Richard G. Lugar, United States Senator for Richard G. Lugar, United States Senator for Indiana
Richard G. Lugar, United States Senator for Indiana
Home > Senator Lugar's Farm Bill > Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws

Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws

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AAEA — American Agricultural Economics Association. www.aaea.org.
AAFCO — American Association of Feed Control Officials. www.aafco.org.
AAM — American Agriculture Movement. www.aaminc.org.
AAMP — American Association of Meat Processors. www.aamp.com.
AAR — Association of American Railroads. www.aar.org.
AARCC — Alternative Agriculture Research and Commercialization Corporation.
Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants — This 1998 protocol on persistent organic pollutants (POPs) is an addition to the 1979 Geneva Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP). The Aarhus POPs Protocol seeks "to control, reduce or eliminate discharge, emissions and losses of persistent organic pollutants" in Europe, some former Soviet Union countries, and the United States. The protocol is an executive agreement that does not require Senate approval. However, legislation is needed to resolve inconsistencies between provisions of the protocol and existing U.S. laws ( specifically the Toxic Substances Control Act and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act).
ABA — American Bakers Association. www.americanbakers.org. American Bankers Association. www.aba.com/default.htm. American Bar Association. www.abanet.org.
Abandoned wells — Abandoned drainage wells and abandoned water wells on vacant farmsteads are of particular concern for agriculture. Abandoned wells can present both safety risks and a direct conduit by which groundwater can be contaminated by surface runoff. A number of states have incentive and/or regulatory programs to cap or seal abandoned wells.
Able-bodied Adults Without Dependents (ABAWDs) — This term refers to low income working adults who do not have dependents. The 1996 welfare law (P.L. 104-193) set categorical requirements for food stamp participation. Among these were restrictions on legal alien participation and participation by low income persons without dependents. The latter (formerly eligible based solely on low income) were made ineligible for food stamps if they received food stamps for 3 months during the preceding 3 years without working or participating in a work program for at least 20 hours a week, or without participating in a workfare program.
ACA — Agricultural Credit Association.
ACE — Agriculture in Concert with the Environment.
Acid deposition / acid rain — Abnormally acidic (low pH) precipitation (or dry deposition) resulting from emissions of sulfur and nitrogen compounds that transform during chemical processes in the atmosphere. Acid deposition can affect the chemistry of soils and acidify lakes, adversely affecting forests and fish. It may adversely affect cropland. The Clean Air Act (42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq.) includes a program focused on controlling precursor emissions of acid deposition, primarily sulfur oxides from coal-fired electric utilities.
ACP Countries — African, Caribbean and Pacific countries are former European colonies associated with the European Union under the Cotonou Agreement negotiated in 2000. EU-ACP relations were formerly covered by the Lome Convention. ACP countries benefit from development assistance and trade preferences provided under the Cotonou Agreement.
ACPA — American Crop Protection Association changed its name to CropLife America. www.croplifeamerica.org.
Acquired lands — Lands in federal ownership that were obtained by the federal government through purchase, condemnation, gift, or exchange. One category of public lands.
ACR — Acreage conservation reserve.
Acre — 1 acre = 43,560 sq. ft. = 208.71 ft.2 = 0.405 hectares. Note that 640 acres = 1 sq. mile (called a "section").
Acre-foot — The volume of water that would cover one acre of land (43,560 square feet) to a depth of one foot, equivalent to 325,851 gallons of water. An acre-foot is the basic measure of agricultural water use. On average, irrigators apply almost 2 feet of water on each acre through the crop growing season; the amount ranges from 4 feet in the Southwest to a half foot in some eastern states, and varies, depending on the crop grown. Water withdrawn for irrigation from ground and surface sources totals about 150 maf (million acre-feet) of water annually.
Acreage allotment — Under provisions of permanent commodity price support law, a farm's acreage allotment is its share, based on its previous production, of the national acreage needed to produce sufficient supplies of a particular crop. Under the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 101-171, Title I), acreage allotments are not applicable to the covered commodities, peanuts, or sugar. Subsequently, allotments and quotas and price support for tobacco were eliminated beginning in 2005 (P.L. 108-357, Title VI).
Acreage conservation reserve — The cropland acreage diverted from production under the acreage reduction program authorized prior to 1996.
Acreage diversion programs — Historically, commodity programs included provisions to reduce commodity supplies by diverting acreage to non-crop uses. Examples include paid diversion, unpaid diversion, set-aside, and acreage reduction programs. The 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104-127) eliminated authority for the USDA to implement annual acreage reduction programs. The Conservation Reserve Program pays farmers for the long-term conversion of fragile cropland land to conserving uses and is not considered to be an acreage diversion program.
Acreage limitation — With respect to commodity policy, acreage limitation might refer to planting constraints under an acreage reduction program, set-aside, or paid land diversion. These programs are no longer authorized. In relation to water policy, it is the maximum number of acres that may be irrigated with less than full-cost water from Bureau of Reclamation projects. Generally, the acreage limitation for individuals or legal entities representing 25 people or fewer is 960 acres; however, amounts vary depending on a landowner's legal status. Also referred to as ownership limitation, ownership entitlement, or non-full-cost entitlement.
Acreage Reduction Program (ARP) — A no-longer authorized annual cropland retirement program for wheat, feed grains, cotton, or rice in which farmers participating in the commodity programs (in order to be eligible for nonrecourse loans and deficiency payments) were mandated to idle a crop-specific, nationally-set portion of their base acreage during years of surplus. The idled acreage (called the acreage conservation reserve) was devoted to a conserving use. The goal was to reduce supplies, thereby raising market prices. Additionally, idled acres did not earn deficiency payments, thus reducing commodity program costs. ARP was criticized for diminishing the U.S. competitive position in export markets. The 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104-127) did not reauthorize ARPs. ARP differed from a set-aside program in that under a set-aside program reductions were based upon current year plantings, and did not require farmers to reduce their plantings of a specific crop.
ACS — Alternative conservation system.
Action levels — As opposed to tolerances (which are established for pesticide residues occurring as a direct result of proper usage), action levels are set for inadvertent residues resulting from previous legal use or accidental contamination. At the action level set by the EPA, Food and Drug Administration and USDA are required to take enforcement action against the contaminated food or agricultural commodity. The term is also used in other regulatory programs.
Active ingredient — In any pesticide product, the component that kills, or otherwise controls, target pests. Pesticides are regulated by the EPA primarily on the basis of active ingredients. See also Inert ingredient.
Active packaging — Technological advances make it possible for food packaging to prolong shelf life, monitor freshness, and display information on quality. Active packaging can interact with food to reduce oxygen levels, or add flavorings and preservatives. Also called intelligent packaging. The use of such packaging raises issues of regulation and labeling.
ACTPN — Advisory Committee for Trade Policy and Negotiations.
Actual Production History (APH) — A measure of an individual farmer's annual production of a commodity over a multi-year period. The APH serves as the basis for the farmer's "normal" crop yield in the crop insurance program. When the actual crop yield deviates by more than a certain percentage from the APH, an insured producer is eligible for an indemnity (loss) payment. The 2002 farm bill (P.L.101-171, Sec.1101-1102) allows producers of covered commodities participating in the Direct and Counter-cyclical Program (DCP) the option of updating acreage for direct payments, and acreage and yield for counter-cyclical payments, using 1998 through 2001 as the base period for actual acreage and yields.
Actual Production History (APH) — A record of an agricultural producer's crop yields over a multi-year period. Such records are used in the federal crop insurance program to determine "normal" production levels for a producer. The term Actual Production History insurance is used synonymously with Multi-Peril Crop Insurance.
Actuarially sound — The financial goal of any insurance program (including the federal crop insurance program) is to operate on an actuarially sound basis. That is, total premiums collected should more than offset total indemnities paid out.
Acute toxicity — The ability of a substance to cause harmful effects soon after a single exposure or dose. Also, any severe poisonous effect resulting from a short-term exposure to a toxic substance. See also Chronic toxicity.
Ad valorem duty — A tariff expressed as a fixed percentage of the value of the imported commodity or product. Generally, by contrast, a specific rate duty is applied as a charge on each unit or specified quantity of an imported item (i.e., $5 per ton).
AD — Anti-dumping duty.
ADA — American Dairy Association. www.ilovecheese.com/default.htm.
ADA — American Dietetic Association. www.eatright.org; American Diabetic Association. www.diabetes.org/home.jsp.
ADC — Animal Damage Control Program.
Additional peanuts — Prior to the complete redesign of the peanut program in the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec 1301-1310), a two-tiered pricing scheme provided higher support for quota peanuts than for additional peanuts. The additional peanuts were those marketed above the quantity specified as peanut poundage quota for each farm. Additional peanuts had to be exported or crushed into oil and meal in contrast to quota peanuts that could be sold for domestic edible uses.
ADI — Acceptable daily intake; usually refers to dietary adequacy.
Adjusted gross income limitation — The 2002 farm bill (P.L. 101-171, Sec. 1604) established an eligibility limit on commodity program and conservation payments. For the first time, the law makes an individual recipient of commodity and conservation subsidies ineligible for payments if their 3-year average adjusted gross income exceeds $2.5 million. This limitation is waived if the 75% or more of the adjusted gross income is from farming, ranching, or forestry. Separately, there are annual payment limitations on how much a person can be receive under various farm programs.
Adjusted Gross Revenue (AGR) Insurance — A revenue insurance program implemented in 1999 as a pilot program by USDA and continuing on a limited basis. Where available, it allows farmers to receive a guarantee of a percentage of their revenue for multiple commodities, including some livestock revenue, rather than just the revenue from an individual commodity.
Adjusted Gross Revenue (AGR)-Lite — Similar to the AGR insurance program described above, except that AGR-Lite is available to smaller farmers (income below $512,821, and liability below $250,000). Where the basic AGR program limits eligible livestock coverage to 35% of expected allowable income, the AGR-Lite contains no limitations on the proportion of livestock income.
Adjusted world price (AWP) — As part of the upland cotton and the rice marketing assistance loan programs, USDA calculates and publishes, on a weekly basis, what is known as the adjusted world price (AWP). The AWP is the prevailing world price for upland cotton or rice, adjusted to account for U.S. quality and location. Producers who have taken out USDA marketing assistance loans may choose to repay them at either the lesser of the established loan rate, plus interest, or the announced AWP for that week. The AWP for cotton also is used for determining Step 2 payments.
Administered price — A price fixed by policy makers in order to determine, directly or indirectly, domestic market or producer prices. All of the administered price schemes set a minimum guaranteed support price or target price for a commodity, which is maintained by associated policy measures such as quantitative restrictions on production and imports; taxes and tariffs on imports; export subsidies; and public stockholding. Administered prices under the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171) include loan rates and/or target prices, and price support levels for sugar, and dairy products.
Administrative Procedure Act of 1946 — P.L. 79-404, as amended, establishes, among other things, minimum procedural requirements or models for federal agency rulemaking and certain types of hearings. For instance, the APA establishes procedures for informal rulemaking, which may include notice-and-comment requirements, or formal rulemaking, which includes trial-type hearings. Exemptions from rulemaking requirements are included in the Act. The APA provides standards for judicial review of final agency action. The provisions of the APA apply to USDA rulemaking, unless exempted under the provisions of another statute. For example, hearings conducted by the USDA's National Appeals Division (NAD) are not governed by the APA. The final determination of the NAD is reviewable and enforceable by a U.S. District Court in accordance with the judicial review provisions of the APA.
Adulterated food — Generally, impure, unsafe, or unwholesome. However, the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (21 U.S.C. 321 et seq.), the Federal Meat Inspection Act (21 U.S.C. 601 et seq.), and the Poultry Products Inspection Act (21 U.S.C. 451 et seq.) contain separate language defining in very specific (and lengthy) terms how the term adulterated will be applied to the foods each of these laws regulates. Products that are adulterated under these laws' definitions cannot enter into commerce for human food use.
Advanced meat recovery (AMR) — A mechanical process that removes the last traces of usable meat from bones after the primal cuts have been carved off manually. In 1994, FSIS issued a rule allowing such meat to be labeled as meat for human consumption, providing that the bones from which it was removed were still intact after processing. In 1997, following tests indicating that central nervous system (CNS) tissue was showing up in mechanically removed meat, FSIS issued a directive to its inspectors instructing them to ensure that spinal cord tissue was removed from bones before the AMR process. Following the identification of a BSE-infected U.S. dairy cow in December 2003, FSIS issued new regulations expanding the definition of prohibited CNS tissue to include additional cattle parts. Furthermore, all AMR-processed product from cattle more than 30 months old now is prohibited from being used for food, and such product from younger cattle and from other livestock species also is prohibited if it contains CNS material. AMR meat typically is used as an ingredient in products requiring further processing, such as hot dogs.
Adventitious presence (AP) — The accidental or unintentional appearance of foreign material in a product. In the case of agriculture, usually this happens in the production, harvesting, storage, and marketing of grains, seeds, or food products, for example. Grain and seed companies argue that virtually all shipments contain some type and level of adventitious material, such as some weed material in a bin of soybeans or wheat. Generally, buyers recognize that some level of adventitious material is acceptable and foreign material limits are specified in purchase contracts. AP is now a key issue in the debate over regulation of biotechnology. As more and more crops and acres are devoted to genetically engineered (GE) varieties, it becomes increasingly difficult to segregate these from GE-free varieties, which some buyers and countries demand. The European Union is considering a proposal to require GE labeling of any food or feed product that contains more than 0.5% of material derived from genetically modified organisms.
Adverse Effect Wage Rate (AEWR) — The AEWR is the minimum wage that the U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) has determined "must be offered and paid to U.S. and alien workers by agricultural employers of nonimmigrant H-2A agricultural workers (Federal Register, February 10, 1999, p. 6690). Where agricultural employers offer employment to nonimmigrant foreign workers, payment of at least the AEWR is required. Published once a year, usually in early February, by DOL with the assistance of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the AEWR sets a separate minimum wage rate (i.e., a rate that will not adversely effect the employment opportunities of U.S. workers) for each state (see 20 CFR 655).
Advisory Committee for Trade Policy and Negotiations (ACTPN) — A 45-member group appointed by the President to provide advice on matters of trade policy and related issues, including trade agreements. The 1974 Trade Act (P.L. 93-618) requires the ACTPN's establishment and broad representation of key economic sectors affected by trade. Below ACTPN are seven policy committees, including the Agricultural Policy Advisory Committee (APAC). The Agricultural Policy Advisory Committee is made up of farm sector and industry representatives.
AEWR — Adverse Effect Wage Rate
AFBF — American Farm Bureau Federation (Farm Bureau). www.fb.com.
AFDO — Association of Food and Drug Officials. www.afdo.org.
AFFI — American Frozen Food Institute. www.affi.com.
AFIA — American Feed Industry Association. www.afia.org.
Aflatoxin — Aflatoxin is a naturally occurring mycotoxin produced by two types of mold: aspergillus flavus and aspergillus parasiticus. Both species are common and widespread in nature, but A. flavus is more likely to infect grain, cotton seed, and peanuts grown under stressful conditions such as drought. Favorable conditions for mold growth include high moisture content and high temperature. At least 13 different types of aflatoxin are produced in nature with aflatoxin B1 considered as the most toxic. While the presence of Aspergillus flavus does not always indicate harmful levels of aflatoxin, it does mean that the potential for aflatoxin production is present. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has established action levels for aflatoxin present in food or feed to protect human and animal health. The FDA will consider action if aflatoxin levels exceed: 20 ppb for corn and other grains intended for immature animals (including immature poultry) and for dairy animals, or when its destination is not known; 20 ppb for animal feeds, other than corn or cottonseed meal; 100 ppb for corn and other grains intended for breeding beef cattle, breeding swine, or mature poultry; 200 ppb for corn and other grains intended for finishing swine of 100 pounds or greater; 300 ppb for corn and other grains intended for finishing (i.e., feedlot) beef cattle and for cottonseed meal intended for beef cattle, swine or poultry. All corn exported from the United States is required to be tested for aflatoxin. Aflatoxin testing is available nationwide upon request, for a fee. Grain Inspection Packers and Stockyards Administration has approved several different types of test kits for this service.
AFPA — Agricultural Fair Practices Act of 1967 (P.L. 90-288) (7 U.S.C. 2301 et seq.).
AFT — American Farmland Trust. www.farmland.org.
Agenda 2000 — A set of measures involving changes to common EU policies, including the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), for the 2000-2006 period agreed by EU Heads of State at the March 1999 European Summit in Berlin. Intended in part to prepare the EU's Common Agricultural Policy for the enlargement of the European Union in 2004 to include 10 Central and Eastern European Countries and for the next round of World Trade Organization (WTO) negotiations on agriculture which began in 2001, the reforms included reductions in market price support for beef and veal, milk and milk products, and grains and oilseeds. Agenda 2000 established rural development as a "second pillar" of the CAP (price and income support being the "first pillar") and set guidelines for spending on commodity support and rural development for the 2000-2006 period. Under the guidelines, spending on the first pillar would average around 40 billion Euros annually, while rural development spending would average around 4.3 billion Euros (1999 prices). Total spending on the CAP is to be held at these levels including after accession of the new member countries in 2004. The Berlin Summit also decided that a mid-term review of the reforms of the CAP would be carried out by 2003.
After-school nutrition programs — Under the terms of the School Lunch Act, schools and other entities (child-care programs, local governments) may receive federal subsidies for meals and snacks served to children in after-school programs (or programs that are sponsored on non-school days).
Aggregate measurement of support (AMS) — An indicator of the amount of domestic support for agriculture. As used in the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture, the AMS refers to a measure of the gap between domestic and world prices multiplied by the quantity supported, plus any other commodity-specific transfers. Internal or domestic support reduction commitments in the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture are expressed in terms of reductions in a total AMS covering all trade-distorting internal support measures for agriculture.
Agreement on Agriculture — The Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture reached in 1994 and implemented in U.S. law by the Uruguay Round Agreements Act of 1994 (P.L. 103-465) brings agricultural trade more fully under international trade rules and obligations. The Agreement provides for the conversion of quantitative barriers to trade to tariffs or tariff-rate quotas, and for reductions in export subsidies and trade-distorting domestic support policies.
Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade — One of the Uruguay Round agreements, it is intended to ensure that countries' various technical standards and regulations, including those for food and agricultural products (other than sanitary and phytosanitary measures) do not unnecessarily restrict or distort trade and/or are imposed simply to protect domestic industries.
Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures — See Sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures and agreements.
Agribusiness — Agriculturally related businesses that supply farm inputs (such as fertilizer or equipment) or are involved in the marketing of farm products (such as warehouses, processors, wholesalers, transporters, and retailers). Farms are not usually included when the term agribusiness is used.
Agricultural Act of 1949 — P.L. 81-439, along with the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 (P.L.75-430), makes up the major part of the permanent law that mandates commodity price and farm income support. The original 1949 Act designated mandatory support for basic commodities and the following nonbasic commodities: wool and mohair, tung nuts, honey, Irish potatoes (later excluded in the Agricultural Act of 1954, P.L. 83-690), and milk, butterfat, and their products. Periodic farm bills (most recently the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 101-171)) make temporary changes in the levels and design of commodity programs.
Agricultural Act of 1954 — P.L. 83-690 established a flexible price support for basic commodities (excluding tobacco) at 82.5-90% of parity and authorized a Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) reserve for foreign and domestic relief. Title VII was designated the National Wool Act of 1954 and provided for a new price support program for wool and mohair to encourage increased domestic production. Price support for wool and mohair continued through marketing year 1995, at which time it was phased down and terminated under the explicit mandate of P.L. 103-130 (November 1, 1993). Mandatory support for wool and mohair was restored by the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 101-171, Sec. 1201-1205).
Agricultural Act of 1956 — P.L. 84-540 created the Soil Bank Program (Title I was called the Soil Bank Act), addressed the disposal of Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) inventories of surplus stocks, contained commodity support program provisions, and contained forestry provisions. The Soil Bank Act authorized short- and long-term removal of land from production with annual rental payments to participants (Acreage Reserve Program and Conservation Reserve Program, respectively). The Acreage Reserve Program, for wheat, corn, rice, cotton, peanuts, and several types of tobacco, allowed producers to retire land on an annual basis in crop years 1956 through 1959 in return for payments. The Conservation Reserve Program allowed producers to retire cropland under contracts of 3, 5, or 10 years in return for annual payments. The Soil Bank Act was repealed by Section 601 of the Food and Agriculture Act of 1965 (P.L. 89-321). The Conservation Reserve portion of the Soil Bank was a model for the subsequent Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), enacted in 1985.
Agricultural Act of 1970 — P.L. 91-524 initiated a significant change in commodity support policy. This 3-year farm bill replaced some of the more restrictive and mandatory features of previous law (acreage allotments, planting restrictions, and marketing quotas) with voluntary annual cropland set-asides and marketing certificate payments to achieve parity prices (the precursor to target prices and deficiency payments). For the first time, the law adopted an annual payment limitation per producer (set at $55,000 per crop). Among other things, the Act also amended and extended the authority of the Class I differential in federal milk marketing order areas.
Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) of 1933 — P.L. 73-10 was the New Deal initiative to assist the farm sector during the Great Depression. This was the first comprehensive effort to raise and stabilize farm prices and income. The law created and authorized the Agricultural Adjustment Administration to (1) enter into voluntary agreements to pay farmers to reduce production of designated "basic" commodities (cotton, wheat, corn, rice, tobacco, hogs, and milk), (2) to make advance payments to farmers who stored crops on the farm, (3) to create marketing agreements between farmers and middlemen, and (4) to levy processing taxes to pay for production adjustment and market development. The Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) was incorporated under the laws of the state of Delaware on October 17, 1933, to carry out financial activities, including making nonrecourse loans on the basic crops. Support for other commodities was authorized upon recommendation by the Secretary with the President's approval. Commodity loan programs carried out by the CCC for 1933-37 included cotton, corn, rosin, turpentine, tobacco, peanuts, dates, figs, and prunes. The provisions for production control and processing taxes in the Act were later declared unconstitutional in the Hoosac Mills decision of 1936. Congress responded by adopting the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936 (P.L. 74-46), the Agricultural Marketing Act of 1937 (50 Stat. 246), and the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 (P.L. 75-430), all of which remain as permanent law.
Agricultural Adjustment Act Amendment of 1935 — P.L. 74-320 made several important and lasting changes to the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 (P.L. 73-10). Section 22 of the law gave the President authority to impose quotas when imports interfered with commodity programs designed to raise prices and farm income. Section 32 was designed to widen market outlets for surplus agricultural commodities by permanently appropriating funds (30% of annual gross customs receipts) to promote food consumption, reduce agricultural surpluses, and provide for the food needs of low income populations. Section 32 funds are used by the Secretary to purchase surplus commodities for donation outside normal channels of trade (e.g., to school lunch programs), and to support the costs of child nutrition programs. Section 22 has been superseded, but Section 32 continues to operate and is used primarily for child nutrition programs.
Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 — P.L. 75-430 was enacted as an alternative and replacement for the farm subsidy policies found unworkable in the AAA legislation of 1933. The 1938 Act was the first to make price support mandatory for corn, cotton, and wheat to help maintain a sufficient supply in low production periods along with marketing quotas to keep supply in line with market demand. It established permissive supports for butter, dates, figs, hops, turpentine, rosin, pecans, prunes, raisins, barley, rye, grain sorghum, wool, winter cover-crop seeds, mohair, peanuts, and tobacco for the 1938-40 period. Also, Title V of the Act established the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation. The 1938 Act is considered part of permanent law for commodity programs and farm income support (along with the Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) Charter Act and the Agricultural Act of 1949). Provisions of this law are often superseded by more current legislation (such as the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 101-171)). However, if the current legislation expires and new legislation is not enacted, the law reverts back to the permanent provisions of the 1938 Act.
Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1980 — P.L. 96-213 amended the Food and Agriculture Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-113) primarily to raise the target prices for wheat and corn.
Agricultural Attache, Counselor, or Trade Officer — An agricultural expert, employed by the Foreign Agricultural Service, on the staff of a U.S. embassy, consulate, or agricultural trade office.
Agricultural commodity — No single official definition of this term exists. The term and others, such as agricultural product, basic commodity, nonbasic commodity, perishable commodity, and livestock, appear, as statutory language, throughout the U.S. Code and in various federal regulations. In each case (such terms are defined in at least 20 different places in the U.S. Code alone), the term is intended to have a specialized or unique meaning, most often to either exclude or include particular items/producers from eligibility or coverage under a program or activity. A term might be relatively general and/or expansive, as in the law authorizing foreign food aid under P.L. 480 (7 U.S.C. 1732): "Agricultural commodity, unless otherwise provided for in this chapter, includes any agricultural commodity or the products thereof produced in the United States, including wood and processed wood products, fish, and livestock, as well as value-added, fortified, or high-value agricultural products." Or, it may be deliberately exclusive, as in the Agricultural Fair Practices Act of 1967 (7 U.S.C. 2302): "Agricultural products shall not include cotton or tobacco or their products."
Agricultural cooperative — According to the National Agricultural Law Center, "Although there is no universally accepted definition, a cooperative can be defined as a legal business entity created under state law that is owned and operated for the purpose of benefitting those individuals who use its services." Functions of an agricultural cooperative can include providing loans to farmers, supplying agricultural information, selling production inputs, bargaining on behalf of members, and transporting and/or marketing agricultural products for its members. Land 'O Lakes, Ocean Spray, and Southern States are among the some widely recognized and larger cooperatives. See also Capper-Volstead Act, under which farmer cooperatives receive limited exemption from antitrust liability. The USDA assists the nation's 3,140 agricultural cooperatives (2002 estimate) as part of its rural development activities.
Agricultural Conservation Program (ACP) — Administered by the Farm Service Agency, this largest and oldest conservation cost-sharing program paid farmers up to $3,500 per year as an incentive to install approved conservation practices. It was terminated in the 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104-127) and replaced by a new Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP).
Agricultural Credit Act of 1987 — P.L.100-233 was enacted in response to the severe financial crisis of the early- to mid-1980s, which affected both farmers and their lending institutions. The Act authorized a $4 billion financial assistance package for financially vulnerable institutions of the Farm Credit System (FCS), protected the full value of FCS borrower stock when retired, established a permanent insurance mechanism to ensure the repayment of funds borrowed by the FCS for lending purposes, required the FCS and USDA's Farmers Home Administration (now, the Farm Service Agency) to restructure severely delinquent farm loans that met certain criteria, mandated FCS consolidation, and established a secondary market for farm real estate loans.
Agricultural Credit Association (ACA) — An institution of the Farm Credit System that has direct lending authority to make short-, intermediate-, and long-term loans to agricultural producers, rural homeowners and some farm-related businesses.
Agricultural district — A planning term which defines an area within a local jurisdiction where farming is the preferred economic activity. Districts may be voluntarily created by landowners who receive benefits, usually in return for not developing the land for a certain number of years, or they may be designated in a local land use plan. An agricultural district is not a conservation district.
Agricultural diversification — A system of farming that encourages production of a variety of plants and animals and their products as opposed to monoculture or large-scale specialization. Advocates of diversification argue that it provides greater income stability. Specialized farms benefit from economies of size.
Agricultural Fair Practices Act of 1967 — This law (P.L. 90-288) was enacted to protect farmers from retaliation by handlers (buyers of their products) because the farmers are members of a cooperative. The act permits farmers to file complaints with USDA, which can then institute court proceedings, if they believe their rights under the law have been violated. Several bills have been introduced in recent years on behalf of producers (among them, some poultry growers who have contracts with large companies) to give them more bargaining power under the Act, which, some producers contend, lacks adequate enforcement authorities.
Agricultural literacy — A phrase being used by several universities (e.g., Texas Tech, the University of Arizona, and California State Polytechnic) to describe programs to promote the understanding and knowledge necessary to synthesize, analyze, and communicate basic information about agriculture to students, producers, consumers, and the public. These programs focus on assisting educators and others to effectively incorporate information about agriculture into subjects being taught or examined in public and private forums, and to better understand the impact of agriculture on society.
Agricultural Management Assistance Program — Authorized in the Agricultural Risk Protection Act of 2000 (P.L. 106-224, Sec. 133) and permanently authorized and amended in the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 2501) to provide mandatory funding of $20 million annually from FY2003 through FY 2007 and $10 million in all other years. FY2004 appropriations law (P.L. 108-199) limited funding for conservation to $14 million, with the remainder available for other specified purposes. NRCS administers this program. Participants in 15 designated states, primarily in the northeast, that had been under-served by crop insurance are to receive financial assistance, not to exceed $50,000 per year, to help pay to install conservation practices and take other specified actions that will reduce their financial risk.
Agricultural Market Transition Act (AMTA) — Title I of the 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104-127). It allowed farmers who had participated in the wheat, feed grain, cotton, and rice programs in any one of the 5 years prior to 1996 to enter into 7-year production flexibility contracts for 1996-2002. Total national production flexibility contract payments (sometimes called AMTA payments, or contract payments) for each fiscal year were fixed in the law. The AMTA allowed farmers to plant 100% of their total contract acreage to any crop except fruits and vegetables, and receive a full payment. Land had to be maintained in agricultural uses. Unlimited haying and grazing and planting and harvesting alfalfa and other forage crops was permitted with no reduction in payments. AMTA commodity support provisions were replaced by the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 101-171, Title I), a 6-year farm bill.
Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act of 1937 — This law, signed June 3, 1937 (P.L. 75-137), provided authority for federal marketing orders, and also reaffirmed the marketing agreements provisions of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 (P.L. 73-10). Under the authority of this permanent law and subsequent amendments, marketing orders have been established for milk as well as numerous fruits, vegetables, and specialty crops.
Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) — A USDA agency that establishes standards for grades of cotton, tobacco, meat, dairy products, eggs, fruits, and vegetables. AMS also operates inspection and grading services and market news services; provides supervisory administration for federal marketing orders; administers USDA's Section 32 budget account (including commodity purchasing using Section 32 funds); oversees the National Organic Program; provides support for various farm marketing activities; and conducts research and analysis of transportation problems affecting agriculture. www.ams.usda.gov.
Agricultural pollution — Wastes, emissions, and discharges arising from farming activities. Includes runoff and leaching of pesticides and fertilizers; pesticide drift and volatilization; erosion and dust from cultivation; and improper disposal of animal manure and carcasses. Some agricultural pollution is point source, meaning that it is derived from a single discharge point, such as a pipe. Large feedlots are an example of point sources, and they require permits under the Clean Water Act (P.L. 92-500, 33 U.S.C. 1251-1387). However, much of the pollution from agriculture is from nonpoint sources, meaning that it derives from dispersed origins, e.g., blowing dust or nutrients leaching from fields. Most pollution control programs have focused on particular categories of point sources, although nonpoint and unregulated point sources account for an increasingly large proportion of remaining pollution. The EPA concludes that agricultural sources account for over one-half the pollution impairing surface water quality in the U.S. based on state surveys. The Clean Water Act mandates that states develop and implement management programs to control nonpoint sources of water pollution generally, and the Coastal Zone Management Program requires participating states to develop similar programs for farms within state-designated coastal zones.
Agricultural product — The term agricultural products is often used as a collective expression and like agricultural commodity, is defined in different ways to meet different circumstances. For example, 7 U.S.C. 138 states "The term 'agricultural product' means any fresh fruit or vegetable or any commodity or product derived from livestock or fowl, that is marketed in the United States for human consumption." While 7 U.S.C. 451 says "the term 'agricultural products' means agricultural, horticultural, viticultural, and dairy products, livestock and the products thereof, the products of poultry and bee raising, the edible products of forestry, and any and all products raised or produced on farms and processed or manufactured products thereof, transported or intended to be transported in interstate and/or foreign commerce." And 7 U.S.C. 6502 says "The term 'agricultural product' means any agricultural commodity or product, whether raw or processed, including any commodity or product derived from livestock that is marketed in the United States for human or livestock consumption." With respect to calculating U.S. agricultural exports, imports and the trade balance, USDA's definition of agricultural products includes all of the products found in Chapters 1-24 of the U.S. Harmonized Tariff Schedule (except for fishery products in Chapters 3 and 16, manufactured tobacco products like cigarettes and cigars in Chapter 24, and spirits in Chapter 22). Certain other products outside of Chapters 1-24 are considered agricultural products, including essential oils (Chapter 33), raw rubber (Chapter 40), raw animal hides and skins (Chapter 41), and wool and cotton (Chapters 51-52). Possibly the broadest definition may be contained in the Commerce and Trade title, Consumer Credit chapter of the Code (15 USC1602(t)), which states "The term 'agricultural products' includes agricultural, horticultural, viticultural, and dairy products, livestock, wildlife, poultry, bees, forest products, fish and shellfish, and any products thereof, including processed and manufactured products, and any and all products raised or produced on farms and any processed or manufactured products thereof."
Agricultural protection zoning — Local zoning codes that include provisions such as large lot size requirements and use limitations to separate farming and related activities from other land uses. Some jurisdictions further subdivide agricultural zones, so as to distinguish full time commercial farming from a mix of uses that might include rural residence farms and retirement farms on very large lots. See Agricultural zoning.
Agricultural purposes — The term agricultural purposes is sometimes used to categorize a collection of activities covered by a law or set of regulations. Yet, the agricultural laws assembled in Title 7 of the U.S. Code do not include a definition. A definition is contained in the Commerce and Trade title, Consumer Credit chapter, of the Code(15 USC1602(s)), which states: The term "agricultural purposes" includes the production, harvest, exhibition, marketing, transportation, processing, or manufacture of agricultural products by a natural person who cultivates, plants, propagates, or nurtures those agricultural products, including but not limited to the acquisition of farmland, real property with a farm residence, and personal property and services used primarily in farming.
Agricultural Quarantine Inspection (AQI) — A program of USDA's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), part of which was transferred to the new Department of Homeland Security (DHS) under the Homeland Security Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-296). As of March 1, 2003, roughly 2,500 AQI border inspection personnel are part of the DHS Border and Transportation Security directorate. AQI inspects incoming passengers, luggage, and cargo at U.S. ports of entry in order to protect U.S. agriculture from foreign animal and plant pests and diseases that may enter by unintentional or intentional means. The plant and animal quarantine function of AQI remains in APHIS.
Agricultural Research, Extension, and Education Reform Act of 1998 — P.L. 105-185 was separate legislation that revised and reauthorized federally supported agricultural research, education, and extension programs from June 1998 through May 2002 (historically, these authorities have been part of an omnibus farm policy law enacted every 4 to 6 years). The 1998 Act built upon reforms that were made in the research title of the farm law in effect at the time, the 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104-127). Key provisions were new accountability measures for recipients of federal research funds, and a new competitive research grant program called the Initiative for Future Agriculture and Food Systems, for which mandatory funds were authorized (annually appropriated discretionary funds support most of USDA's research, education and extension programs). The 1998 law's provisions, as well as new revisions of research, education, and extension policies, are included in Title VII of the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171).
Agricultural Research Service (ARS) — A USDA agency employing about 2,100 federal scientists to conduct agricultural research at more than 100 field locations in the United States, U.S. insular areas (e.g., Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands), and several foreign countries. According to its mission statement, ARS scientists conduct research to develop and transfer solutions to agricultural problems of high national priority and provide information access and dissemination to: ensure high-quality, safe food, and other agricultural products ; assess the nutritional needs of Americans ; sustain a competitive agricultural economy; enhance the natural resource base and the environment; and provide economic opportunities for rural citizens, communities, and society as a whole. http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/main.htm.
Agricultural Resource Management Survey (ARMS) — ARMS is USDA's primary source of information on the financial condition, production practices, resource use, and economic well being of America's farm households. Sponsored jointly by the Economic Research Service (ERS) and the National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS), ARMS began in 1996 as a synthesis of the former USDA cropping practice, chemical use, and farm costs and returns surveys, which dated back to 1975. ARMS data underpin USDA's annual estimates of net farm income and fulfills a congressional mandate that USDA provide annual cost-of-production estimates for commodities covered under farm support legislation. ARMS also provides data regarding chemical use on field crops required under environmental and food safety legislation.
Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (ASCS) — This was the USDA agency once primarily responsible for administering the farm commodity price and income support programs, and conservation cost-sharing programs. Its functions were folded into a new Farm Service Agency (FSA) as a consequence of 1994 reorganization. A local field service center is maintained in nearly all farming localities. www.fsa.usda.gov/pas/default.asp.
Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954 — P.L. 83-480 is commonly referred to as both P.L. 480 and Food for Peace. The law established what continues to be the primary U.S. overseas food assistance program. The program makes U.S. agricultural commodities available through long-term credit at low interest rates and provides food donations.
Agricultural Trade Office — The Agricultural Trade Act of 1978 (P.L. 95-501) directed the establishment of trade offices in major centers of commerce throughout the world. Agricultural trade offices are operated by the Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS) to develop, maintain, and expand international markets for U.S. agricultural commodities and serve as centers for export sales promotion and contact points for importers seeking to buy U.S. farm products.
Agricultural zoning — Designations made by local jurisdictions that are intended to protect farmland and farming activities from incompatible nonfarm uses. Agricultural zoning can specify many factors, such as the uses allowed, minimum farm size, the number of nonfarm dwellings allowed, or the size of a buffer separating farm and nonfarm properties.
Agriculture and Consumer Protection Act of 1973 — P.L. 93-86 was the 4-year farm bill that adopted target prices and deficiency payments as a tool that would support farm income but reduce forfeitures to the Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) of surplus stocks. (Target prices were eliminated by the 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104-127), but restored by the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 101-171, Sec. 1104).) It reduced payment limitations to $20,000 (from $55,000 set in 1970) for all program crops. The Act might be considered the first omnibus farm bill because it went beyond simply authorizing farm commodity programs. It authorized disaster payments and disaster reserve inventories; created the Rural Environmental Conservation Program; amended the Food Stamp Act of 1964 (P.L. 88-525), authorized the use of commodities for feeding low income mothers and young children (the origin of the supplemental food program); and amended the Rural Development Act of 1972 (P.L. 92-419).
Agriculture and Food Act of 1981 — P.L. 97-98 was the 4-year omnibus farm bill that continued and modified commodity programs through 1985. It set specific target prices for 4 years, eliminated rice allotments and marketing quotas, lowered dairy supports, and made other changes affecting a wide range of USDA activities. The next year this farm bill was amended to freeze the dairy price support level and mandate loan rates and acreage reserve provisions for the 1983 crops (Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1982, P.L. 97-253). Again in 1984, amendments were adopted to freeze target prices, authorize paid land diversion for feed grains, upland cotton, and rice, and provide a wheat payment-in-kind program for 1984 (Agricultural Programs Adjustment Act of 1984, P.L. 98-258).
Agriculture in Concert with the Environment (ACE) — An EPA program, administered cooperatively with USDA's Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE) program, to fund research projects that reduce the risk of pollution from pesticides and soluble fertilizers.
Agriculture Innovation Centers — The 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 6402) directed the USDA to provide grants and to assist in the establishment of Agriculture Innovation Centers that provide information, training and direct assistance to agricultural producers in the production, processing, development and marketing of value-added agricultural commodities and products. In September 2003, the USDA announced $10 million in grants for the establishment of demonstration centers in Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, and Pennsylvania.
Agriculture Mediation Program — A program initially authorized by the Agricultural Credit Act of 1987 (P.L. 100-233, Title V, and recently amended by P.L. 106-472, Sec. 306; 7 U.S.C. 5101), to facilitate the use of mediation to settle disputes arising in conjunction with USDA actions. If agreement is not reached through mediation, all parties remain free to pursue other available administrative appeals or legal actions. Typical areas of dispute include farm loans, farm and conservation programs, wetland determinations, rural water loan programs, grazing on national forest lands, and pesticides. This program is administered by the Farm Service Agency (FSA).
Agriculture Risk Protection Act of 2000 — P.L. 106-224 made major revisions to the federal crop insurance program and provided emergency agricultural assistance. The crop insurance provisions: significantly increased the government subsidy of the program; improved coverage for farmers affected by multiple years of natural disasters; and authorized pilot insurance programs for livestock farmers and growers of other farm commodities that were not served by crop insurance, among many other provisions. The emergency provisions made available a total of $7.14 billion in emergency farm assistance, mostly in direct payments (called market loss payments) to growers of various commodities to compensate for low farm commodity prices.
Agroterrorism — The deliberate introduction of an animal or plant disease with the goal of generating fear, causing economic losses, and/or undermining stability. Agroterrorism is a subset of the more general issue of bioterrorism. An agroterrorism event would affect the production agriculture sector economically in terms of plant and animal health, and affect supply and demand. Humans could be at risk in terms of food safety or public health, especially if the chosen disease is transmissible to humans (zoonotic). Losses would accrue to individuals, businesses, and governments through costs to contain and eradicate the disease, and to dispose of contaminated products. The economic impact can spread to input suppliers, food processors, transportation, retailers, and food service providers.
AHI — Animal Health Institute. www.ahi.org.
AI — Artificial insemination
AID — See United States Agency for International Development (USAID). www.info.usaid.gov.
AIF — Animal Industry Foundation changed its name to Animal Agriculture Alliance. www.aif.org.
AIIS — See Automated Import Inspection System.
Air pollution — Contamination of the atmosphere by substances that, directly or indirectly, adversely affect human health or welfare. Air pollution results from human activities, both deliberate releases (as from smokestacks) and fugitive emissions (as dust blown from streets or fields), and from natural sources (including sea spray, volcanic emissions, and pollen). The Clean Air Act (42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq.) authorizes the EPA to regulate air pollution (see National Ambient Air Quality Standards).
Alar — Trade name for daminozide, a plant regulator and therefore classed as a pesticide, that makes apples redder, firmer, and less likely to drop off trees before harvest. It was also used to a lesser extent on peanuts, tart cherries, concord grapes, and other fruits. Alar was suspended by the EPA in 1989 following a controversy over allegations of cancer risk to children from residues of Alar and its breakdown product UDMH on apples and in apple products.
Alcohol — The family name of a group of organic chemical compounds that includes methanol, ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, and others. Ethanol is produced from crops or residues with a high carbohydrate content. Alcoholic beverages contain ethanol, and ethanol is blended with gasoline to produce gasohol. Most industrial ethanol produced in the U.S. is from corn wet-milling and dry-milling.
ALF — Animal Liberation Front. www.animalliberationfront.us.
Alien Species Prevention and Enforcement Act of 1992 — P.L. 102-393 makes it illegal to ship certain categories of plants and animals through the mail. The prohibited species are certain injurious animals, plant pests, plants and materials under federal quarantine, and certain plants and animals under the Lacey Act (16 U.S.C. 3371-3378), a law that pertains to illegal trade in fish, wildlife, and plants. Many alien species also are invasive.
Allotment — In conjunction with commodity support programs, acreage allotments and marketing quotas historically served to limit a farm's output or volume marketed. For federal lands grazing, an allotment is an area designated and managed for grazing of livestock. The Bureau of Land Management and the Forest Service stipulate the number of livestock and time period (season) of use for each allotment under their respective jurisdictions.
Allowable Sale Quantity (ASQ) — The maximum quantity of timber that may be sold from national forest lands under a Forest Service forest plan for a period of ten years.
Alternative Agricultural Research and Commercialization Corporation (AARCC) — As authorized by the 1990 farm bill (P.L. 101-624), AARCC was originally established as the Applied Agricultural Research Commercialization Center in the USDA to be a public venture capital agency that would invest in small businesses to help them develop and commercialize new nonfood products from agricultural and forestry commodities. The 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104-127) changed the Center from a government agency to a wholly-owned venture capital corporation of USDA. Congress repealed the authority for AARCC in the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 6201).
Alternative agriculture — See Sustainable agriculture.
Alternative fuels — According to the Department of Energy, alternative fuels are substantially nonpetroleum sources of energy. As defined by the Energy Policy Act of 1993 (EP Act) DOE currently recognizes the following as alternative fuels: mixtures containing 85% or more by volume of alcohol fuel, including methanol and denatured ethanol; natural gas (compressed or liquefied); liquefied petroleum gas (propane); hydrogen; coal-derived liquid fuels; fuels derived from biological materials; electricity (including electricity from solar energy); and 100% biodiesel (B100). Renewable fuels also are a subset of alternative fuels. The U.S. Department of Energy maintains an information center for alternative fuels. www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/index.html.
Alternative test methods — New laboratory procedures that reduce use of animals or reduce the suffering of animals in evaluating the potential toxicity of chemicals.
Amber box policies — Countries' agricultural policies that are considered under world trade rules to have the greatest potential effect on production or trade, and are therefore subject to review and reduction over time. Amber box policies include market price support, production-based direct payments, input subsidies, and similar programs. The expressions green box policies, amber box policies, and blue box policies were developed to categorize agriculture policies using a traffic light analogy in the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture.
Amenable species — A term used within the context of USDA's meat and poultry inspection program to signify exotic species (livestock and fowl not covered by the statutes) that might be added to the laws and thus be eligible for mandatory federal inspection, which is taxpayer-funded. An exotic species is considered an amenable species if its anatomy and biology are substantially the same as the animals currently inspected. The Poultry Products Inspection Act (P.L. 85-172, as amended; 21 U.S.C. 451 et seq.) was expanded in 2001 to cover ostrich, rhea, and emu (ratites) because USDA determined that the hazards they present to food safety are essentially the same as those posed by chickens, turkeys, ducks, etc., and the existing contamination detection and prevention systems are sufficient to control them. Bison and buffalo have been considered for inclusion under the Federal Meat Inspection Act (21 U.S.C. 601 et seq.) because they are bovine species (like cattle). Deer and elk, on the other hand, are cervids, and pose hazards for food safety that are not yet fully known or controlled for under the existing meat inspection system. The term non-amenable sometimes is used to describe cervids and certain other exotics, like rabbits, for example.
American Heritage Rivers Protection Program — A Clinton Administration (1993-2001) initiative to deliver federal resources more efficiently and effectively in support of voluntary community efforts to enhance and protect designated rivers or river segments; the designations were selected based on proposals submitted by local sponsors. Portions of these designations are located in or affect agricultural lands.
AMI — American Meat Institute. www.meatami.org.
Ammonia — A pungent alkaline gas, a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen (NH3). It is formed naturally when bacteria decompose nitrogen-containing compounds, such as manures. Emissions of ammonia can be a problem in enclosed livestock facilities, and in the ambient air they may contribute to very fine particulate matter. Synthetic ammonia is used as a nitrogen fertilizer. Also called anhydrous ammonia, it is the basic feed stock for the production of all nitrogen fertilizers as well as being a direct application material. Synthetic ammonia is made through a reaction between natural gas and nitrogen.
AMR — Advanced meat recovery
AMS — Aggregate measure of support; Agricultural Marketing Service.
AMTA — Agricultural Market Transition Act (P.L. 104-127, Title I).
ANCOM — Andean Common Market.
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) — A USDA agency originally established to conduct border inspections and regulatory and control programs to protect animal and plant health. The border inspection function became part of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) in 2002 (P.L. 107-296). USDA retains the agency's other functions, including: animal and plant quarantine; pest and disease monitoring, control and eradication programs; trade facilitation through sanitary or phytosanitary (SPS) negotiations with foreign countries and certification of pest- or disease-free status of U.S. exports; and horse protection and animal welfare programs, among others. www.aphis.usda.gov.
Animal biologics — Vaccines, bacterins, antigens, diagnostic kits and other products of biologic origin. The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) has responsibility for approving and regulating some animal biologics according to the Viruses, Serums, Toxins, Antitoxins, and Analogous Products Act (commonly called the Virus, Serum, Toxin Act (21 U.S.C. 151-159). Animal drugs are regulated by the FDA. See Animal biologics, Biologics, Veterinary biologics.
Animal byproducts — The parts of livestock other than meat cuts from muscle derived during processing (i.e., fat, organs, blood, edible and inedible offal, hide, bones, bones, horns hooves, etc.). Inedible animal byproducts typically are rendered for use in livestock feed, pet food, personal care products, and industrial ingredients.
Animal Damage Control (ADC) Program — Renamed in 1997 as the Wildlife Services (WS) program, it is an Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) effort to protect agriculture, natural resources, property or endangered species from unwanted and potentially harmful effects of wildlife species, including predators and invasive species. The program also works to prevent wildlife/airplane collision hazards at civilian and military airports.
Animal drugs — Drugs intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease in animals. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has the broad mandate under the Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act (21 U.S.C. 321 et seq.) to assure the safety and effectiveness of animal drugs and their use in all animals, including farm animals. Before FDA formally approves an animal drug, the sponsor or manufacturer of the drug must document in scientific testing that the drug has been found "safe and effective." The testing data also must demonstrate that a methodology is available to detect and measure any residue left in edible animal products. Farmers and veterinarians using drugs on farm animals must adhere to guidelines about how much time must elapse before a treated animal can be slaughtered, and any other use constraints or warnings stated on the drug label. Animal biologics (e.g., vaccines and tests) are regulated by APHIS.
Animal feeding operation — Facilities where animals are kept and raised in confined situations. Feed is brought to the animals. Agriculture census data from 1997 show there were 238,000 such operations nationwide that year. When large enough, these facilities are designated as concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) and they become subject to regulatory requirements to prevent point source pollution. USDA and the EPA issued a Unified National Strategy for Animal Feeding Operations on March 9, 1999. The goal was to minimize water pollution from confinement facilities and land application of manure through adoption of site-specific comprehensive nutrient management plans. EPA issued a final rule on December 16, 2002, that will require a total of about 15,500 operations to obtain permits by 2006. At the time the rule was issued, about 4,500 operations had permits.
Animal Health Protection Act (AHPA) — The AHPA (P.L. 107-171, Title X, Subtitle E; 7 U.S.C. 8301 et seq.) consolidates all of the animal quarantine and related laws on the books, some dating back to the late 1800s, and replaces them with one statutory framework. While most of the authorities contained in the consolidated AHPA were taken from existing laws, some new provisions were added to help fully protect U.S. animal agriculture due to gaps in legal authority.
Animal identification (ID) and traceback — Currently, the private marketing system, assisted by computerization of records, generally can trace products back to their original suppliers, although not necessarily all the way to the farm. Animal identification is one component of traceback (or traceability); it refers to marking individual animals so that they can be tracked from birth to slaughter. Livestock producers already frequently identify their animals using back-tags, ear tags, radio frequency identification (RFID) tags, tattoos, and other devices, often for production management and animal health purposes. Animal identification and traceback are not programs in themselves; rather they may be useful tools in animal health, food safety, quality assurance, country-of-origin labeling, or other regulatory or marketing programs. Interest in a national, possibly mandatory, animal ID program that can quickly respond to animal disease outbreaks has grown in the wake of the December 2003 discovery of a cow in the United States with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE).
Animal protein — Protein used in livestock feed that is derived from meatpacking or rendering plants, surplus milk or milk products, and marine sources. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has banned proteins derived from certain parts of mammals from inclusion in livestock feeds in order to protect U.S. consumers from exposure to the agent that causes Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (related to mad cow disease, or BSE, in cattle).
Animal Protein Free Certification (APFC) Program — One of the AMS process verification programs. APFC is a voluntary, user-fee service available to poultry producers and processors to provide third-party verification that poultry and poultry products have never been fed animal protein, animal fats, or animal by-products.
Animal unit month (AUM) — An animal unit month (AUM) is the amount of forage needed to sustain one animal unit, or its equivalent, for one month. One animal unit is a 1,000 pound beef cow with a daily requirement of 26 pounds of dry matter forage. Therefore, one AUM is equal to 780 pounds of dry matter forage. The carrying capacity of a pasture is expressed in AUMs. Grazing fees for federal lands are charged by animal unit months or head-months.
Animal unit (AU) — A 1,000-pound beef cow is the standard measure of an animal unit. The dry matter forage requirement of one animal unit is 26 pounds per day. Animal unit equivalents (AUE) are calculated for various other animals. A 700-pound steer is 0.80 animal units. A 1,300 pound horse is 1.20 animal units. A 120-pound sheep is 0.20 animal units. Federal land management agencies, such as the Bureau of Land Management and the Forest Service, may use different standards for setting grazing fees. The Natural Resources Conservation Service uses animal units to estimate manure production and manure nutrient content when designing projects under the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP). EPA does not use the term animal units to define size classes for purposes of compliance with effluent limitations for Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs). Instead it sets thresholds by specifying the actual number of animals (40 CFR 122.23).
Animal waste management facility — Any structure, such as a waste treatment pond, used to store, process, or dispose of waste associated with the production of animals.
Animal Welfare Act of 1966 — P.L. 89-544 was enacted to curb the theft and mistreatment of dogs and cats for experimental and research purposes. The principal federal animal protection law, it has been amended several times to address specific concerns such as the shipping of pets on public transportation, dog fighting, and using other warm-blooded animals in biomedical experiments. Although administered by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), the law has always excluded farm animals from its coverage. Generally, USDA is authorized to "promulgate standards to govern the humane handling, care, treatment, and practices in experimental procedures to ensure that animal pain and distress are minimized...." The law excludes from the definition of animal "...horses not used for research purposes and other farm animals, such as, but not limited to livestock or poultry, used or intended for use as food or fiber, or livestock or poultry used or intended for use for improving animal nutrition, breeding, management, or production efficiency, or for improving the quality of food or fiber." Animal welfare has become more controversial in recent years as certain animal protection groups have argued for more extensive legal protections for animals. The debate over the meaning of animal welfare revolves around the most appropriate methods for taking care of animals, including farm animals. Legislation has been proposed (but not enacted) in recent years that would intervene in animal production operations by regulating confinement facilities; determining the diets of veal calves; specifying how poultry must be slaughtered; and prohibiting dealers from handling nonambulatory (downer) livestock unless they are humanely killed. (7 U.S.C. 2131 et seq.).
ANPR — Advance notice of proposed rulemaking.
Antemortem — Before slaughter. As used in the meat and poultry inspection program, the term refers to the examination that USDA meat inspectors are required to conduct of all live animals just before they are killed.
Antibiotics — Chemical substances produced by microorganisms or synthetically that inhibit the growth of, or destroy, bacteria. Antibiotics are used at therapeutic levels to fight disease in humans and animals. Since the 1950s they have been used at subtherapeutic levels in animal feeds, where they enhance growth and may help prevent disease in livestock and poultry. Rules guiding the use of veterinary drugs and medicated animal feeds, including tolerance levels for drug residues in meats for human consumption, are promulgated by the Center for Veterinary Medicine of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) enforces the FDA rules through a sampling and testing program that is part of its overall meat and poultry inspection program.
Antidumping duty — A duty or levy imposed under authority of Title VII of the Tariff Act of 1930 (P.L. 71-361). Title VII states that if the U.S. Department of Commerce determines that an imported product is being sold at less than its fair value, and if the International Trade Commission determines that a U.S. producer is thereby being injured, the Commerce Department shall apply antidumping duties equivalent to the dumping margin.
Antitrust — Term used to describe a policy or action that seeks to curtail monopolistic power within a market. Concentration and potential for monopolization have long been agricultural policy issues. The Sherman Act (15 U.S.C. 1 et seq.), the Clayton Antitrust Act (15 U.S.C. 12 et seq.), and the Federal Trade Commission Act (15 U.S.C. 41 et seq.) are the powers used to prevent monopolies.
APA — Administrative Procedure Act (P.L. 79-404).
APEC — Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum. www.apec.org.
APH — Actual production history
APHIS — Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. www.aphis.usda.gov.
Apple Market Loss Assistance Program — An FSA program that has made payments to apple producers to partially offset revenue losses from low prices caused by the loss of markets. The 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 10105) mandated the payment of $94 million by the Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) for lost markets in crop year 2000. Earlier funding was mandated for the 2000 crop of apples by P.L. 107-76, Sec. 741 ($75 million), and for the 1998 and 1999 apple crops by P.L. 106-387, Sec. 811 ($100 million).
Applied tariff — The tariff rate actually levied on imports in contrast to the often higher bound tariff rate that is incorporated in schedules of commitments made in multilateral trade negotiations under WTO auspices. Because they are generally lower than bound rates, applied rates often are proposed by exporting countries as the basis from which tariff reductions should be made.
Appraised stumpage price (or appraised rate) — On national forests, the Forest Service estimate of the market price for timber to be cut and removed; it is the advertised minimum for competitive bidding by purchasers.
Appropriated entitlement — An entitlement program that is funded through annual appropriations rather than by a permanent appropriation. Examples within USDA are the Commodity Credit Corporation-funded programs; the federal crop insurance program; the food stamp program; and child nutrition programs. Because the authorizing statute for these programs requires the government to provide eligible recipients the benefits to which they are entitled, whatever the cost, Congress must appropriate the necessary funds. If the amount Congress provides in the annual appropriations act is not enough, it must make up the difference in a supplemental appropriation.
Appropriation — The amount of funding Congress provides for a federal program to spend in a given year. An appropriation provides legal authority for federal agencies to incur obligations and to make payments out of the Treasury for specified purposes. Thirteen regular appropriations bills are considered every year by Congress, and supplemental appropriations are considered from time to time. Appropriations for all of USDA (except for the Forest Service) is provided annually in the bill that funds USDA and Related Agencies. The Forest Service is funded through the Interior appropriations bill.
AQI — Agricultural Quarantine Inspection.
Aquaculture — The National Aquaculture Act of 1980 (P.L. 96-362; 16 U.S.C. 2801 et seq.) defines aquaculture as "the propagation and rearing of aquatic species in controlled or selected environments, including ocean ranching." The Act divides responsibility for most aquaculture research, regulatory, and related activities among the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, and the Interior. Private aquaculture has grown rapidly and diversified in recent years; in the United States, aquaculture is dominated (80%) by catfish production.
Aquifer — An underground geological formation, or group of formations, containing usable amounts of groundwater that can supply wells or springs for domestic, industrial, and irrigation uses. Removing more groundwater from an aquifer than is naturally replenished is called overdrafting, and can result in a dropping water table, increased pumping costs, land subsidence (which reduces the future recharge capacity), saltwater intrusion, reduced streamflows in interconnected ground- and surface-water systems, and exhaustion of groundwater reserves. Overdrafting groundwater occurs primarily in the Plains States, especially in the Ogallala aquifer (which stretches from Texas to Nebraska) and in the West more generally.
Arable crops program — A consolidated support system operated under the EU Common Agricultural Policy for producers of major cereals, oilseeds, and protein crops. Production of these crops constituted 21% of farm income and 40% of agricultural lands in the EU in 2000. Main elements of the program include area compensatory payments, reductions in administered prices (also known as intervention prices), and annual land set-aside program requirements.
Area compensatory payments — Usually refers to EU subsidies that are tied to acreage and, sometimes more specifically, to the number of acres planted to a specific crop. Such payments might also be offered to producers in exchange for removing land from production, under certain supply control programs. The EU Common Agricultural Policy provides per-hectare area payments to producers for land in cereals, oilseeds, and protein crops as compensation for lower administered prices for these crops, so long as they meet land set-aside program requirements.
Area yield options contract — A contract entitling the holder to receive a payment when the area yield is below (above) the put (call) option strike yield. The strike yield is the yield at which the holder of an option contract can exercise the option.
Arid — A relatively dry climate in which annual precipitation is less than 10 inches, which generally is insufficient for crops to be grown without irrigation. Such areas usually are the focus of debate over federal water policies.
ARMS — Agricultural Resource Management Survey
ARP — Acreage reduction program.
ARS — Agricultural Research Service. www.ars.usda.gov.
ASA — American Society of Agronomy. www.agronomy.org.
ASA — American Soybean Association. www.amsoy.org.
ASA — American Sugar Alliance. www.sugaralliance.org.
ASAE — American Society of Agricultural Engineers. www.asae.org.
ASCS — Agriculture Stabilization and Conservation Service, predecessor to the Farm Service Agency (FSA). www.fsa.usda.gov/pas/default.asp.
ASEAN — Association of Southeast Asian Nations. www.asean.or.id.
ASFSA — American School Food Service Association. www.asfsa.org.
ASIA — American Sheep Industry Association. www.sheepusa.org.
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum — Established in 1989, APEC is a formal institution with a permanent secretariat located in Singapore. Its original 12 members include Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Brunei. In 1991, APEC admitted China, Taiwan (admitted as Chinese Taipei), and Hong Kong. Mexico and Papua New Guinea joined in 1993; Chile joined in 1994; Peru, Russia, and Vietnam joined in 1998. The 21-nation member APEC provides a forum for ministerial level discussion and cooperation on a range of economic issues including trade, investment, technology transfer, and transportation. According to APEC, a key feature that sets it apart from other international organizations is its commitment to business facilitation and the regular involvement of the private sector in a wide range of APEC activities. www.apecsec.org.sg/apec.html.
Asian long-horned beetle — A serious pest of hardwood trees in its native China, that by 1998 had been found in 14 states in the United States, where it has no known natural enemies. The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) is now working to detect and destroy the beetle, which is virtually impossible to eradicate with pesticides because it bores deep inside trees to lay its eggs; the only known suppression method is to remove and destroy infected trees. The agency reports that the beetle, which already has led to the destruction of many trees in parts of New York, could destroy millions of acres of hardwoods (including maples, horse chestnuts, poplars, willows, and elms) if it becomes established in the environment. APHIS believes that the beetle has been entering the United States in solid wood packing materials such as pallets and crates from China. For that reason, in late 1998, it banned all shipments from China containing such packing materials if they have not been treated to kill the pest.
ASP — American Society for Plasticulture. www.plasticulture.org.
ASQ — Allowable sale quantity (timber).
Assessment — Under certain agricultural marketing orders or commodity promotion programs, assessments may be applied against farm sales receipts to help pay for generic commodity advertising or research. The term check-off is often used interchangeably with assessment. In a different context, federal deficit reduction marketing assessments were applied during much of the decade of the 1990s to certain commodity price support programs (dairy, peanuts, sugar, tobacco, and soybeans) to help reduce the federal budget deficit, which arguably was higher because of the programs. Additionally, tobacco quota buyout legislation included an "assessment" on tobacco product manufacturers and imports as the source of $10.14 billion in financing for the buyout program (P.L. 108-171).
Assimilative capacity — The ability of a body of water to cleanse itself; its capacity to receive waste waters or toxic materials without deleterious effects and without damage to aquatic life or humans who consume the water.
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) — A multilateral organization formed in 1967 by the governments of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand to promote economic, social, and cultural cooperation among nations in the Southeast Asian region. Brunei, Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar joined later. The countries' total of more than 500 million people constitute the third largest overseas market for U.S. exports generally. www.aseansec.org/home.htm.
ASTA — American Seed Trade Association. www.amseed.com.
At-risk species — A term used by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) in implementing the Environmental Quality Incentive Program and proposed to be used in implementing the Conservation Security Program (CSP) that includes any plant or animal species determined by a State Technical Committee to need direct intervention to halt a decline in the size of the population. At risk species is one of many factors used to decide who will receive funding under both programs. The at-risk species definition used by NRCS does not make reference to the terms threatened or endangered as used under the Endangered Species Act.
ATO — Agricultural Trade Office.
Atrazine — A selective herbicide, widely used on corn. Due to concerns about surface water and groundwater contamination and worker exposure, EPA initiated a special review of atrazine registration (as well as registrations of two similar pesticide ingredients, cyanazine and simazine) in November 1994. Atrazine is still subject to the conditions of the Special Review and is undergoing reregistration and tolerance reassessment under the Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA, P.L. 104-170). The review might be completed in 2006.
Attainment area — An area considered to have air quality as good as or better than the National Ambient Air Quality Standards as defined in the Clean Air Act (42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq.). An area may be an attainment area for one pollutant and a non-attainment area for others.
ATTRA — National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. http://www.attra.org.
Attractant — A chemical or agent that lures insects or other pests by stimulating their sense of smell. Attractants are a nontoxic technique for luring insects into traps and are heavily used in orchard crops. Though distinct from toxic baits, attractants are regulated as pesticides.
AU — Animal unit.
Audubon Society — National Audubon Society. www.audubon.org.
AUM — Animal unit month.
Australian Wheat Board (AWB) — A statutory marketing agency that handles Australia's domestic marketing of wheat and export marketings of wheat and flour. Under the Australian system, farmers take their wheat to elevators designated as official handling agents for the AWB. Following delivery, farmers receive an initial payment, then over a period of time (which can be over a year) they receive additional payments until the full price has been paid. AWB became a grower-owned and controlled company operating under Australian corporation laws on July 1, 1999, and is listed on the Australian Stock Exchange. www.awb.com.au/awb/user/default.asp.
Automated Import Information System (AIIS) — The AIIS is a computerized tracking system introduced by FSIS in 2002 to monitor imports of meat and poultry. While all imported products are inspected in the country of origin and reinspected visually before being released by FSIS, the AIIS selects shipments for additional reinspection verification. The additional reinspection tasks could include testing for residues, microbiology or food chemistry. Whether import shipments are reinspected is statistically based on the annual volume of shipments from the exporting country.
Avian influenza — Avian flu is a form of the Influenza A virus that infects birds, and certain strains have been known to infect both animals and humans. Many different strains of avian flu exist throughout the world. Avian influenza has two forms in birds: a low pathogenicity (LPAI) form that causes mild illness, and a highly pathogenic (HPAI) form that is extremely contagious and causes severe illness and death. Avian flu is spread by contact with infected feces, nasal or eye excretions, or contaminated equipment, vehicles, or clothing. The most common method of control is culling (killing) infected flocks and imposing farm quarantines. Federal agencies inspect international borders, provide surveillance, diagnostic, and other assistance to state officials, and may help compensate farmers for destroyed poultry. Although avian influenza viruses can infect humans through poultry-to-human transmission, officials are concerned that the H5N1 virus could mutate and cause a pandemic through human-to-human transmission. International health organizations conclude that avian flu is not a food-borne disease since the virus is killed by temperatures reached in normal cooking.
AVMA — American Veterinary Medical Association. www.avma.org.
AWA — Animal Welfare Act (P.L. 89-544) (7 U.S.C.2131 et seq.).
AWB — Australian Wheat Board. www.awb.com.au.
AWP — Adjusted world price.
AWT — Advanced wastewater treatment.