles P. pergandii in appearance at the female adult stage. These two species can be distinguished from others based on the characteristics of pigidial lobes. Moreover, the electrophoretic band patterns of these two species are clearly separable and can provide optional diagnosis for immature stages. Two diagnostic flowcharts are provided based on the present study.

Taverner, P. 2002. Drowning or just waving? A perspective on the ways petroleum-derived oils kill arthropod pests of plants. 78-87 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [Tavern2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Species discussed include Aonidiella aurantii, Phenacoccus colemani and Quadraspidiotus perniciosus.

Teixeira, M.A., Bettiol, W., Cesnik, R. & Vieira, R.F. 2004. [Pathogenicity of the fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, pathogen of Orthezia praelonga, to several fruits and to pumpkin seedlings. (In Portuguese; Summary In English). Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura 26(2): 356-358. [TeixeiBeCe2004]
Notes: [Original title: Patogenicidade do fungo Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, patogeno da cochonilha Orthezia praelonga, a diversos frutos e a plantulas de abobrinha.] The pathogenicity of C. gloeosporioides (CTAA isolates 1-5), a pathogen of O. praelonga, a pest in citrus orchards, and of other C. gloeosporioides (Glomerella cingulata) isolates (CCC and CCE), C. acutatum (CCA) and C. lagenarium (C. orbiculare), the causal agents of postharvest and post-flowering diseases of citrus fruits, and anthracnose of pumpkin, respectively, was evaluated. The fungi were inoculated to banana, coffee, apple, peach, pawpaw and pumpkin with or without injury. Peach fruits were susceptible to all the isolates. Apple and pumpkin leaves were also susceptible when injured. Banana, coffee and pawpaw were not susceptible to the fungi.

Thamas, M. & Gupta, B.S. 2003. [First report of termite damage on lac.] (In Hindi; Summary In English). Bhartiya Krishi Anusandhan Patrika 18(1/2): 77-79. [ThamasGu2003]
Notes: To provide an additional source of income to CDR farmers in Shahdol, Madhya Pradesh, India, lac cultivation has been promoted in the region since 1997. However, in September 2000, termite damage to lac and lac insects [Kerria lacca] were recorded in Shahdol. In five lac-growing villages, the damage to lac crop was 5.80-11.70%. Termite damage was recorded only on young bushes of Butea monosperma, but grown trees were free from termite damage. This is thought to be the first report of termite predation on lac.

Thao, M.L. , Baumann, L. , Hess, J.M., Falk, B.W., Ng, J.C.K., Gullan, P.J. & Baumann, P. 2003. Phylogenetic evidence for two new insect-associated chlamydia of the family Simkaniaceae. Current Microbiology 47(1): 46-50. [ThaoBaHe2003]
Notes: On the basis of 16S-23S ribosomal DNA analyses, the whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Sternorrhyncha, Aleyrodidae) and the eriococcid Eriococcus spurius (Sternorrhyncha, Eriococcidae) were each found to harbor novel related chlamydial species within the family Simkaniaceae. The generic designation Fritschea gen. nov. is proposed to accommodate the two species, F. bemisiae sp. nov. and F. eriococci sp. nov. The finding of chlamydial 16S-23S ribosomal DNA in B. tabaci is consistent with a previous electron microscopy study which found that bacteriocytes of this species contain structures that we consider to resemble the elementary and reticulate bodies of chlamydia (Costa HS, Westcot DM, Ullman DE, Rosell R, Brown JK, Johnson MW. Protoplasma 189:194-202, 1995). The cloning and sequencing of a 16.6 kilobase DNA fragment from F. bemisiae indicated that it contains six genes encoding for proteins similar to those found in other species of chlamydia. These results extend the range of organisms that harbor chlamydia.

Thomas, M. 2003. Lac cultivation for sustainable forest management. Vaniki Sandesh 27(2/3): 24-27. [Thomas2003]
Notes: This paper provides information on the technical aspects of lac (resinous secretion from the specialized lac glands of Kerria lacca) and its cultivation for sustainable forest management in Madhya Pradesh, India. Topics covered include: the properties of shellac, and lac cultivation techniques.

Thomson, C., Tomkins, A.R., Wilson, D.J. & Greaves, T.J. 2002. Effect of a horticultural mineral oil on parasitism of armoured scale insects on kiwifruit. 477-480 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [ThomsoToWi2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Scale species discussed include Aspidiotus nerii and Hemiberlesia rapax.

Thwaite, W.G., Eslick, M.A. & Nicol, H.I. 2002. Evaluation of petroleum-derived spray oils for integrated pest and disease management in apple orchards. 349-355 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [ThwaitEsNi2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Species discussed include Quadraspidiotus perniciosus.

Tokihiro, G. 2004. [Comparison of Pseudococcus sp. (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) that occurred on citrus in Japan and P. odermatti Miller and Williams that was intercepted at a plant quarantine in Japan.] (In Japanese; Summary In English). Research Bulletin of the Plant Protection Service Japan No. 40: 99-101. [Tokihi2004]
Notes: Pseudococcus sp. (Japanese name: Matsuura-kona-kaigaramushi), discovered on Citrus unshiu at Arita-gun, Wakayama-ken, Japan, and P. odermatti, intercepted at a plant quarantine in Japan on grapefruits imported from Florida, USA, were compared in terms of some morphological characteristics. Since the length of the longest setae on dorsal abdominal segment VII, the number and distribution positions of dorsal oral-rim tubular ducts, and the number of multilocular pores on ventral abdominal segments III and IV, which are important characteristics, were alike, it was concluded that the two were the same species.

Tomkins, A.R., Wilson, D.J., Thomson, C. & Lupton, T. 2002. Use of a horticultural mineral oil for persimmon pest management. 506-510 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [TomkinWiTh2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Scale species discussed include Hemiberlesia lataniae.

Tort, N. 2004. A study on some anatomical parameters of the piercing-sucking process in leaves and branches of Pittosporum tobira L. (Pittosporaceae) infested by the cottony cushion scale, Icerya purchasi Maskell (Homoptera: Coccina, Margarodidae). Journal of Pest Science 77(1): 53-56. [Tort2004]
Notes: Pittosporum tobira L. (Family Pittosporaceae) is an important plant species grown in parks and gardens in Turkey. The cottony cushion scale, Icerya purchasi Maskell (Homoptera: Coccina, Margarodidae), is an important pest of P. tobira, and causes damage mainly to the leaves, branches and stems of the host plant. In spite of the great economic importance of I. purchasi to its host plant P. tobira, information has been limited on some basic anatomical parameters of the nature of the damage to leaves and branches. The present study was, therefore, initiated to investigate the insertion and penetration of stylets into the leaves and branches of P. tobira, the length of stylets and depth of penetration in both of these tissues, and penetration of stylets into the cortex, xylem and phloem tissues and into the secretory and nonsecretory canals of the leaves and branches. The results showed great variations between the leaves and branches in 11 the criteria observed in I. purchasi infesting P. tobira. The study found 20 whole and 23 broken mouthparts in the leaves as compared to 3 whole mouthparts and 1 broken in the branches. Length of the stylets inserted into the leaves ranged from 33.83 mum to 540.93 mum and into the branches from 202.85 mum to 340.8 mum. The stylets reached greater depths in the leaves, at 540.93 pm, as compared to 498.67 mum in the branches. The stylets in the leaves were associated with 12 secretory canals, but with none in the branches. It was found that three stylets reached xylem in the leaves as compared to one in the branches. Similarly, 17 stylets in the leaves reached to the phloem, but only 2 in the branches. No stylets were found in the cortex of the leaves, but one was found in the branches. In the leaves, 11 stylets reached and remained in the non-secretory canals, but none in the case of the branches.

Tovar Puente, A., Pando Moreno, M. & López Aguilllón, R. 2002. [Cochineal production of prickly pear Dactylopius coccus Costa (Homoptera: Dactylopiidae) in two places in the state of Nuevo León.] (In Spanish). 93-95 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 p. [TovarPPaLo2002]
Notes: [Original title of paper: Producción de grana cochinilla del nopal Dactylopius coccus Costa (Homoptera: Dactylopiidae) en dos localidades del sur del estado de Nuevo León. Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] These authors are trying to promote an increase in cochineal production in the state.

Towns, D.R. 2003. Interactions between geckos, honeydew scale insects and host plants revealed on islands in northern New Zealand, following eradication of introduced rats and rabbits. 329-335 In: Veitch, C.R. & Clout, M.N. (Eds.), Turning the tide: the eradication of invasive species: Proceedings of the International Conference on eradication of island invasives. Invasive Species specialist Group, University of Auckland (Tamaki Campus), Auckland, N.Z.. 424 pp. [Towns2003]
Notes: [Conference held at the University of Auckland in February 2001.] Invasive species that reach islands can have effects that ripple through communities. As a corollary, once invasive species are removed, the responses by resident species may also have ripple effects, sometimes with outcomes that are unpredicted. One such unpredicted response is reported on islands off northeastern New Zealand following the removal of rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and Pacific rats or kiore (Rattus exulans). As composition of the vegetation changed and geckos (Hoplodactylus maculatus and H. duvaucelii) became increasingly abundant, a source of energy for the geckos was revealed: honeydew produced by the scale insect Coelostomidia zealandica (Hemiptera: Margarodidae) infesting ngaio (Myoporum laetum) and karo (Pittosporum crassifolium). Honeydew may have significant effects on the carrying capacity of invertebrates and birds in mainland forests of New Zealand. However, its importance for geckos on islands was apparently masked by reduced gecko abundance in the presence of introduced predators, and suppression of host plants by introduced herbivores. Possible mechanisms of spread and new hosts of C. zealandica are described, and the vulnerability of the scale insect on islands with introduced mammals that suppress recruitment of selected host species is emphasized.

Trimble, S.T. & Sagers, C.L. 2004. Differential host use in two highly specialized ant-plant associations: evidence from stable isotopes. Oecologia 138(1): 74-82. [TrimblSa2004]
Notes: Carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes were used to examine variation in ant use of plant resources in the Cecropia obtusifolia/Azteca spp. association in Costa Rica. Tissue of ants, host plants and symbiotic pseudococcids were collected along three elevation transects on the Pacific slope of Costa Rica's Cordillera Central, and were analyzed for carbon and nitrogen isotopic composition.

Trjapitzin, V.A. 2003. [A new species of the encyrtid genus Microterys Thomson (Hymenoptera, Encyrtidae), from Mexico and a key to species of the M. amamensis Azim group.] (In Russian; Summary In English). Entomologicheskoe Obozrenye 82(3): 767-770. [Trjapi2003]
Notes: Microterys potosinus sp. nov. (parasitoid of Ceroplastes) is described from Mexico, and a key to world species of the M. amamensis species-group is provided. The M. amamensis species-group is characterized by a more or less elongate ovipositor with the base partly concealed dorsally by the attenuated epipygium (apex of the ninth abdominal syntergite).

Tumminelli, R., Conti, F., Maltese, U., Pedrotti, C.C. & Colazza, S. 2003. Petroleum-derived spray oils: current status in the Italian citrus IPM. Bulletin OILB/SROP 26(6): 175-183. [TumminCoMa2003]
Notes: [Integrated control in citrus fruit crops. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002. Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.) Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP).] This paper reviews the specification of petroleum spray oil (PSO) products used in Italian citriculture since the 1940s and introduces a three-level, hierarchical new classification scheme related to the degree of refinement of PSOs used in agriculture for pest control: mineral oils (MOs), agricultural mineral oils (AMOs) and horticultural mineral oils (HMOs). In 1995/2001, six commercial PSOs of varying specifications were applied to citrus groves to determine the impact to natural enemies, efficacy and influence on fruit production. In 1994/2000 IPM demonstration programme, summer applications of PSOs decreased the pressure of California red scale Aonidiella aurantii on citrus grove. In experimental fields in 1995, the parasitization of California red scale by Aphytis melinus was not affected by PSOs, but the parasitization of woolly whitefly (Aleurothrixus floccosus) by Cales noacki was affected. In 2000/01 spraying seasons, summer application of heavier PSOs reduced the crop yield and increased the fruit size compared with lighter oil. Most growers were familiar with the winter application, as they saw only the negative consequences of summer PSOs (leaf drop, sunburn and yield reduction). In summer applications, the new generation PSOs were safer. These recommendations are included in the IPM programmes funded by the European Union.

Téllez Jiménez, S., Rodriguez-Baños, J. & Villagómez-Ibarra, J.R. 2002. [Study of the reproductive conditions of Dactylopius coccus Costa in the hothouse in order to optimize dye production.] (In Spanish). 90-92 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 pp. [TellezRoVi2002]
Notes: [Original title of paper: Estudio de las condiciones de reproducción de Dactylopius coccus Costa en invernadero con el fin de optimizar la producción del colorante. Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] The study determined temperature and other environmental requirements of Dactylopius coccus cultivation for dye production.

Ülgentürk, S. 2003. A scanning electron microscope study of the multilocular disc-pores of some adult female soft scale insects (Hemiptera: Sternorrhyncha: Coccidae). Phytoparasitica 31(4): 393-398. [Ulgent2003]
Notes: The morphology of the multilocular disc-pores of nine species of Coccidae (Anapulvinaria pistaciae, Coccus hesperidum, C. pseudomagnoliarum, Eulecanium ciliatum, E. tiliae, Filippia follicularis, Parthenolecanium corni, P. rufulum and Rhodococcus perornatus) were examined using a scanning electron microscope. The spiracular disc-pores of seven of these species had five loculi in an outer ring around a central, closed loculus, but the central loculus of E. tiliae and F. follicularis was open. The preanal disc-pores had 6-12 (usually 10) loculi in the outer ring but the structure of the central loculus varied among species, with that of A. pistaciae and F. follicularis being mushroom-shaped; of C. hesperidum, C. pseudomagnoliarum, P. corni and P. rufulum being peg- or tongue-shaped; and of E. ciliatum, E. tiliae and R. perornatus having a vertical slit.

Ülgentürk, S. & Canakcioglu, H. 2004. Scale insect pests on ornamental plants in urban habitats in Turkey. Journal of Pest Science 77(2): 79-84. [UlgentCa2004]
Notes: Ornamental plants play an increasingly important role in urban habitats in Turkey. Scale insects are a serious pest group that attack ornamental plants. In this study, a total of 67 species of Coccoidea belonging to 7 families, which are harmful to ornamental plants, are given in Tables 1, 2, and 3. These tables are based on the author's data and on bibliographic sources. The most numerous families are Diaspididae (11). Coccidae (23), Pseudococcidae (7), Eriococcidae (3) and the Margarodidae, Kermesidae and Astereolecaniidae (1). Twenty-one of these species are harmful to flowering, fruit and deciduous trees, 5 species are harmful to conifers, while 15 species are important orchard pests. Their hosts and distributions are also taken into consideration.

Ülgentürk, S., Canakcioglu, H. & Kaygin, A.T. 2004. Scale insects of the conifer trees in Turkey and their zoogeographical distribution. Journal of Pest Science 77(2): 99-104. [UlgentCaKa2004]
Notes: In Turkey, 25 species of Coccoidea (Homoptera) are recorded on Conifera tree species. The family Diaspididae has 15, Coccidae 6, Pseudococcidae three, and Margarodidae one species. Specifically, Dynaspidiotus spp. are recorded on Abies, Cedrus, Picea and Pinus; Leucaspis spp. on Pinus spp.; Carulaspis spp. on Biota, Cupressus, Juniperus and Thuja; Lepidosaphes spp. on Abies, Biota, Juniperus and Picea; Coccus spp. on Abies, Cedrus and Pinus; and Planococcus spp. on Cupressus, Juniperus and Pinus species. Acanthomytilus cedricola is recorded only on Cedrus spp.; Physokermes piceae on Abies and Picea species; and Marchalina hellenica only on Pinus species. Two species are native, five are Cosmopolitan, 15 are Palaearctic, and three are of Mediterranean origin.

Ülgentürk, S., Kaydan, M.B., Toros, S. & Gürkan, M.O. 2003. A survey of the Eriococcidae (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) of Ankara Province, Turkey. Phytoparasitica 31(5): 442-445. [UlgentKaTo2003]
Notes: The Coccoidea of cultivated and non-cultivated areas of Ankara Province, in central Anatolia, Turkey, were surveyed between 1999 and 2001. Eleven species of Eriococcidae were collected, of which 9 are new records for Turkey: Acanthococcus greeni (on leaves of Festuca sp. and Agropyron sp.), Acanthococcus micracanthus (on roots of Salvia sp.), Acanthococcus munroi (on roots of Minuartia anatolica), Acanthococcus roboris (on stems of young trees and base of young twigs of Quercus sp.), Acanthococcus zernae (on leaves of Artemisia spp. Agropyron spp. and Triticum orientalis), Rhizococcus cingulatus (on roots of Stipa sp.), R. cynodontis, R. herbaceus (on leaves of Cynodon dactylon) and R. pseudinsignis (on leaves of Dianthus crinitus).

Ülgentürk, S., Kaydan, M.B., Zeki, C. & Toros, S. 2002 (2001). Sphaerolecanium prunastri Boyer de Fonscolombe (Hemiptera: Coccidae): distribution, host plants and natural enemies in the Turkish Lake District. Entomologica 33(3): 357-363. [UlgentKaZe2002]
Notes: [Special Issue: Proceedings of the ISSIS IX International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies held at The University of Padua, Italy, Sept. 2-8, 2001.] S. prunastri was an economically important pest of almond, apricot, and sweet cherry, sour cherry, peach, and plum in the Turkish Lake District (Afyon, Burdur, and Isparta provinces in Turkey) in 1999-2001. Although there are numerous natural enemies of S. prunastri, it reached very high population densities in Afyon. Hymenopteran parasitoids recorded were: Discodes coccophagus, Microterys hortulans, Metaphycus sp.; Coccophagus lycimnia, Coccophagus sp., Cerapterocerus mirabilis, Pachyneuron muscarum, Aprostocetus sp. (Eulophidae). Predators recorded were: Cybocephalus fodori minor, Chilochorus bipustulatus, Exochomus quadripustulatus, Calymma communimacula and an unidentified species of Hemiptera (Heteroptera).

Unaspis citri. 2004. Bulletin OEPP 34(2): 299-301. [Unaspici2004]
Notes: This standard describes a diagnostic protocol for Unaspis citri.

United States Department of Agriculture. Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. Plant Protection and Quarantine Programs. 2003. Importation of fresh potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) tubers for consumption from Mexico into the continental United States. , Raleigh, N.C.. 39 pp. [USDAAPH2003]
Notes: [http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ppq/pra/draft/MX_ware_potato.pdf] Dysmicoccus brevipes, Nipaecoccus nipae, N. viridis, Orthezia insignis, Phenacoccus gossypii, P. madeirensis, Planococcus citri, Pseudococcus calceolariae, P. jackbeardsleyi and P. longispinus are among the pest species listed.

Uraisakul, K. 2003. Annona seed extract and some herb extracts on chilli yield and control broad mite (Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Bank)) and some key pests in chilli. (In Thai; Summary In English). 354-361 In: Thailand, Kasetsart University, Proceedings of 41st Kasetsart University Annual Conference. Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand. 592 pp. [Uraisa2003]
Notes: [Conference held 3-7 February, 2003.] The effects of extracts of neem, Hyptis suaveolens, Cymbopogon nardus, Chromolaena odorata, Eucalyptus, Melaleuca bracteata, Stemona tuberosa, Vernonia squarrosa, Andrographis paniculata, Derris elliptica, Nicotiana tabacum and Annona squamosa alone or in combination, suspension of chemical treatment (Keltane) and control (water) on the growth, leaf sprouting, weight of fresh and dried fruits of chilli trees and on P. latus, were studied in Ayutthaya, Thailand from October 2000 to November 2002. Chilli trees treated by the suspension of Annona extract yielded the maximum weight of fresh fruit (132.85 g/tree). The maximum weight of dried fruit was 31.49 g/tree and the maximum fruit number per tree was 60. Leaf sprouting in chilli trees treated with suspensions of Eucalyptus extract, neem extract, Stemona mixed extract, and Cymbopogon extract was faster than leaf sprouting in those treated by other herb extracts. No statistical differences were observed in the length, height and weight of the fresh fruits and the weight of the dried fruits of chilli trees. Treatment with 100 ppm Annona suspension was efficient for controlling broad mites, killing 100% of the broad mite eggs and larvae, and 80% of the broad mite adults in the laboratory. Annona suspension decreased the broad mite population in the chilli trees, and killed 93.9% of the eriophyid mites, 50% of the Scirtothrips dorsalis, 80% of the Aphis gossypii and inhibited the destruction of mealybugs.

Urso-Guimarães, M.V., Scareli-Santos, C. & Bonifácio-Silva, A.C. 2003. Occurrence and characterization of entomogen galls in plants from natural vegetation areas in Delfinópolis, MG, Brazil. (In English; Summary In Portuguese). Brazilian Journal of Biology 63(4): 705-715. [UrsoGuScBo2003]
Notes: In the present work we aimed to register the occurrence of galls, inductors, inquilines, and parasitoids in plants of three natural vegetation areas in Delfinópolis, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Results obtained showed 22 types of galls collected from leaf, vein leaf, petioles, stem, and inflorescence of nineteen species belonging to fifteen distinct families. Concerning gall morphology, the following were collected: globoid, conicle, discoidal, fusiform, shell-shape, indefinite, and one substitution of an ovary by an immature. As principal inducers were found insects of the families Cecidomyiidae (Diptera), Psyllidae, and Diaspididae (Sternorrhyncha/Hemiptera). As parasitoids the most common are of the Chalcidoidea superfamily (Hymenoptera) and, as occasional inquilines, Polyxenidae (Diplopoda) and Psocodea (Psocoptera). The results of this study contribute to existing knowledge of host-plant diversity and gall-associated insects in rocky fields, cerrado, and gallery forests.

Uzhca D., L.G. 2002. [Cochineal production in Ecuador.] Producción de cochinilla en Ecuador. (In Spanish). 104 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 pp. [UzhcaD2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This is a brief report on the growing and economic environments of cochineal production in Ecuador.

van Borm, S., Buschinger, A., Boomsma, J.J. & Billen, J. 2002. Tetraponera ants have gut symbionts related to nitrogen-fixing root-nodule bacteria. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 269(1504): 2023-2027. [vanBorBuBo2002]
Notes: Some Tetraponera ants (Formicidae, Pseudomyrmecinae) subsist almost entirely on amino acid deficient honeydew secretions of pseudococcids and harbour a dense aggregation of bacterial symbionts in a unique pouch-shaped organ at the junction of the midgut and the intestine.

VanBuskirk, P., Hilton, R. & Riedl, H. 2002. Use of horticultural mineral oil for suppression of codling moth and secondary arthropod pests in an areawide mating disruption program. 356-361 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [VanBusHiRi2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Scale species discussed include Quadraspidiotus perniciosus.

Vandermeer, J., Perfecto, I., Nunez, G.I., Phillpott, S. & Ballinas, A.G. 2002. Ants (Azteca sp.) as potential biological control agents in shade coffee production in Chiapas, Mexico. Agroforestry Systems 56(3): 271-276. [VanderPeNu2002]
Notes: The role of Azteca sp. ants as potential biological control agents was studied in an organic coffee farm in Chiapas, Mexico. Individual larvae of Pieris rapae were placed on trees with artificially enhanced ant activity and both time to disappearance of the larvae and ant activity were recorded. There was a general negative relationship between time to disappearance and ant activity. A census of spiders was made of coffee bushes with and without foraging Azteca, encountering a negative relationship between ants and spiders. These results indicate that Azteca ants have potential as pests through their positive effect on scale insects, but also have potential as biological control agents, through their negative effect on potential herbivores. Furthermore, the correlation between ant and spider densities suggests a complicated relationship between these two predatory organisms, implying a more complicated food web structure than simply ants, Homoptera and other herbivores.

Van Driesche, R.G. & Hoddle, M.S. 2003. Biological control of insect pests. 103-115 In: Resh, V.H. & Cardé, R.T. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Insects. Academic Press (Elsevier Science), Amsterdam et al.. [VanDriHo2003]
Notes: Phenacoccus manihoti is discussed as a target pest for the encyrtid wasp Epidinocarsis lopezi on cassava.

Van Driesche, R.G. & Nunn, C. 2003. Status of euonymus scale in Massachusetts fourteen years after release of Chilocorus kuwanae (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Florida Entomologist 86(3): 383-384. [VanDriNu2003]
Notes: The percentage of euonymus plants in the landscape in Massachusetts with heavy euonymus scale (Unaspis euonymi (Comstock) (Homoptera: Diaspididae) infestations has dropped from 19.2% in 1989-1990 to 11.6% in 2002, a 35% decline. For euonymus plants with scale, the proportion of plants on which C. kuwanae was present increased between the two survey periods, with this predator being detected at 43.1% of all plants with heavy scale infestation. The percentage of plants infested with euonymus scale was lower in coastal vs. inland counties. Numbers of plants in Massachusetts dying due to scale infestations have been reduced by nearly 6000 per year, with cost savings of at least 127,756 dollars.

Van Driesche, R.G. (Ed.) 2003. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Washington D.C.. 573 pp. [VanDre2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002.] This volume contains the proceedings of a meeting held in Honolulu, Hawaii, USA that is designed to provide a unified forum for scientists engaged in the biological control of arthropods. The focus of the papers presented in the meeting were conservation, augmentation and importation of new natural enemies for the biological control of arthropod targets using parasitoids and predators. Papers that mention scales include Classical biological control of arthropods in the 21st century (Hoddle), Risks of non-target impact versus stakeholder benefits in classical biological control of arthropods: selected case studies from developing countries (Cock), Abiotic and biotic pest refuges hamper biological control of mealybugs in California vineyards (Daane et al.), Augmentative biological control in North America as a foundation for agricultural pest management: its potential and limitations (Luck et al.), Three targets of classical biological control in the Caribbean: success, contribution, and failure (Michaud), Biological control of the spherical mealybug on Guam and in the Northern Marianas Islands: a classic example of fortuitous biological control (Nechols), Biological control of citrus scale pests in Japan (Takagi), Development of the parasitoid Allotropa sp. and its effect on the suppression of the mealybug Pseudococcus cryptus (Arai), Biological control of the mango mealybug, Rastrococcus invadens (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) in Africa (Bokonon et al.), Ensuring compatibility of biological control of Icerya purchasi Maskell with conservation in the Galapagos (Causton), Douglas Frew Waterhouse -- a dedication (Cullen & Sands), Successes and challenges in augmentative biological control in outdoor agricultural applications: a producer's perspective (Hale & Elliott), Insect predator-prey dynamics and biological control of aphids by ladybirds (Kindlmann & Dixon), Host range testing techniques for parasitoids (Sands Van Driesche), and Evaluating effectiveness of mass releases of the vine mealybug (Planococcus ficus) parasitoid Coccidoxenoides peregrinus in Western Cape Province vineyards, South Africa (Walton & Pringle).

van Klinken, R.D., Walter, G.H. & Ross, M.K. 2002. Drosophilidae (Diptera) of Australia's Northern Territory: ecology and Biogeography. Australian Journal of Entomology 41(3): 236-242. [vanKliWaRo2002]
Notes: The drosophilid fauna is well documented in eastern Australia but is poorly known in other parts of the continent. This paper summarizes what is known of this fauna in the Northern Territory (NT), and includes results from banana trapping in the humid and arid zones. The 42 recorded species include species that breed in fruit, fungi and/or flowers, and a larval predator of scale insects.

van Lenteren, J.C. (Eds.) 2003. Quality Control and Production of Biological Control Agents CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. 327 pp. [vanLen2003]
Notes: Chapters that contain information on scales include Quality of augmentative biological control agents: a historical perspective and lessons learned from evaluating Trichogramma (Luck & Forster), The use of unisexual wasps in biological control (Stouthamer), The parasitoids' need for sweets: sugars in mass rearing and biological control (Wacker), Need for quality control of mass-produced biological control agents (van Lenteren), Commercial availability of biological control agents (van Lenteren) and Guidelines for quality control of commercially produced natural enemies (van Lenteren et al.).

van Lenteren, J.C. 2003a. Need for quality control of mass-produced biological control agents. 1-18 In: van Lenteren, J.C. (Eds.), Quality Control and Production of Biological Control Agents CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. 327 pp. [vanLen2003a]
Notes: Mass-rearing of natural enemies often takes place in small companies with little know-how and understanding of conditions influencing performance, which may result in natural enemies of bad quality and failures with biological control. This makes robust quality control programmes a necessity. Background information is presented on the activity of mass-producing natural enemies, the emergence of the development of quality control worldwide is sketched, basic considerations for quality control are outlined and difficulties encountered when developing quality control are discussed. Hosts mentioned for biological control agents include Planococcus citri, Pseudococcidae and Coccidae.

van Lenteren, J.C. 2003b. Commercial availability of biological control agents. 167-179 In: van Lenteren, J.C. (Eds.), Quality Control and Production of Biological Control Agents CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. 327 pp. [vanLen2003b]
Notes: The commercial use of biological control has seen a very fast development during the past 30 years. Currently, about 85 companies worldwide produce more than 125 species of natural enemies. The largest variety of commercially produced species of natural enemies is available in Europe, although many species are also available in North America. Emerging markets are Latin America, Asia and South Africa. The most commonly sold natural enemies are discussed in this chapter. The recommended release rates, the unit of sale and the target pest(s) are specified. In addition, a list of the commercially available biocontrol agents is provided, together with the target pests and the year of first use. Insects listed as pests include Pseudococcidae, Diaspididae, Coccidae, Icerya purchasi, Matsucoccus feytaudi, Phenacoccus manihoti and Planococcus citri.

van Lenteren, J.C., Hale, A., Klapwijk, J.N., van Schelt, J. & Steinberg, S. 2003. Guidelines for quality control of commercially produced natural enemies. 265-303 In: van Lenteren, J.C. (Eds.), Quality Control and Production of Biological Control Agents CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. 327 pp. [vanLenHaKl2003]
Notes: Lack of quality control procedures during the mass production of natural enemies may lead to failures in biological pest control. An example is presented of deteriorating efficiency of a natural enemy before quality control was applied and the measures that were taken to restore quality. Although some producers of beneficial insects and mites have applied quality control in one form or another for more than 30 years, it was only during the past ten years that collaboration between researchers and the biocontrol industry resulted in the development of the 30 harmonized quality control guidelines that are presented in this chapter. Most guidelines have been ring-tested by commercial producers; some are still in development. For each natural enemy the test conditions and the quality control criteria are given. Finally, future developments in quality control are discussed, such as the need to develop flight and performance tests, and the wish of farmers to obtain a set of simple tests for quality control of natural enemies once they have arrived at the farm. Planococcus citri is among the species mentioned as hosts.

Varadarajan, M.K. & David, P.M.M. 2002. Population dynamics of the coconut mite Aceria guerreronis Keifer (Acari: Eriophyidae) and associated arthropods in Tamil Nadu, India. (In English; Summary In French). Insect Science and its Application 22(1): 47-59. [VaradaDa2002]
Notes: The population dynamics of the coconut mite, Aceria guerreronis Keifer (Acari: Eriophyidae) infesting the coconut fruits was studied during September 1999-May 2000 in Tamil Nadu, India where the mite is a new pest. Mite population declined by 62.6% when the tepal area decreased by 24.3% due to mealybug (Pseudococcus cocotis Mask.) infestation which caused the tepals to deform. The predatory mites Amblyseius sp. and mealybugs were most abundant on the innter tepals.

Varshney, R.K. 2002. A check-list of the scale insects and mealybugs of South Asia (Part - 2). Occasional Paper (Zoological Survey of India) NO. 191: 147 pp. [Varshn2002]
Notes: Families covered include Halimococcidae and Diaspididae (Subfamilies: Parlatoriinae, Odonaspidinae, Aspidiotinae, Diaspidinae).

Varshney, R.K. 2003. Status of taxonomic aspects of the Lac insects of world. Bionotes 5(1): 22-23. [Varshn2003]
Notes: This paper enumerates the factors contributing to the erroneous classification of some lac insects (such as using the family name Kerriidae instead of Tachardiidae, persistently using some invalid or erroneous species names, giving credit to the wrong taxonomic authors, the inability to trace some type specimens of most of the older species, and existence of dubious records) and mentions the taxonomic tools used to differentiate various populations, subspecies and species. The last new genus added, Albotachardina (from China), and the last new species added, Kerria sharda (from eastern India), are noted. Data on the geographical distribution and number of lac insect species in the world are tabulated.

Vasquez, S. & Coviello, R. 2002. New and reemerging grape pests. California Grower 26(6): 8-10. [VasqueCo2002]
Notes: Planococcus ficus.

Veitch, C.R. & Clout, M.N. (Eds.) 2003. Turning the tide: the eradication of invasive species: Proceedings of the International Conference on eradication of island invasives. Invasive Species specialist Group, University of Auckland (Tamaki Campus), Auckland, N.Z.. 424 pp. [VeitchCl2003]
Notes: [Conference held at the University of Auckland in February 2001.] The conference includes a paper by D.R. Towns (Interactions between geckos, honeydew scale insects and host plants revealed on islands in northern New Zealand, following eradication of introduced rats and rabbits) that discusses the scale insect Coelostomidia zealandica (Hemiptera: Margarodidae) infesting ngaio (Myoporum laetum) and karo (Pittosporum crassifolium).

Velayudhan, K.C. & Liji, R.S. 2003. Preliminary screening of indigenous collections of turmeric against shoot borer (Conogethes punctiferalis Guen.) and scale insect (Aspidiella hartii Sign.). Journal of Spices & Aromatic Crops 12(1): 72-76. [VelayuLi2003]
Notes: The incidence of shoot borer (C. punctiferalis) and scale insect (Aspidiella hartii) on the indigenous collection of 489 turmeric accessions under field epiphytotic conditions at Vellanikkara, Thrissur, Kerala, India during the 2001 cropping season was determined. The collections belonged to 21 morphotypic groups of turmeric from different agroclimatic conditions in India. The lowest incidence of shoot borer (mean score 2) was observed in morphotype 2 followed by 2.6 in morphotype 14. The lowest scale insect incidence of 0.5 was scored in morphotype 6. Eighty accessions were free of scale insect but were susceptible to shoot borer. The highest susceptibility to the scale insect was recorded by accessions IC 137023 and IC 88895. A total of 22 accessions were tolerant to shoot borer with <3 score.

Velez Ocampo, P.M., Avila Uribe, M.M., Berdeja Martínez, B.M., Ascencio Almanza, D. & Cuevas Correa, S. 2002. [Cochineal production in three towns of Hidalgo and it's didactic application.] Producción de grana carmín en tres municipios de Hidalgo y su aplicación didáctica. (In Spanish). 96-97 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 pp. [VelezOAvBe2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] This paper reports on an experiment designed to involve students in an investigation of cochineal.

Verde, G. lo, Perricone, G. & Mantia, T. la 2002. [The effects of different windbreaks on arthropod populations and on the bioagronomic characteristics of a citrus orchard in Sicily.] (In Italian; Summary In English). Italia Forestale e Montana 57(4): 390-408. [VerdePeMa2002]
Notes: [Original title: L'azione di differenti tipi di frangiventi sull'artropodofauna e sulle caratteristiche bioagronomiche di un aranceto nel territorio di menfi (AG).)] Studies were conducted in two orange orchard plots in Agrigento province, Italy. One plot was protected by a 7-m high windbreak of the olive cultivar Olea europaea var. cipressino, which has rapid bushy growth, and is resistant to insect pests and climatic extremes. The other plot was surrounded by a 15-m high windbreak of Cupressus arizonica, a more permeable shelterbelt (thus protecting the orchard from possible frost damage), but lower branches tend to lose foliage. A control line of 7-m high vegetation was also surveyed along a stream, composed of spontaneous natural vegetation (Salix pedicellata, Rubus ulmifolius). Arthropods were sampled on windbreak trees and on orange trees both close to and farther from the windbreaks. Citrus tree diameter increment was also estimated. Results showed that arthropod diversity and abundance were positively influenced by the presence of windbreaks, particularly with R. ulmifolius. The scale insect Aonidiella aurantii was significantly more abundant on orange tree rows close to windbreaks. Stem growth and fruit productivity were significantly negatively affected by windbreaks.

Verdone, A., Capizzi, C. & Russo, A. 2003. Investigations of orange juice contaminated with insects. (In Italian; Summary In English). Industrie delle Bevande 32(188): 563-570. [VerdonCaRu2003]
Notes: Samples of 16 red and 26 yellow orange juices originating from 15 production and packaging companies were obtained at Italian supermarkets. Data are tabulated on average contamination levels with whole insects, insect fragments, ova, hairs and other insect parts found in juices by the filth-test analysis. Results showed that 71.42% of samples had low levels of sporadic contamination (not exceeding 6 fragments/sample) with Pseudococcidae and Diaspididae introduced during washing and brushing of oranges, and to a lesser with Drosophilidae.

Vétek, G. & Pénzes, B. 2004. [The incidence of cane pests in a traditional and an autumn-fruiting raspberry plantation.] Vesszokártevok elofordulása termovesszon és sarjon termo málnaültetvényekben. (In Hungarian; Summary In English). Növényvédelem 40(1): 3-10. [VetekPe2004]
Notes: Studies were conducted between 2001 and 2002 in 'Malling Exploit' and 'Autumn Bliss' raspberry plantations in Nagyréde, Hungary to identify the pests responsible for cane death and their natural enemies. Differences between cultivars and growing methods played an important role in the incidence of pests in the two plantations. In both plantations, the most frequent pest damaging canes was the raspberry cane midge (Resseliella theobaldi). However, this pest was severely parasitized by a chalcidoid species belonging to the genus Aprostocetus. The rose stem girdler (Agrilus aurichalceus [Agrilus macroderus]) was also an important pest damaging raspberry canes. The chalcidoid species Baryscapus agrilorum and Tetrastichus heeringi, which were both reared on Agrilus aurichalceus larvae, did not give significant control of the pest population. Larvae of Synanthedon tipuliformis and Zeuzera pyrina were found living inside raspberry canes but did not cause any significant damage. Aulacaspis rosae, Oecanthus pellucens, Atrococcus bejbienkoi and Lasioptera rubi had no significant contribution to cane death.

Vidal, E., Dominguez, J., Zarzo, M., Castillo, B., Chueca, P. & Moltó, E. 2003. Modelling the mortality of the California red scale (Aonidiella aurantii Maskell) produced by a mineral oil application in laboratory conditions. Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 26(6): 121. [VidalDoZa2003]
Notes: [Integrated control in citrus fruit crops. Proceedings of the IOBC/WPRS Working Group, Valencia, Spain, 6-8 November, 2002. Garcia-Marí, F. (Ed.) Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP).] The high cost and the negative environmental impact of synthetic pesticide applications increases the use of less aggressive products, such as mineral oils, whose optimal application conditions in the Mediterranean citrus orchards need to be established. In this research, trials with a Potter Tower were conducted to characterize the deposition of a mineral oil by the measurement of the coverage, the number of impacts per unit area and the distribution of the size of the impacts. The applications were performed at different volumes and pressures. In parallel, the same applications were sprayed over California red scale (A. aurantii) populations grown in the laboratory to model the relationship between the deposition parameters and the mortality of the insect at the different growing stages. The models were obtained by fitting the experimental data to predefined functions and allowed to estimate the coverage, number of impacts per square centimetre and impact size distribution required to achieve 95% mortality.

Villegas y de Gante, M., Palencia León, L. & Rodríguez Santillán, O. 2002. [Ethnobiological study of Dactylopius spp. and Opuntia spp., in the town of Tezontepec, HGO.] Estudio etnobiológico de Dactylopius spp., en villa de Tezontepec, HGO. (In Spanish). 101-103 In: Portillo, L. & Vigueras, A.L. (Eds.), [Proceedings. 2nd International Congress of the Cochineal & Natural Dyes. 2nd International Meeting of the Working Group on Cochineal CactusNet FAO.] , Guadalajara, Mexico. circa 163 pp. [VillegPaRo2002]
Notes: [Original title of conference: Memoria. II Congreso Internacional de Grana Cochinilla y Colorantes Naturales y II Reunión Internacional del Grupo de Trabajo en Cochinilla, Cactusnet-FAO.] The expansion of cochineal production is promoted for this town.

Vogelgesang, M. & Szklarzewicz, T. 2002 (2001). Egg envelopes in scale insects (Hemiptera, Coccinea). Bollettino di Zoologia Agraria e di Bachicoltura (Milano) 33(3): 517. [VogelgSz2002]
Notes: [Special Issue: Proceedings of the ISSIS IX International Symposium on Scale Insect Studies held at The University of Padua, Italy, Sept. 2-8, 2001.] [abstract of poster] Ovaries and eggs of Acanthococcus aceris, Aspidiotus nerii, Eriopeltis stammeri, Eulecanium sericeum, Gossyparia spuria, Nipaecoccus nipae and Orthezia urticae have been examined using scanning and transmission electron microscopy.

Vogt, H. & Heimbach, U. (Eds.) 2002. IOBC/WPRS Working Group 'Pesticides and Beneficial Organisms' Bulletin OILB/SROP (Sect. Reg. Ouest Palearctique) 25(11): x + 123 pp. [VogtHe2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of the meeting at San Michele All'Adige, Vogt, H. & Heimbach, U. (Ed.), Trento, Italy, 3-6 October, 2001. Publisher: International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants (OIBC/OILB), West Palaearctic Regional Section (WPRS/SROP), Dijon, France.] These proceedings contain 15 papers covering diverse topics in pesticide side-effect research, focusing on different beneficial organisms (including predator arthropods), testing tiers (from the laboratory to the field) and methodological aspects. Three papers focus on the risk of pesticide use toward non-target arthropods in off-field areas. Two papers containing information on scales include Effects of Oikos (a. i. Azadirachtin A) on the vedalia ladybeetle Rodolia cardinalis (Mulsant) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) (Bernardo & Viggiani) and Mimic-Confirm (a. i. Tebufenozide): a tool for a soft and ecologically sound pest control in pear orchards (Pasqualini & Civolani).

Vysokopoyasnyi, A.I. 2004. [Plant quarantine in Kuban.] (In Russian). Zashchita i Karantin Rastenii No. 5: 12-14. [Vysoko2004]
Notes: The structure and activities of the quarantine service in the Krasnodar region, southern Russia, to prevent and control the spread of diseases, pests and weeds in crops are outlined. Occurrence is reported of 14 quarantine organisms in Kuban, including the San Jose scale (Diaspidiotus perniciosus).

Wäckers, F.L. 2003. The parasitoids' need for sweets: sugars in mass rearing and biological control. 59-72 In: van Lenteren, J.C. (Eds.), Quality Control and Production of Biological Control Agents CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. 327 pp. [Wacker2003]
Notes: It is generally accepted that most parasitoids and many predators require sugar sources, such as nectar or honeydew, to cover their energetic needs. Protocols for the mass rearing and release of these natural enemies often take these sugar requirements into account. In this chapter, an overview is presented of the field of parasitoid food ecology. After discussing the various ways in which parasitoid fitness can benefit from sugar feeding, various natural sugar sources are compared in respect of their function in nature and their suitability as parasitoid nutrition, as well as their composition and the volume produced. Coccid honey dew is one of the sugars listed.

Waite, G.K. 2002. Pests and pollinators of mango. 103-129 In: Peña, J., Sharp, J. & Wysoki, M. (Eds.), Tropical Fruit Pests and Pollinators: Biology, Economic Importance, Natural Enemies and Control. CABI Publishing, . 448 pp. [Waite2002]
Notes: Scale pests of mango covered in this chapter include Aulacaspis tubercularis, Ceroplastes pseudoceriferus, C. rubens, Drosicha stebbingi, Ferrisia virgata, Phenacaspis dilatata, Planococcus lilacinus, Pulvinaria (Chloropulvinaria) psidii, Rastrococcus invadens and R. spinosus. Distribution, biology, biological control, damage and monitoring and control are discussed. [Available on the internet at http://www.cabi-publishing.org/Bookshop/Readingroom/0851994342/0851994342Ch4.pdf on September 2003.]

Waite, G.K. & Hwang, J.S. 2002. Pests of litchi and longan. 331-359 In: Peña, J., Sharp, J. & Wysoki, M. (Eds.), Tropical Fruit Pests and Pollinators: Biology, Economic Importance, Natural Enemies and Control. CABI Publishing, . 448 pp. [WaiteHw2002]
Notes: Scale species listed as pests include Aulacaspis spp., Ceroplastes ceriferus, C. rubens, Coccus hesperidum, Fiorinia sp. nr. nephelii, Fiorinia nephelii, Hemiberlesia lataniae, Icerya seychellarum, Kerria lacca, Nipaecoccus vastator, Parlatoria P. cinerea, pseudopyri, Parasaissetia nigra, Planococcus citri, Pulvinaria (Chlorpulvinaria) psidii and Saissetia coffeae. [Available on the internet at http://www.cabi-publishing.org/Bookshop/Readingroom/0851994342/0851994342Ch11.pdf on September 2003.]

Wakgari, W.M. & Giliomee, J.H. 2003. Natural enemies of three mealybug species (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) found on citrus and effects of some insecticides on the mealybug parasitoid Coccidoxenoides peregrinus (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) in South Africa. Bulletin of Entomological Research 93(3): 243-254. [WakgarGi2003]
Notes: The population density of mealybug species in some South African citrus orchards has increased to pest status in recent years. The characterization of the natural enemy complex and quantification of their contribution to the control of Planococcus citri (Risso), Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni-Tozzetti) and Pseudococcus calceolariae (Maskell) on Citrus limon (L.) and Citrus reticulata (Blanco) was investigated through intensive sampling. Eight primary and four secondary parasitoids, and two predator species were identified from P. citri and P. calceolariae. Anagyrus pseudococci (Girault) and Coccidoxenoides peregrinus (Timberlake) were the most common species, accounting for 44% and 21% of the total. Of the five primary parasitoids reared from P. longispinus, A. pseudococci and Anagyrus sp. were predominant, comprising 41% and 30%. Nymphal and adult parasitism (range=0-26% vs. 0-66%) and predation (range=0-5.6% vs. 0-4.1%) varied significantly between host trees and mealybug species (P<0.001). The numbers of nymphal instars and adult stages of P. calceolariae and P. longispinus and the nymphal stage of P. citri that were parasitized and killed by predators correlated significantly with the total number of hosts on which they acted (P<0.01), suggesting a density-dependent association. Laboratory bioassay of nine contact insecticides (methidathion, methomyl, methyl-parathion, parathion, profenofos and prothiofos) against C. peregrinus indicated that all were highly toxic, causing 98-100% mortality in <6 h of treatment. The IGRs fenoxycarb and triflumuron did not cause significant parasitoid mortality (P>0.05). However, a mixture of pyriproxyfen and mineral oil caused a marginally significant mortality (P<0.05).

Wakgari, W.M. & Giliomee, J.H. 2003a. The biology of three mealybug species (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) found on citrus in the Western Cape Province, South Africa. African Entomology 11(2): 173-182. [WakgarGi2003a]
Notes: The biology of Planococcus citri, Pseudococcus calceolariae and Pseudococcus longispinus on Citrus limon and Citrus reticulata in the Western Cape Province of South Africa was studied through intensive field-sampling and rearing in the laboratory. P. citri was most common on C. limon while P. longispinus was most abundant on C. reticulata. Fruits of butternut (Cucurbita moschata) and lemon (C. limon) were used as substrates for rearing the three mealybug species in the laboratory. The fecundity of females of all species reared on butternuts was significantly higher than females reared on lemons. Egg viability for the three species was not affected by the rearing substrates. The population density of mealybugs in the field varied significantly between orchards and mealybug species (P<0.001). No distinct phenological pattern was seen in the field for any of the species. This was due to asynchronous progeny production, resulting in overlap of generations. The implications of these findings for biological control of these mealybugs in citrus orchards in South Africa are discussed.

Wakgari, W.M. & Giliomee, J.H. 2004. Description of adult and immature female instars of Pseudococcus viburni (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) found on apple in South Africa. African Entomology 12(1): 29-38. [WakgarGi2004]
Notes: Pseudococcus viburni (Signoret), commonly known as the obscure mealybug, was responsible for the rejection of large consignments of South African apple fruits destined for the U.S.A. market during 2002 because the immature stages could not be identified. Thus an identification guide is required as an aid to the correct identification of all developmental stages of this species before or during foreign quarantine inspections on export fruits. The first-instar, second-instar female, third-instar female and adult female were described from mealybug populations on field-collected apples (Malus domestica Korkh.). Illustrations and a diagnostic key to the different stages are provided. Morphometeric characteristics useful for separating the stages are discussed.

Waldkircher, G. & Maschwitz, U. 2003. Nest building behavior of the South East Asian weaver ant Camponotus (Karavaievia) texens (Formicidae : Formicinae). Sociobiology 41(2): 383-402. [WaldkiMa2003]
Notes: Camponotus texens is a weaver ant found in South East Asia. The species weaves single chambered silk pavilions using larval silk. Tree bark particles are incorporated in the silk network of the chamber walls. Independent from actual pavilion constructions these particles are gained in a complicated collecting procedure only performed after heavy rainfall. Usually they are kept in specifically constructed stores until used. The temporary fastening of particles constitutes a new functional context of silk usage in weaver ants. The construction features of the pavilions vary greatly and depend on the given leaf structures. However, they always remain single chambered even after being enlarged by worker ants. Pavilions are part of a complex polydomous nest housing containing at the same time adult ants, brood, and a huge number of trophobiotic scale insects of various species. C. texens is active at night but weaving activity can be observed during day and night. It is shown as a complex behavioral interaction of the involved worker ants between each other and between ants and larvae with a subtly differentiated division of labor comprising weavers, transporters, building organizers and guards. The weaving action itself is completely controlled by worker ants. Finally the nest building strategies of Camponotus texens are compared with those of other weaving ants.

Walton, V.M., Daane, K.M. & Pringle, K.L. 2004. Monitoring Planococcus ficus in South African vineyards with sex pheromone-baited traps. Crop Protection 23(11): 1089-1096. [WaltonDaPr2004]
Notes: A pheromone-based monitoring system was tested for the vine mealybug, Planococcus ficus (Signoret), in South African vineyards. Rubber septa were loaded with a 100 micro g dose of racemic lavandulyl senecioate, the synthetic P. ficus sex pheromone, and placed in vineyards to monitor male mealybug flight activity and lure performance. Concurrently, vineyards were visually sampled to assess P. ficus density, as measured by percent stem infestation. P. ficus males captured in pheromone-baited traps were significantly and positively correlated to P. ficus densities, as determined by more labor-intensive visual sampling methods. The baited lures were attractive to male P. ficus for 10 weeks or more, with an effective range of at least 50 m. A simple model was developed to use pheromone-baited trap data to estimate P. ficus infestation levels. This model's use may be limited because of the lure's high level of attractiveness, which often resulted in positive trap catches in vineyards where no female P. ficus were located during the visual searches.

Walton, V.M. & Pringle, K.L. 2003. Evaluating effectiveness of mass releases of the vine mealybug (Planococcus ficus) parasitoid Coccidoxenoides peregrinus in Western Cape Province vineyards, South Africa. 524-532 In: Van Dreische, R.G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Biological Control of Arthropods. FHTET-03-05. USDA Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, Washington D.C.. 573 pp. [WaltonPr2003]
Notes: [Conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, 14-18 January 2002.] This study was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of mass releases of C. peregrinus as an alternative to chemical control of P. ficus.

Walton, V.M. & Pringle, K.L. 2004. A survey of mealybugs and associated natural enemies in vineyards in the Western Cape Province, South Africa. South African Journal of Enology and Viticulture 25(1): 23-25. [WaltonPr2004]
Notes: A survey of mealybugs and their associated natural enemies occurring in vineyards was conducted in the Western Cape Province, South Africa during the 1999/2000 and 2000/2001 seasons. Planococcus ficus was the dominant mealybug and was found for the first time on roots of grapevines. This has far-reaching implications for the control of this important vine leafroll virus vector as control measures have been focused on above-ground control. Other mealybugs recorded on vines were Pseudococcus longispinus and Ferrisia malvastra. Pseudococcus viburni and Pseudococcus solani were found on weeds in vineyards. The more frequently recorded natural enemies of Planococcus ficus were species of Nephus predatory beetles and the parasitoids, Coccidoxenoides perminutus, Anagyrus sp. and Leptomastix dactylopii.

Wang, Z.L., Chen, X.M., Wang, S.Y., Ye, S.D. & Chen, Y. 2003. Study on the parthenogenesis of Ericerus pela (Chavannes). (In Chinese). Forest Research 16(4): 386-390. [WangChWa2003]
Notes: The parthenogenesis phenomenon of Ericerus pela was reported for the first time. Ericerus pela could reproduce parthenogenetically when males were wiped off. The research results showed that the biological characters of two generations of the parthenogenesis population were very similar to those of the natural gamogenesis population. Comparing the parthenogenesis with the natural gamogenesis populations, the egg number of parthenogenesis population was lower and the sex ratio was the same, while the mortality of the first generation of the parthenogenesis population was lower and the mortality of the second generation was similar to that of the natural gamogenesis population. The quantity of excreting white wax of the first generation of the parthenogenesis population was similar while the second generation was lower than that of the natural gamogenesis population.

Ware, A.B. 2003. Pest repercussion potential of kaolin on citrus. African Entomology No. 1: 140-142. [Ware2003]
Notes: The effects of kaolin on insect pest density in orange cultivars Delta Valencia and Shamouti grown at Crocodile Valley near Nelspruit in Mpumalanga province, South Africa, were studied. Kaolin was mixed with M-03 spreader/sticker (20 ml/kg kaolin powder) and sprayed (55 kg/ha) at fortnight interval beginning at the last week of November 1999. Damage by leafminer (Phyllocnistis citrella) and orange dog (Papilio demodocus) was recorded on 13 January 2000. By the end of the trial, leaf miner was observed in 31% of the untreated trees and 21% of the treated trees, whereas orange dog was observed in 3.8% of the untreated trees and 2.6% of the treated trees. Red scale (Aonidiella aurantii) was detected in 58.6% of the treated trees and 20.7% of the untreated trees. Fruit infestation by red scale was less than 3% in the untreated trees, and the infested fruits had less than or equal to 5 scales. On the other hand, up to 42% of the fruits in treated trees were infested and each fruit was infested with more than 5 scales. False coding moth (Cryptophlebia leucotreta) was found in 3 fruits from the untreated trees and 9 fruits from the treated trees, indicating that kaolin did not significantly inhibit oviposition. Citrus red mite (Panonychus citri) was observed in 4 treated trees but not in the untreated trees. Mealy bug was evident in 2 of the treated trees but not in the untreated trees. These results suggest that kaolin may have disrupted parasitoid activity. Muscle scale (Lepidosaphes beckii) was recorded in 1 of the treated trees, whereas aphids were recorded on 7 of the untreated trees and 4 of the treated trees. Based on these results, it is predicted that the large-scale application of kaolin will result in armoured scale (Diaspididae) repercussions.

Watson, G.W. 2002a. Arthropods of Economic Importance: Diaspididae of the World. (Series Title: World Biodiversity Database). ETI Information Services (Expert Center for Taxonomic Identification), Berkshire, UK. [Watson2002a]
Notes: [Published in collaboration with UNESCO Publishing, Paris, France.] This CD-ROM holds an interactive identification guide and information source on economically important diaspidids of the world for all applied entomologists working in agriculture, forestry and horticulture, as well as in plant protection and quarantine. It contains a pictorial key to approximately 200 species, detailed information on their taxonomy (including illustrations of diagnostic characters), and information on their life histories, host plants, and distribution. Notes on related non-pest species and diagnostic characters to distinguish them from economically important species are also included. This work was compiled using the most recent literature from the best experts in the field and using unique photographs provided by numerous institutes around the world.

Watson, G.W. 2002b. A Systematic Catalogue of the Eriococcidae (Felt Scales) (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) of the World. Bulletin of Entomological Research 92:547-551 [Watson2002b]
Notes: This book review discusses the print catalog by Miller and Gimpel, based on the website ScaleNet, and covering 541 valid species in 67 genera in April of 2000.

Watson, G.W. & Malumphy, C.P. 2004. Icerya purchasi Maskell, cottony cushion scale (Hemiptera: Margarodidae), causing damage to ornamental plants growing outdoors in London. British Journal of Entomology and Natural History 17(2): 105-109. [WatsonMa2004]
Notes: lcerya purchasi Maskell is reported as established outdoors in England for the first time. It has been found on ornamental plants belonging to 24 genera, and caused severe damage to Acacia dealbata, (Choisya ternata), Hebe sp. Laurus nobilis and Pryracantha coccinea. Interception records of I. purchasi on imported plant material to England are summarised.

Wei, J.R. 2002. Retrospection of alien invasive forest insect pests in China. Chinese Forestry Science and Technology 1(3): 66-70. [Wei2002]
Notes: Eleven species of alien invasive forest insect pests found in China are discussed. Their origins, inland distribution, invasive time, hosts, and damage are recorded with respect to biological invasion. Their control methods are also discussed. Species mentioned include Icerya purchasi, Lepidosaphes ulmi, Lopholeucaspis japonica, Matsucoccus matsumurae and Pseudococcus cryptus.

Wei, X. & Wu, S. 2004. [A new species of the family Eriococcidae (Homoptera: Coccoidea) from China.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Journal of Beijing Forestry University 26(4): 61-65. [WeiWu2004]
Notes: Eriococcus koelreuterius was described from Koelreuteria paniculata.

Wen, H.C., Lu, F.M., Hao, H.H. & Liou, T.D. 2002. [Insects pests and their injuries and control on longan in Southern Taiwan.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Journal of Agricultural Research of China 51(3): 56-64. [WenLuHa2002]
Notes: Surveys of insects and other pests on longan were carried out from 1996 to 2001 in southern Taiwan. A total of 59 species of insect pests and 18 species, including two species of mites and two species of snails, were found to be new records in Taiwan. Among them, the mango aphid (Greenidea mangiferae), litchi fruit borer (Conopomorpha sinensis), longan psyllid (Neophacopteron auporine), kerria insect or lac insect (Kerria lacca), pink wax scale (Ceroplastes rubens) and termite (Odontotermes formosanus) were considered as economically important. This report describes the symptom of their injuries and percentage of infestation. Chemical trails showed that 90% methomyl WP, 80% fenthion EC, 3% carbosulfan G and 5% fonofos G, and 40.8% chlorpyrifos EC were very effective for controlling longan psyllid, litchi fruit borer, lac insect, and termites, respectively.

Weppler, R.A., Luck, R.F. & Morse, J.G. 2003. Studies on rearing Metaphycus helvolus (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) for augmentative release against black scale (Homoptera: Coccidae) on citrus in California. Biological Control 28(1): 118-128. [WeppleLuMo2003]
Notes: We conducted an evaluation of insectary production of black scale, Saissetia oleae (Olivier), and the encyrtid parasitoid Metaphycus helvolus (Compere) at the Fillmore Insectary in Fillmore, CA. Insectary scale, reared on 3-year-old oleander plants, tended to be smaller on leaves than those on stems and largest on green stems greater than or equal to 3 mm in diameter. Many scale were below the optimal size range for parasitization when M. helvolus were first released to "sting" them. The majority of parasitoids (79%) were produced from scale on large green stems. Plants we evaluated produced a mean of 231 female M. helvolus and the sex ratio was near 1:1. When M. helvolus were allowed to oviposit only during discrete 3-day periods (days 0-3, 3-6, 6-9, or 9-12) on 33 day-old scale (at day 0), there were no significant differences in the mean numbers of parasitoid progeny produced among the four treatment periods; however, there appeared to be a trend towards higher production later in the "stinging" process. Female parasitoids emerged from larger scale than male parasitoids. We suggest that insectary production might be improved by delaying the normal "stinging" process until scales are 36 days old. Other methods of reducing per unit parasitoid cost are suggested that might be optimized if alternative methods of rearing black scale could be developed.

Wheeler, A.G. 2004. Largidea davisi Knight, a rarely collected plant bug (Hemiptera: Miridae: Deraeocorinae) associated with pitch pine in the northeastern United States. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 106(1): 85-89. [Wheele2004]
Notes: Described in 1917 and known previously only from Cape Cod, Massachusetts, and Long Island and near New York City, New York (ca. 14 specimens), the deraeocorine mirid Largidea davisi Knight is newly reported from Connecticut, Maine, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island. Additional records are given for Massachusetts and New York. This univoltine predator was found only on pitch pine (Pinus rigida Mill.), typically in extensive and remnant pine barrens. The gall-forming margarodid scale Matsucoccus gallicolus Morrison is suggested as prey of this late-season plant bug.

Whitehead, P.F. 2003. Ectopsocus briggsi McLachlan, 1889 (Psocopt., Ectopsocidae) and the Cottony Camellia Scale. Entomologist's Monthly Magazine 139(1673-1675): 240. [Whiteh2003]

Whiting, D.C. 2003. Potential of controlled atmosphere and air cold storage for postharvest disinfestation of New Zealand kiwifruit. Acta Horticulturae 600: 143-148. [Whitin2003]
Notes: [Proceedings of the Eighth International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, Rotterdam, Netherlands, 8-13 July, 2001. Oosterhaven, J. & Peppelenbos, H.W. (Eds.) Volume 1. Publisher: International Society for Horticultural Science (ISHS).] New Zealand 'Hayward' kiwifruit are held under controlled atmosphere cold storage (2% O2, 5% CO2 at 0 deg C, CACS), or air cold storage (air at 0 deg C, CS) to extend the postharvest storage life of the fruit. The impact of these storage regimes on the survival of quarantine pests possibly present on the fruit after harvest has recently been evaluated. The mortality responses of armoured scales, Hemiberlesia spp., exposed to these storage treatments were examined. CACS and CS were equally effective against armoured scales. Mature scales were more tolerant of both storage treatments than immature scales. The potential of these storage treatments to disinfest New Zealand kiwifruit cultivars exported to the Japanese market is discussed.

Wiggins, G.J., Grant, J.F. & Windham, M.T. 2004. Associations between causal agents of the beech bark disease complex [Cryptococcus fagisuga (Homoptera: Cryptococcidae) and Nectria spp.] in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Environmental Entomology 33(5): 1274-1281. [WigginGrWi2004]
Notes: American beech, Fagus grandifolia Ehrhart, is currently threatened by the insect-mediated disease complex known as beech bark disease. The organisms (beech scale, Cryptococcus fagisuga Lindinger, and two pathogenic fungi, Nectria galligena Bresadola and Nectria coccinea variety faginata Lohman, Watson, and Ayers) associated with beech bark disease were assessed using a qualitative rating system and correlated with other biotic and abiotic factors in 10 permanent plots in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park from spring 1994 through spring 1997. Tree mortality, as well as the presence of another scale species [Xylococculus betulae (Pergande)], also were documented and analyzed. During this study, incidence of C. fagisuga and overall tree mortality increased (55.6-87.9 and 16.0-26.8%, respectively). A forward stepwise logistic regression model selected average overall ratings of C. fagisuga, sum of presence of X. betulae, average presence of. X. betulae, average overall ratings of Nectria spp., maximum presence of X. betulae, sum of south ratings of C. fagisuga, average south ratings of C. fagisuga, and diameter at breast height (dbh) of the tree as significant variables that best explained mortality of American beech. Pearson correlation analysis showed significant associations between ratings of Nectria spp. and C. fagisuga from both the previous season and previous year during fall 1996 and spring 1997. Moderate correlations between elevation, as well as aspect, and north, south, and overall ratings of C. fagisuga from fall 1995 to spring 1997 were documented. The significant association between presence of C. fagisuga and infection by Nectria spp. suggests that control of C. fagisuga could decrease occurrence and slow the spread of beech bark disease. Unless appropriate control and/or management of the disease complex is identified and implemented, mortality of American beech is expected to increase throughout most areas in the Great Smoky Mountains.

Williams, D.J. 2002. Scale insects (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) described by James Anderson M.D. of Madras. Journal of Natural History 36: 237-246. [Willia2002]
Notes: In a series of 14 letters to Sir Joseph Banks published in 1787 and 1788, James Anderson described the scale insect genus Chloeoon as new and eight new species of scale insects, all from India. these are Chloeoon choromandelensis, Coccus diacopeis, C. erion, C. koleos, C. microogenes, C. narcodes, C. oogenes and C. trichodes. The descriptions were spread among the letters and it was not until the 13th and 14th letters were published that most of the species were named. Although the true identity of the species may never be known, they are discussed here and all are regarded as being mealybugs of the family Pseudococcidae. The name Porphyrophora airae (Anderson), proposed for a species in the family Margarodidae, is invalid and the species should be known as P. indica (Green).

Williams, D.J. 2002b. IV. The mealybug tribe Allomyrmococcini and its association with herdsman ants of the genus Dolichoderus in southern Asia. (In English; Summary In German). 115-181 In: Dill, M., Williams, D.J. & Maschwitz, U. (Eds.), Herdsmen Ants and their Mealybug Partners, Band 557 Abhandlungen der Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft, . 373 pp. [Willia2002b]
Notes: The purpose of this chapter is to name, describe and illustrate the mealybug species discussed in the other sections of this work. The tribe Allomyrmococcini is placed in the subfamily Pseudococcinae. The only mealybugs that could be confused with the Allomyrmococcini in southern Asia are in the hypogeic genera {Eumyrmococcus} Silvestri} and {Xenococcus} Silvestri, associated with the ant genus {Acropyga} Roger. Topics discussed in relation to this tribe include habit and economic importance, life cycles, morphology, and list of genera and species. The species listed are {Allomyrmococcus acariformis, Archeomyrmococcus dolichoderi}, new sp., {Bolbococcus oresbius}, new sp., {B. sabahanus}, new sp., {Borneococcus bauensis}, new sp., {B. calvescens}, new sp., {B. pastorius}, new sp., {Dicranococcus apiensis}, new sp., {D. montanus}, new sp., {D. sabahensis}, new sp., {Dicranococcus storki}, new sp., {Doryphorococcus lentiginosus}, new sp., {Hippeococcus bundericus}, new sp. {H. rappardi}, new sp., {H. wegnari}, new sp., {Malaicoccus cameronensis}, new sp., {M. clavulatus}, new sp., {M. eastopi}, new sp., {M. formicarii, M. khooi, M. kubahensis}, new sp., {M. maschwitzi}, new sp., {M. moundi, M. pilulosus}, new sp., {M. poringensis}, new sp., {M. riouwensis, M. sarawakensis}, new sp., {M. sumatranus}, new sp., {M. takahashii, M. tapahensis}, new sp., {M. tiomanensis}, new sp., {Paramyrmococcus chiengraiensis, P. vietnamensis, Promyrmococcus dilli}, new sp., {P. wayi}, new sp., and {Thaimyrmococcus daviesi}, new sp.

Williams, D.J. 2004. A synopsis of the subterranean mealybug genus Neochavesia Williams and Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae: Rhizoecinae). Journal of Natural History 38(22): 2883-2899. [Willia2004]
Notes: The neotropical mealybug genus Neochavesia, associated with the ant genus Acropyga Roger, is discussed and placed in the tribe Xenococcini on the bases that it lacks dorsal ostioles, the distal end of the circulus is depressed and cup-shaped, and the third-instar female is a pupa. These are characters shared by Xenococcus Silvestri and Eumyrmococcus Silvestri, also in the tribe Xenococcini, and differ from those in the tribe Rhizoecini, the other tribe in the subfamily Rhizoecinae. Two new species, Neochavesia iwokramae sp. nov. and N. lapollai sp. nov., are described from Guyana, and the female pupal instar and adult male of N. lapollai and the adult male of N. caldasiae (Balachowsky) are described and illustrated. A key to adult females is provided.

Williams, D.J. 2004a. Mealybugs of southern Asia. The Natural History Museum, London. 896 pp. [Willia2004a]
Notes: The taxonomic work discusses the mealybugs (Hemiptera, Sternorrhyncha, Coccoidea, Pseudococcidae and Putoidae) of southern Asia, an area comprising 17 countries (Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brunei, Burma, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam). It reviews 354 species in 62 genera, of which 147 species and 6 genera are new to science. There are 15 new combinations of species and 19 species are placed in synonymy. A key to genera and keys to species are provided. For each species a description is given, followed by a distribution list and notes on biology, host plant and economic importance when known. Full-page illustrations are provided for all 339 species that have been available for study. The new genera described are Aemulantonina, Crenicoccus, Exallomochlus, Extanticoccus, Hordeolicoccus and Lanceacoccus. Birenracoccus Ali is placed in synonymy with Phenacoccus Cockerell (syn. n.), Heteroheliococcus Wu & Tang and Novonalicoccus Ghosh & Ghose are here regarded as synonyms of Heliococcus Sulc (syn. n.), Lachnodiopsis Borchsenius is synonymised with Paraputo Laing (syn. n.), Planococcoides Ezzat & McConnell and Indococcus Ali are synonymised with Formicococcus Takahashi (syn. n.), and Parkermicus Khalid & Shafee is treated as a synonym of Dysmicoccus Ferris (syn. n.). Lectotypes for 31 species are designated. For reasons given in the text, the opportunity is taken to include a single species of the family Putoidae, the first to be described from tropical Asia.

Williams, D.J. 2004b. Two new mealybug species from the Falkland Islands (Hemiptera, Sternorrhyncha, Coccoidea, Pseudococcidae). Zootaxa 659: 1-8. [Willia2004b]
Notes: Two new mealybug species Rhizoecus bolacis sp. nov. and Trionymus jonesi sp. nov., are described from the Falkland Islands, the first species in any family of scale insects to be recorded from these islands. Both species live on the roots of Bolax gummifera (Apiaceae) and were extracted using Tullgren funnel apparatus.

Williams, M., Hodgson, C. & Danzig, E.M. 2002. A new genus and new species of Coccidae from Central America (Homoptera: Coccinea). Zoosystematica Rossica 11(1): 111-126. [WilliaHoDa2002]
Notes: A new genus of soft scale, Prionococcus Williams, Hodgson & Danzig, is introduced to take two new species, P. agave Williams, Hodgson & Danzig and P. americanus Williams, Hodgson & Danzig from Central America. The adult females of both are described, as are the first instar and second instar male and female and pupa of the latter species. P. americanus has been intercepted several times in the US on imported plants. The new genus is considered to belong to the Coccidae tribe Coccini, and a key is provided to separate it from other genera in this tribe.

Williams, D.J. & LaPolla, J.S. 2004. The subterranean mealybug, Rhizoecus colombiensis (Hambleton) (Hem., Pseudococcidae), described originally from Colombia, now found associated with the ant Acropyga epedana Snelling (Hym., Formicidae) in Arizona, U.S.A. Entomologist's Monthly Magazine 140: 106. [WilliaLa2004]
Notes: This short paper reviews the literature for examples of R. colombiensis and its association with ants.

Williams, D.J. & Martin, J.H. 2003. A palm mealybug, Palmicultor palmarum (Ehrhorn) (Hem. Pseudococcidae), now found in the Canary Islands. Entomologist's Monthly Magazine 139(1670/1672): 178. [WilliaMa2003]
Notes: This mealybug was first described from Hawaii by Ehrhorn (1916) on various palms. It is closely related to P. browni and P. guamensis. This brief note announces its discovery for the first time in Tenerife, La Punta del Hidalgo on Cocos nucifera.

Williams, D.J. & Miller, D.R. 2003. Depository of the holotype of Antonina nakaharai Williams and Miller (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 105(3): 797. [WilliaMi2003]

Witt, A.B.R. 2004. Aceria liopeltus Meyer (Acari: Eriophyidae) and Asterolecanium conspicuum Brain (Hemiptera: Asterolecaniidae), two potential biological control agents for Acacia nilotica ssp. indica (Mimosaceae) in Queensland, Australia. African Entomology 12(1): 142-146. [Witt2004]
Notes: [Short communication.]

Wu, S.Y., Sun, Y., Shi, Q.J., Chen, H.B. & Wang, P.J. 2004. Preliminary study on biological character and control of Eucornuaspis machili Maskell. Acta Agriculturae Shanghai 20(1): 105-110. [WuSuSh2004]
Notes: E. machili is a new pest attacking Cinnamomum camphora in Shanghai area, China. It seriously imperils E. camphora growth in the greenbelt. It has three generations in one year in Shanghai. Most of them when hibernating are fertilized female imagoes and only a few are gestated female imagoes, egg-laying female imagoes and nymphs. First generation nymphs occur in the last 10 days, and the peak hatching stage is between the last ten days of April and the first ten days of May. The peak hatching stage of the second generation nymphs is from the last ten days of July to the first ten days of August and that of the third ones is from the first ten days of October to the next ten days. The control test showed that the control efficiency reached 88.14-96.75% by using 10% imidacloprid WP or Hua Bao or Shu Chong Yi Zhen Jing EC at the peak hatching stage of the first generation nymphs; and after the nymphs fixed, the control efficiency after 29 days could reach 93.57% by using 95% Jie Man Ling Petroleum oil.

Wysoki, M., van den Berg, M.A., Ish-Am, G., Gazit, S., Peña, J.E. & Waite, G.K. 2002. Pests and pollinators of avocado. 223-293 In: Peña, J., Sharp, J. & Wysoki, M. (Eds.), Tropical Fruit Pests and Pollinators: Biology, Economic Importance, Natural Enemies and Control. CABI Publishing, . 448 pp. [WysokiVaIs2002]
Notes: Scale species listed as pests include Abgrallaspis howardi, Acutaspis albopicta, Aonidiella aurantii, Aspidiotus spinosus, Ceroplastes ceriferus, C. destructor, C. rubens, Chrysomphalus aonidum, C. dictyospermi, Coccus hesperidum, Diaspis cacoccois, Dysmicoccus brevipes, Ferrisia virgata, Fiorinia fioriniae, Gascardia destructor, Hemiberlesia affinis, H. lataniae, H. rapax, Melanaspis aliena, Myxetaspis personata, Nipaecoccus nipae, Pinnaspis strachani, Planococcus citri, P. lilacinus, Protopulvinaria pyriformis, Pseudococcus longispinus, P. nipae, Pulvinaria simulans, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus, Saissetia oleae, Selenaspidus articulatus, Unaspis citri and Velataspis dentate. [Available on the internet at http://www.cabi-publishing.org/Bookshop/Readingroom/0851994342/0851994342Ch8.pdf on September 2003.]

Xie, Y.P., Xue, J.L. & Zheng, L.Y. 2004. Ultra-morphology and chemical composition of waxes secreted by the scale insect Dicyphococcus bigibbus (Homoptera: Coccidae). Acta Entomologica Sinica 47(3): 320-328. [XieXuZh2004]
Notes: The ultra-morphology and chemical composition of waxes secreted by the scale insect Dicyphococcus bigibbus Borchsenius (Homoptera: Coccidae) was studied with the techniques of scanning electron microscope (SEM), infrared absorption spectra (IS) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The results indicate that the wax secretions are wet at first from the glands in both nymph and adult stages. Then they coagulated into dry and glassy wax test over the body surface. The wax test with a hard and fragile quality consists of many vertical pillar-like ridges with horizontal layer upon layer. The wax tests of the young nymphs and male scale insects are small, ship-shaped, central dorsal region elevated highly and with some wax fringes around the body margin. Female wax test is larger, v-shaped at its top. The infrared spectra of the wax secretion show the characteristics for species in sharp and dense peaks. The main chemical function groups and compositions of the wax secretion are conjectured based on its infrared absorption spectra, and verified with the results of GC/MS. Through esterification and unesterification, it is found that the waxes are composed of a series of greater molecular compounds, i.e., long chain saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, fatty acids and esters. Their carbon atom numbers mostly are even number and range from C14 to C40. The proportion of ester compound is greater especially than those with carbon atoms C30 to C40. The wax characteristics of this scale insect were compared with that of other species in the same family, Coccidae, e.g., Eulecanium gigantea, Didesmococcus koreanus, Eriopeltis festucae and Ericerus pela. The significance of the wax secretion for the classification, systematics and control of scale insects are discussed.

Xie, S.A., Zhang, J.L., Wang, X.J. & Liu, S.J. 2004. Experiment of controlling Drosicha corpulenta by blocking methods. (In Chinese; Summary In English). Journal of Northeast Forestry University 30(5): 65-66. [XieZhWa2004]
Notes: Results are presented of a study on the efficiency of different blocking methods, viz., wool grease, used machine oil, adhesive tapes, poison rings, poison ropes and plastic film skirts, in controlling Drosicha corpulenta. Wool grease and used machine oil were found to be more effective than the other blocking methods.

Xie, Y.P. & Zheng, L.Y. 2002. [Ultra-morphology and infrared absorption spectra of the waxes secreted by a scale insect, Didesmococcus koreanus (Homoptera: Coccidae).] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Acta Entomologica Sinica 45(3): 329-335. [XieZh2002]
Notes: The ultra-morphology and chemical composition of the waxes secreted by the scale insect, Didesmococcus koreanus Borchs., was studied with scanning electron microscope and infrared spectra techniques. It was thought that the waxes secreted by the young nymphs are long threads in its shape. In fact, the waxes changed shape on the dorsal surface of the old nymphs and adult females.

Xie, Y.P. & Zheng, L.Y. 2002a. The chemical composition of waxes secreted by a scale insect Eriopeltis festucae (Homoptera: Coccoidea). (In Chinese; Summary In English). Acta Scientiarum Naturalium Universitatis Nankaiensis 35(1): 1-6. [XieZh2002a]
Notes: The chemical composition of waxes secreted by the scale insect Eriopeltis festucae (Fonsc.) ws researched through the techniques of infrared absorption spectra (IR) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The result indicates that the waxes are composed of a series of greater molecular compounds. They are long chain hydrocarbons, fatty acids, fatty alcohol and esters. Some include oxy- or phenyl-cycles.

Xu, Z.H., Tao, M. & Chen, G.H. 2004. New records of two genera of Tetracneminae (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) with two new species in China. (In English; Summary In Chinese). Entomologia Sinica 11(2): 143-148. [XuTaCh2004]
Notes: Two new species of Tetracneminae (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) collected from Heilongjiang, Liaoning and Yunnan, China are described, i.e. Dusmetia latiscapa sp. nov. and Gyranusoidea yunnanensis sp. nov. Both are parasitoids of mealybugs (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae).

Xu, Z.H. & Wang, H.M. 2003. Two genera of Cheiloneurini (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) newly recorded from China with descriptions of two new species. (In English; Summary In Chinese). Entomologia Sinica 10(2): 149-153. [XuWa2003]
Notes: The paper presents two new species of Cheiloneurini, Encyrtidae, collected from Liaoning and Jiangsu, China. i.e. Ectroma loui Xu, sp. nov., Platencyrtus aclerus Xu, sp. n., which are described in detail. These two genera Ectroma Westwood and Platencyrtus Ferriere are first recorded from China, and are all parasitoids of scale insects. All specimens are deposited in Institute of Applied Entomology, Agriculture & Biotechnology College, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou.

Yadav, J.L., Singh, S.P. & Kumar, R. 2004. The population density of the mango mealy bug (Drosicha mangiferae G.) in mango. Progressive Agriculture 4(1): 35-37. [YadavSiKu2004]
Notes: The population density of mealy bug (D. mangiferae) was studied during 2000 in a mango cv. Amrapali orchard in Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India. The average number of mealy bugs per panicle as well as per trunk were recorded and correlated with abiotic factors, i.e. average temperature, relative humidity and rain. The highest population (17.50) of mango mealy bug was recorded on 5 April 2000 at an average temperature and relative humidity of 27.43 deg C and 46.57%, respectively. A decreasing population trend, i.e. 8.25 and 4.75, was observed on 26 April and 3 May 2000 at an average temperature of 31.31 and 31.55 deg C and relative humidity of 48.35 and 49.80%, respectively, due to increasing temperature and relative humidity. The lowest population (1.50) of mango mealy bug was recorded on 24 May 2000 at an average temperature and relative humidity of 33.03 deg C and 56.75%, respectively. No infestation was recorded on 31 May 2000 due to an increase of temperature (33.55 deg C) and relative humidity (63.05%). A similar trend of increase and decrease of mealy bug population on the tree trunk was observed with increase and decrease of temperature and relative humidity. The bug population on the tree trunk came to nil on 17 May 2000 onwards.

Yang, I.C., Hafner, G.J., Dale, J.L. & Harding, R.M. 2003. Genomic characterisation of taro bacilliform virus. Archives of Virology 148(5): 937-949. [YangHaDa2003]
Notes: Taro bacilliform virus (TaBV) has been classified as a putative badnavirus based on its non-enveloped, bacilliform virion morphology and transmission by mealybugs. These results confirm that TaBV is a pararetrovirus of the genus Badnavirus, family Caulimoviridae.

Yannakakis, Y.P. 2003. "Indios ladinos": Indigenous intermediaries and the negotiation of local rule in colonial Oaxaca, 1660--1769 (Mexico). University of Pennsylvania, . 260 pp. [Yannak2003]
Notes: [Ph.D. Thesis; Nancy M. Farris, Advisor.] This study examines how indios ladinos (bicultural indigenous elites) in their role as political and legal intermediaries shaped the form of local rule in the Sierra Norte of Oaxaca from 1660-1769. Ethno-historical analysis of legal, administrative, and ecclesiastical documentation and historical interpretation of colonial law yield the narrative and analysis of this project. During the period under study, rebellions in 1660, 1684, and 1700 gave expression to tensions created by a clash between the coercive and extractive political economy of the Sierra Norte-forced production of cochineal (red dye) and cotton textiles-and a longstanding tradition of local autonomy.

Yarysheva, I.A. 2002. Pheromone monitoring of quarantine pests. Zashchita i Karantin Rastenii No. 11: 24-27. [Yarysh2002]
Notes: Synthesis of pheromones, production of pheromone traps, and their application for insect pest control and monitoring in southern Russia are discussed. Good results were obtained with monitoring of Grapholita molesta in peach and other fruit crops. Diagrams are included on flight dynamics of G. molesta and potato moth (Phthorimaea operculella) in 1999, 2000 and 2001. Use is outlined of pheromone traps in monitoring of quarantine pests, such as San Jose scale [Diaspidiotus perniciosus], Mediterranean fruit fly [Ceratitis capitata], corn ear-worm [Helicoverpa armigera], cereal beetle [Trogoderma granarium] and corn beetle (Diabrotica).

Yasar, B., Aydin, G. & Denizhan, E. 2003. [The species of Diaspididae family (Homoptera: Coccoidea) in provinces of Eastern Anatolia (Agri, Bitlis, Erzurum, Igdir, Kars and Mus)) in Turkey.] (In Turkish; Summary In English). Turkiye Entomoloji Dergisi 27(1): 3-12. [YasarAyDe2003]
Notes: [Original title: Dogu Anadolu Bölgesi Illerinde (Agri, Bitlis, Erzurum, Igdir, Kars ve Mus) bulunan Diaspididae (Homoptera: Coccoidea) familyasina bagli türler.] Eleven scale insect species were found in Agri, Bitlis, Erzurum, Igdir, Kars and Mus provinces in eastern Anatolia, Turkey. These insects were identified as Chionaspis salicis, Lepidosaphes ulmi, Quadraspidiotus armenicus [Diaspidiotus armenicus], Q. lenticularis [D. lenticularis], Q. perniciosus [D. perniciosus], Q. ostreaeformis [D. ostreaeformis], Q. pyri [D. pyri], D. prunorum, D. kaussarii, Leucaspis loewi and Parlatoria oleae. C. salicis and Lepidosaphes ulmi were the predominant species on poplar and willow trees in all provinces. Q. armenicus was frequently found in Agri, Erzurum, Igdir and Mus. The presence of D. kaussarii on willow trees in Mus represented the first record of this species in Turkey.

Yasuda, F., Yamamoto, K., Jinno, Y. Watanabe, H. & Izawa, H. 2002. Pest control of Japanese pear by ground stationary sprinkler systems. Acta Horticulturae 587: 675-683. [YasudaYaJi2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of the International Symposium on Asian pears Commemorating the 100th Anniversary of Nijisseiki pear, Kurayoshi, Tottori, Japan, 25-29 August, 2001. Volume 2. Iwahori, S., Gemma, H., Tanabe, K., Webster, A.D. & White, A.G. (Eds.)] Two types of ground stationary sprinkler systems, the swing sprinkler and the dimerism rotary sprinkler, were developed for controlling pests of Japanese pear (Pyrus pyrifolia var. culta), and their performances in pear orchards and the efficacy on pests were evaluated. The swing sprinkler operates by nozzle shaking, while the body rotates using water pressure. The dimerism rotary sprinkler operates by nozzle rotation, while the body uses battery power. Non-uniformity of water deposits applied by ground stationary sprinklers was observed on pear leaf surfaces. However, the performance of the ground stationary sprinklers showed some improvement over the conventional overhead sprinklers. The efficacy of pesticide application on pests using ground stationary sprinklers was almost equivalent to that of a conventional speed sprayer, but was inferior in controlling certain pests such as mealybugs or spider mites. Therefore, supplemental pesticide spraying, such as manual application, is necessary. Nevertheless, ground stationary sprinkler systems seem to be an efficient method, reducing the labour, since sprinklers cover a wide area in a short period of time. Moreover, this pesticide application method is safe since operators do not need to enter orchards, plus the sprinkler systems can be used not only for pest control but also for irrigation.

Yigit, A., Canhilal, R. & Ekmekci, U. 2003. Seasonal population fluctuations of Serangium parcesetosum (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), a predator of citrus whitefly, Dialeurodes citri (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) in Turkey's eastern Mediterranean citrus groves. Environmental Entomology 32(5): 1105-1114. [YigitCaEk2003]
Notes: We conducted investigations on seasonal population fluctuations of Serangium parcesetosum Sicard and citrus whitefly, Dialeurodes citri (Ashmead), in the East Mediterranean citrus orchards in Turkey from 1992 to 1995. Serangium parcesetosum and D. citri were sampled in two mandarin orchards at 2- to 3-wk intervals. Sooty-mold growth on honeydew excreted by the citrus whitefly on sampled trees also was evaluated as an indirect measure of the predator's success. Serangium parcesetosum controlled D. citri populations effectively and prevented them from causing sooty-mold growth in the citrus groves in all 4 yr. It also fed and reproduced on brown soft scale, Coccus hesperidum L., another citrus pest, as an alternate host when D. citri populations were lower, and contributed to biological control, along with two other predators of coccoids, Chilocorus bipustulatus (L.) and Exochomus quadripustulatus L.

Yu, D.C., Weng, S.H., Zou, L.J. & Yan, X.L. 2003. [IPM practice on moso bamboo pest in Longyou.] (In Chinese). Forest Research 16(4): 501-505. [YuWeZo2003]
Notes: After 10 years' research and 5 years' controlling practice, an integrated management system based on ecological principles has established in Longyou County, Zhejiang Province, including major insect pests monitoring and forecasting and controlling methods. Areas of moso bamboo forest with above-middle-level pest damage decreased from 7,140.5 hm2 in 1998 to 20.5 hm2 in 2002. Number of dead bamboo caused by pest damage jumped down from 15,000 per year to 12 per year. With the integrated management system, an economic value of 28.69 million has been saved in the past 5 years. Bambusaspis hemisphaerica is among the pest species mentioned.

Zacchi, L. & Vaughan Martini, A. 2002. Yeasts associated with insects in agricultural areas of Perugia, Italy. Annals of Microbiology 52 (3): 237-244. [ZacchiVa2002]
Notes: The association of some yeast species with insects (Dermaptera, Rynchota, Diptera, Hymenoptera) collected around Perugia, Italy was investigated. Whole or specific body contents (gut, haemolymph and fat body) of over 450 insects were studied. Isolates, identified by conventional and molecular analyses, were represented by both ascomycetous (64%) and basidiomycetous (36%) strains. While Pichia guilliermondii and Rhodotorula mucilaginosa [R. rubra] were the most commonly isolated species from the bodies of host insects, several other species were consistently associated with insects. The ecological significance of these findings is discussed. Coccidae are mentioned as host species.

Zacchi, L. & Vaughan Martini, A. 2003. Distribution of three yeast and yeast-like species within a population of soft scale insects (Saissetia oleae) as a function of developmental age. Annals of Microbiology 53(1): 43-46. [ZacchiVa2003]
Notes: The distribution of Aureobasidium pullulans, Rhodotorula sp. and Sporobolomyces roseus within a population of soft scale insects (Saissetia oleae) varied significantly as a function of developmental age. Younger individuals (nymphs of age I) generally hosted a significantly higher number of cells of A. pullulans and Sporobolomyces roseus compared to older nymphs (II and III age) or adults. This observation may be consistent with the hypothetical role of microbial endosymbionts in favouring host growth, development and/or detoxification.

Zada, A., Dunkelblum, E., Assael, F., Harel, M., Cojocaru, M. & Mendel, Z. 2003. Sex pheromone of the vine mealybug, Planococcus ficus, in Israel: occurrence of a second component in a mass-reared population. Journal of Chemical Ecology 29(4): 977-988. [ZadaDuAs2003]
Notes: Two pheromonal components were detected in airborne collections from the vine mealybug Planococcus ficus (Signoret) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) mass-reared on potato sprouts. The compounds were identified as (S)-lavandulyl senecioate (I) and (S)-lavandulyl isovalerate (II) by GC and GC-MS by comparison with synthetic standards. Chiral GC analysis on a cyclodextrin column established their chirality. Compound I was identified recently as the sex pheromone of P. ficus in California. The attraction of vine mealybug males to both components I and II was demonstrated in a Petri dish bioassay and in a flight assay in the rearing chamber. Indoors, both compounds displayed a similar level of attractiveness to the mass-reared males. However, trials in a vineyard indicated that feral males were attracted only to compound I. Reanalysis of the airborne pheromone indicated that laboratory first generation daughters of females that were collected in the vineyard produce only (S)-lavandulyl senecioate (I). The relative amount of (S)-lavandulyl isovalerate (II) increased gradually in each subsequent generation of P. ficus reared on potatoes. These findings indicate that feral P. ficus mealybugs produce and respond only to (S)-lavandulyl senecioate (I), whereas mealybugs that were reared in the laboratory on potato sprouts produce and respond to both (S)-lavandulyl senecioate (I) and (S)-lavandulyl isovalerate (II).

Zada, A., Dunkelblum, E., Harel, M., Assael, F., Gross, S. & Mendel, Z. 2004. Sex pheromone of the citrus mealybug Planococcus citri: Synthesis and optimization of trap parameters. Journal of Economic Entomology 97(2): 361-368. [ZadaDuHa2004]
Notes: A simple synthesis of the pheromone of the citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), has been developed. Various factors affecting capture of males have been assessed to optimize the trap design and to develop a lure with high efficacy and longevity. Male capture was the same with the racemic and chiral pheromone; technical pheromone (85% purity) was statistically as attractive as pure pheromone (97%). A special formulation was used to determine the actual release rate of the pheromone under field conditions as related to male capture. Generally, plate traps caught more males than delta traps, and large traps caught more than small ones. The effects of aging on the performance of three types of rubber dispensers were evaluated. It was found that the American dispenser displayed the most consistent trapping performance and could be used for monitoring for at least 16 wk with a load of 200 µg of pheromone. The dose-response of the males to sex pheromone was tested within the range of 25-1,600 µg.

Zada, A., Dunkelblum, E., Harel, M., Assael, F. & Mendel, Z. 2002. Studies on the sex pheromone of the vine mealybug Planococcus ficus. (In Hebrew; Summary In English). Alon Hanotea 56(1): 38-41. [ZadaDuHa2002]
Notes: The vine mealybug P. ficus is a serious pest of vineyards in the Mediterranean, California (USA) and South Africa. In an attempt to develop a monitoring system for this mealybug, research teams in California and Israel have studied, independently, its pheromone system. (S)-lavandulyl senecioate was identified as the female sex pheromone of the mealybug. Two additional compounds, (S)-lavandulyl isovalerate and (S)-lavandulyl, probably precursors of the component, were identified. However, trials in a vineyard indicated that only lavandulyl senecioate was active. Further tests are in progress to apply lavandulyl senecioate for practical use and to elucidate the role of lavandulyl isovalerate in the pheromone system of the vine mealybug.

Zalom, F.G. & Walsh, D.B. 2002. Petroleum-derived spray oils: a useful tactic in California IPM systems. 379-386 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [ZalomWa2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Species mentioned include Aonidiella aurantii.

Zalom, F.G., Werner, I., Oliver, M.N., Deanovic, L.A., Kimball, T., Wilson, B.W., Henderson, J.D. & Wallender, W.W. 2004. Organophosphate dormant spray pest control efficacy, pesticide concentration and toxicity in storm runoff. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 73(2): 299-305. [ZalomWeOl2004]
Notes: The effects of adjusting organophosphate (OP) dormant spray application timing on pest control efficacy and toxicity of stormwater runoff were examined in almond orchards near Waterford (2001 and 2002) and Cortez (2001), and in a French prune orchard near Sutter (2002) in California, USA. Early, middle and late treatments were given and runoff samples examined for diazinon concentrations. Results supported our hypothesis that OP concentrations are reduced when time between diazinon application and major storm events is increased. Economically, acceptable control of San Jose scale Quadraspidiotus perniciosus [Diaspidiotus perniciosus] and peach twig borer Anarsia lineatella, two of the major target pests of dormant season OP sprays, was achieved at earlier diazinon or chlorpyrifos application dates.

Zamar, M.I. & Claps, L.E. 2003. [Morphology of the immature stages and adult of Pinnaspis aspidistrae (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) with notes on its biology.] (In Spanish). Revista de la Sociedad Entomológica Argentina 62(1/2): 35-42. [ZamarCl2003]
Notes: Immature stages, and the male adult of Pinnaspis aspidistrae (Signoret) are described and illustrated for the first time. The host plants recorded in this paper were one species of Pteridophyta, and 12 of the Angiospermae. The natural enemies found are Aphytis hispanicus (Mercet) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), Arrhenophagus chionaspidis Aurivillius (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) and Scymnus sp. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae).

Zchori-Fein, E. & Perlman, S.J. 2004. Distribution of the bacterial symbiont Cardinium in arthropods. Molecular Ecology 13(7): 2009-2016. [ZchoriPe2004]
Notes: O'Candidatus Cardinium', a recently described bacterium from the Bacteroidetes group, is involved in diverse reproduction alterations of its arthropod hosts, including cytoplasmic incompatibility, parthenogenesis and feminization. To estimate the incidence rate of Cardinium and explore the limits of its host range, 99 insect and mite species were screened, using primers designed to amplify a portion of Cardinium 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA). These arthropods were also screened for the presence of the better-known reproductive manipulator, Wolbachia. Six per cent of the species screened tested positive for Cardinium, compared with 24% positive for Wolbachia. Of the 85 insects screened, Cardinium was found in four parasitic wasp species and one armoured scale insect.

Zezlina, I. 2003. Neopulvinaria innumerabilis - a recurring pest of vineyards in Primorska.] Veliki trtni kapar - obcasni skodljivec v vinogradih na primorskem. Revija za Sadjarstvo, Vinogradnistvo in Vinarstvo 14(6): 13-14. [Zezlin2003]
Notes: Details are given of the biology, life cycle, distribution, occurrence, damage and control of the coccid Neopulvinaria innumerabilis, with particular reference to the situation in vineyards of the Primorska region of Slovenia.

Zhang, A.J., Amalin, D., Shirali, S., Serrano, M.S., Franqui, R.A., Oliver, J.E., Klun, J.A., Aldrich, J.R., Meyerdirk, D.E. & Lapointe, S.L. 2004. Sex pheromone of the pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, contains an unusual cyclobutanoid monoterpene. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101(26): 9601-9606. [ZhangAmSh2004]
Notes: [www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.0401298101] Two compounds that together constitute the female sex pheromone of the pink hibiscus mealybug (PHM), Maconellicoccus hirsutus, were isolated, identified, and synthesized. They are (R)-2-isopropenyl-5-methyl-4-hexenyl (S)-2-methylbutanoate [common name is (R)-lavandulyl (S)-2-methylbutanoate] and [(R)-2,2-dimethyl-3-(l-methylethylidene)cyclobutyl]methyl (S)-2-methylbutanoate [which we refer to as (R)-maconelliyl (S)-2-methylbutanoate]. Maconelliol is an unusual monoterpene, and its structure has been established by enantioselective synthesis from precursors of known structure and configuration. A 1:5 synthetic mixture of the two RS esters (11 mug per rubber septum) proved to be a potent attractant of males in field bioassays. The pheromone component, maconelliyl 2-methylbutanoate, represents a heretofore undescribed natural product.

Zhang, Z.H., Chen, X.M., Shi, L., Xu, L.F., Wan, Y.M. & He, J. 2004. Exploration of adaptability of cochineal (Dactylopius confusus) based on life tables. (In Chinese). Forest Research 17(4): 484-489. [ZhangChSh2004]
Notes: The growth of the cochineal insect (Dactylopius confusus) in the hot, dry valley, southern subtropical zone and mid subtropical zone was studied by using life tables and sample testing. Results show that cochineal insects growing in the southern subtropical zone were the largest. The eggs and weight of female adults were intermediate and the population trend index was the highest. The mid subtropical zone was a good place for breeding the cochineal, and the insect bred in this zone was the largest and heaviest, the life cycle was the longest and there were fewer generations per year. Although the cochineal occurred in the hot, dry tropical zone, the female adult was very small and light, so the tropical zone was not the ideal place for breeding the cochineal. In every climate zone, the key factors that affected the size of the cochineal population were unhatched eggs and strong rain during the 1st and 2nd instar. Mass natural enemies were not in any of the zones.

Zhang, Z.H., Shi, L., Xu, L.F. & Wang, Z.L. 2002. The present research and utilization situation of cochineal insects in the world. (In Chinese; Summary In English). Forest Research 15(6): 719-726. [ZhangShXu2002]
Notes: Results of a nearly 30-year study on cochineal insects, including taxonomy, biology, ecology, utilization history and rearing methods, are reviewed. There are altogether nine species of cochineal in the world, in which Dactylopius coccus Costa has economic importance. Carmine produced from cochineal has been used widely in food, cosmetics and pharmaceutics industry. The host plant of cochineal, cactus pear (Opuntia sp.), also has many utilizations. Peru and Canary Islands are the main countries that produce cochineal.

Zhang, Z.H., Shi, L., Xu, T., Xu, L.F. & Wan, Y.M. & Chen, X.M. 2004. [Study on the relationship between cochineal and cacti.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Forest Research 17(3): 321-326. [ZhangShXu2004]
Notes: Cochineal (Dactylopius confusus) was cultured on cacti collected from 10 counties. The growth of D. confusus was optimum on Opuntia ficus-indica, although O. tuna and O. stricta were also good hosts for the insect. Insect growth was observed on O. ficus-indica imported from Peru, but growth was more pronounced on native plants from Lufeng county, Yunnan, China. The spineless cacti were better hosts than the spiny cacti. Insect growth was negatively correlated with the thickness of the epidermis of the cacti. D. confusus stimulated the development of the vascular bundles of the plants. The protein and water contents of the plants had significant effects on the growth of D. confusus.

Zhang, Z.H., Yang, X.Z., Wang, Z.L., Xu, L.F., Shi, L. & Chen, X.M. 2003. [Study on experimental population of cochineal insect (D. confusus (Cockerell)).] (In Chinese). Forest Research 16(3): 254-261. [ZhangYaWa2003]
Notes: A study on the population dynamics of cochineal insect in the lab is carried out by using artificial climate cases. The method is to set 8 kinds of combinations of temperature, humidity and light according to orthogonal design and then establish the life tables of the insect. The temperature has four levels: 15, 20, 25 degree C, and 30 degree C, and the relative humidity has two levels: 60% and 80%, while the light also has two levels: 980 lx and 60 lx. Through observations and analysis of several generations, the results indicate that the cochineal insect cannot finish generations under 15 degree C associated conditions, while at associated conditions of temperatures 20, 25, 30 degree C, the insect can finish generations, but comparing from the amount of eggs, generation inclination indexes and the sizes of the female adults, 25 degree C associated conditions are the best. The results also indicate that average hatching percentage of egg is about 50 and the survival percentage is probably 70 at 20 apprx 30 degree C, and that the number of females is more than that of the males in the cochineal populations, environmental factors have large effect on the sex ratio of the cochineal insect and the generation inclination index usually surpasses 20. The development starting point temperature of the insect is 9.0 degrees C, and effective accumulated temperature of one generation is 822.9 day-degrees. The results of multifactor analysis of variance show that temperature is the most remarkable factor to affect development of the insect.

Zhao, X.P., Shu, C., Yang, F., Liu, K.W. & Yu, D. 2002a. Influence of metal ions on the activity of alkaline phosphatase from Ericerus pela (Chavannes). (In Chinese). Sichuan Daxue Xuebao (Ziran Kexueban) 39(1): 132-135. [ZhaoShYa2002a]
Notes: The survey of influence of metal ions on the activity of alkaline phosphatase (AKP) from Ericerus pela (Chavannes) showed that Li+, Na+ and K+ had not any effect on the enzyme activity. Ca2+, Mg2+, Ba2+, Mn2+, Co2+ activated the enzyme. The calcium ion was a more efficacious activator and the effect was classified as noncompetitive type. Zn2+, Cu2+, Cd2+ and Pb2+ inhibited the enzyme. The copper ion was a more efficacious inhibitor. The inhibition of copper ion on the enzyme was found to be of noncompetitive type. After dialysistreatment with EDTA, the enzyme was totally inactivated. The inactivated enzyme could be reactivated by adding Zn2+ and Ca2+.

Zhao, J.J., Wang, Z.L., Ye, S.D., Wang, S.Y., Chen, Y. & Chen, X.M. 2003. Investigation on species of natural enemies from natural population of Ericerus pela (Chavannes) and their damage in Kunming. Forest Research 16(1): 32-38. [ZhaoWaYe2003]
Notes: The damage and the population of the natural enemies of the white wax insect (Ericerus pela) were surveyed in Kunming, Yunnan, China. Results showed that there were 17 total number of natural enemies, 4 of which were dominant, including Metaphycus ericeri, Microterys sinicus, M. ericeri and Chilocorus rubidus. Through artificial breeding conditions, the damage rates of these natural enemies were found to be 11.0, 35.0, 13.6 and 11.6%, respectively. C. septempunctata and Lexis axyridis [Harmonia axyridis] have been recorded as the most important natural enemies of E. pela.

Zhao, X.Y. & Xie, Y.P. 2004. [Morphological characteristics of the different developmental stages of the male scale insect, Eulecanium giganteum.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Entomological Knowledge 41(1): 60-64. [ZhaoXi2004]
Notes: Morphological characteristics of the male scale insect, Eulecanium giganteum was studied with the aid of a light microscope. Male E. giganteum goes through four developmental stages: hatching nymph, fixed nymph, pre-pupa and pupa, and adult. The first stage is the dispersal and active phase, and these nymphs are crawlers. They have developed eyes, antennae and three pairs of legs so that they can locate hosts. However, the wax glands on their body surface are very few. In the next developmental phase, the end of first instar and second instar, nymphs are fixed and feed on twigs and/or leaves. During this period, the margins of the body are densely setose. There are many wax glands which result in the formation of a turtle-like wax shell on the dorsal surface. The pre-pupa and pupa no longer feed and are concealed in a white, semi-transparent wax cover. At this stage the morphological characters of the scale insect differs greatly from those at the nymph stage. The pre-pupa's wing buds appear, and other organs are reduced, for example, eyes are absent and antennae and legs are short, and segmentations are indistinct. In the pupal stage, the wing buds, antennae and legs are more elongated and covered with abundant sensory hairs. In the adult stage, the sensory and motor organs become well developed. There are five pairs of ocelli around the head. Antennae become 10-segmented and with several kinds of sensilla. The wings and legs become stronger.

Zhao, X.H., Yan, S.C., Chi, D. & Wen, Z.H. 2002. [Analysis of essential oil from the bark of healthy Populus pseudo-simonii x P. nigra trees by GC-MS.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). Journal of Northeast Forestry University 30(6): 18-20. [ZhaoYaCh2002]
Notes: The essential oils from the bark of healthy Populus pseudo-simonii x P. nigra and bark of damaged Quadraspidiotus gigas [Diaspidiotus gigas] were analysed using GC-MS. Eleven kinds of compounds were detected. The chemical structure of the 10 out of 11 components was confirmed. The specific compounds contained in the essential oil from the healthy bark were ethylbenzene and para-diethylbenzene. The main component of the essential oil was ethylbenzene (48.20%). The specific compounds contained in the essential oil from the bark of damaged Q. gigas were styrene, benzaldehyde and 2,5-dimethylbenzaldehyde.

Zheng, J.H., Beattie, G.A.C. & Watson, D.M. 2002. Phytotoxicity of an nC24 horticultural mineral spray oil to azalea. 195-202 In: Beattie, G.A.C., Watson, D.M., Stevens, M.L., Rae, D.J. & Spooner-Hart, R.N. (Eds.), Spray Oils Beyond 2000: Sustainable Pest and Disease Management University of Western Sydney; Horticulture Australia Ltd, Sydney. 627 pp. [ZhengBeWa2002]
Notes: [Proceedings of a conference held from 25 to 29 October 1999 in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.] Pest species mentioned include Eriococcus azaleae, Pseudococcus longispinus, Pulvinaria ericicola and P. floccifera.

Zheng, J. & Jiang, X.H. 2003. [The occurrence of citrus brown scale and its control.] (In Chinese; Summary In English). South China Fruits 32(3): 20. [ZhengJi2003]
Notes: Citrus brown scale (Chrysomphalus ficus) [Chrysomphalus aonidum] is a leading pest for citrus in China. It attacks citrus trees causing drying up of the branches, premature leaf fall and spotting of the fruit which affects the price. The pest has 4 generations a year. The nymphs' peak hatching periods are mid-April to late June, late June to early August, mid-August to late September and early October to mid-November. Studies have shown that spraying an 800 times solution of 40% Supricide [of unstated composition] + a 2000 times solution of 10% Admire [imidacloprid] gives good control.

Zhou, L., Li, J.H. & Cai, R.X. 2002. Bionomics of Coccophagus yoshidae Nakayama (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae). Acta Entomologica Sinica 45(6): 851-855. [ZhouLiCa2002]
Notes: Coccophagus yoshidae is an important parasitic wasp of Chloropulvinaria polygonata. The parasitic wasp has 6-7 generations per year in Yaan, China and overwinters as young larvae and pupae in the 2nd and 3rd instar larvae of its host. The thermal threshold and thermal sum for development are 8.40 deg C and 453.09 day-degrees, respectively. The mean generation times at 18, 21, 24, 27 and 30 deg C were 44.60, 38.27, 30.83, 23.73 and 20.73 days, respectively. The adult wasp sucks host body fluid for its complementary nutrition. The parasite is thelyotokous. Maximum emergence occurred at 8.00-12.00 everyday, between the third and the sixth day. The longevity and offspring number per adult wasp were related to temperature and complementary nutrition. The wasp prefers to lay eggs first on adult females and then on the 2nd, 3rd instar larvae of its host.

Zhou, L., Sheng, H.B., Yang, M.G. & Liu, J.L. 2003. [The integrated management for the main jujube pests and diseases in Henan province.] (In Chinese). China Fruits No. 2: 42-43,50. [ZhouShYa2003]
Notes: In Henan province the main diseases of jujube are Macrophoma kawatsukai, Phakopsora ziziphi-vulgaris and jujube witch-broom disease (MLO); the main pests are Chihu zao, Ancylis sativa, Zeuzera sp. and Ceroplastes japonicus. The damage caused by such diseases and pests are described and their integrated management is discussed. For control of Ceroplastes japonicus the best method is spraying 1500-2000 times solution of 25% buprofezin.