OCTOBER, 1929 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW 421
The outer limit of the tornado’s path was sharply de-
fined. A typical example was found in the instance of a house which we own, the corner of which was located 18
feet from the corner of a similarly construct,ed adjoining
house. Our house w-as completely undamaged, while the adjacent house was comple.tely destroyed.
Anot,her example was found in the instance of a lightly
built cottage with a slightly supported open porch, located immediately across the street from t,he lumber yard and mill-working establishment referred to above.
While the latter was very badly damaged, the flimsy
cottage across the street was not harmed in any way. The captain of a large dredge anchored at Port Ever-
glades, a few miles southeast of Fort Lauderdale, advised
me that the tornado in coming in from the oc,ean passed between his dredge and a large barge anchored some 400
feet t,o the north without striking either. He advised me that he saw no evidence of a waterspout in connect,ion
with the tornado.
Mr. E. A. Pynchon, a civil enginee.r and shipyard
owner of Fort Lauderdale, was watching a recording barometer in Flippen’s hardware stmore when the storm center passed wit81iin some 300 or.400 feet of that building.
He states that the needle dropped abruptly nine points,
quivered a t t,he low point for a few moments, and then
rose abruptly to the original reading. The graph record
indicated a vertical line drop and rise of five points. The passing of the tornado apparently marked the
peak and end of the hurricane disturbance a t Fort
Lauderdale. Within 30 minutes after its passing a de- crease in the intensity of the hurricane winds was defi-
nitely noticeable, and within two hours the wind velocity was probably down to 30 miles an hour or less. Thunder
and lightning had developed in the east by that time, and the storm decreased continuously thereafter. The
recording barometer indicated a steadily increasing pres-
sure after the passage of the tornado.
ADDITIONAL EVIDENCE
Following is an excerpt from the report of the coopera-
tive observer at Fort Lauderdale :
I did not see the tornado, but heard the noise, but as the hurri-
cane was causing so much noise did not notice that of the tornado. My daughters were sitting in the bedroom on northeast side of the house, and came running to the porch and wanted to known what
the air was filled with that was going past on the no;h side of mx house. Some who saw the tornado speak of i t as a The tornado went through the city bouncing like a ball; places in
its path would not be touched, then i t would strike some building and tear i t into pieces.
ball of fire.
THE STATUS OF CLIMATOLOGY OF THE AGES
&-r--/. 5-83 By MARSDEN MANSON
Physical facts are the language of Nature and every expression uttered by her is worthy of our most attentive consideration-Manay.
When the c.liniatologist turns from his volumes of
observed data to the cliniatic, records made by natural
processes he enters one of the most interesting and important fields of his science.
He can not climb a mountain in any latitude to an altitude a t which glaciers yet rest without finding evi-
dences of their retreat and of the corresponding advance
of forest growth. It makes no difference where these
observations be made, whet,her in reac,hing the feeble remnants of glaciers in t,he Sierra Nevadas, the Alps,
the Himalayas, or upon Ruenzori, Chimbornzo, the
greater glaciers of Alaska or Patagonia, or the vast ic.e
sheets in polar latitudes, the re,cords are t8he sanie-
continuo.us retreat. Possibly fluctuating slightly, but
everywhere the integrals of successive retreats are far greater than those of advances.
Retracing his steps he can observe what niny have escaped his notice a t hst, tlmt the glaciers once extended to lower and lower slopes, until, in temperate latitudes.
they reached the bases of the mountains and left morainic
soils on wliic,h grapes, olives, and oranges now flourish,
or in tropical and equatorial latitudes the evidence of
glaciation are buried in dense forests only a few thousand
feet above sea level. Should his studies be broadly conducted be can trace
these evidences of deglaciation across a continent and
to the north of these limits vast glacial lake beds now
producing abundant crops of wheat and oats. In this he enters the e,nticing fields of paleo-climatology.
In these he is called upon by the geologist t o explain the
evidences of a series of alternations between severe and destruct,ive glaciabion and the geniality of the insolation
in latitude, or the warm and cold interglacial epochs of Pleistocene glaciation; and the transition of the last of these warm epochs into existing conditions and the prin-
ciples of physics involved in this transition.
8 3 8 7 7 -2 6 -2
All of his observations establish a distribution of tem- peratures e,ntirely different from those of to-day, and contradicting every principle of modern climatology.
He will be forced to the conclusion that the retreat he has so clea.rly traced, and observed as yet in progress,
reveals the closing chapters of a distinct transition from the conditions and control of paleo-climates lnto those of modern climates.
Neither branch of his science, as a t present taught,
gives in any particular the reasons for this change or transition between the two distinctly different and con-
t,radictory climatic records, nor why, when, where, and
how modern climat8es began and pateo-climates ended,
or of the causes of the st,ages in this transition. Nor
again to the naturally suggested question, to what con- ditions do the progress and control, evidently inaugurated
a t some indefinable period and in some undetermined regions, now lead? He is irresistably led into the inter-
pret,ation of these enticing and unmistakable records
which are contrary to the distributions of modern cli- mates, contradict them by glaciations in all latitudes
which could not occur under the accepted constancy of
direct solar radiation, nor do they yield to any assump-
t,ion of variation in solar radiation, for they are utterly incongruous to such direct control as solar energy can
impose on a planetary surface inclosed in air and hamg water within its control; contradicts them by the glaci- ations of temperate latitudes extending into polar lati-
tudes, while tropical latitudes a t or near sea level con- tinued to enjoy the geniality of their insolation; contra-
dicts them by the most severe and destructive glaciation recorded a t sea level in tropical latitudes d w g Permo- Carboniferous time, coincident with subpolar and polar geniality with no sign of. glaciation. These considera-
tions lead us into paleo-climatology and into the period
or periods and the latitude or latitudes in which the
422 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW OCTOBER, 1929
transitions between the two great divisions, modern and paleo-climatology, occurred and into the tendency of
climatic advances of the present era.
Returning to our cliniatologist's observations on his ascent from lower levels in middle or in tropicd latitudes,
on either his ascent to or descent from the yet existing
glacier levels, he will note that the various species of trees
are ranged between definable limits, whether coniferous
or deciduous they have definite limits which are slightly
higher on south exposures. Each species has its limits,
but each is pushing its upper limits into the lower limits
of the nest species above, until, as he reaches the timber line the hardiest conifers, aspens, and willows are pushing
their dwarfed and struggling forerunners toward the re-
treating glacier level. These records are the same in
whatever latitude the glacier limits Are approached.
These plainly legible records establish the fact that one of the most characteristic and distinguishing features of
present climatic distribution and control c.onipared with geological climates is deglaciatio-n, that whatemr may
have been the conditions and control which permitted the
last, or Pleistocene glaciations, to be laid down, these,
conditions and control no longer prevail in any latitude,,
and have been completely reversed! so as to cause pro- gressive deglaciation and amelioration in propor tion to
insolation in latitude and altitude to alternately and then
permanently take the place of refrigerations and glacitl t'ions. In other words, the cuiiiulative effects of insolation
under present clima tic conditions we still removing re-
frigeration and glaciation and extending in their stead more genial conditions.
The present retreat of glaciation and the advance of
vegetation over the deglaciated are,as establish the actual progressiveness of geniality over the entire globe. This
advance is not in harmony with the conclusion of Abbe:
It is evident that our planet, considered as a whole and on the
average of many years, loses all the heat which i t receives from the sun, but all the details of this process have not been worked out.'
This conclusion, however, held and support,ed by the interpretations of meteorological observations, can not
stand in the face of the direct evidence naturally recorded throughout the world and just reviewed. It must, there-
fore, be abandoned and replaced by the conclusion that
present climatic conditions are not static nor in equilib-
rium but are advancing toward a condition advantageous to human life, and that the climatologist must consider
his science as dealing with progressive conditions. In the practical work of the meteorologist, or the fore-
casting of local weather changes, t,he gradual a,dvanccs herein pointed out are of no use. But it must be realikecl
that the present climates are the results of agencies yet
progressing in their results, and are essential to a clear
understanding of the facts and the basic principles of
physics involved in the genesis and advance of the
climates with which he has to ded.
It is well known through the researches of many inves-
tigators that, in general, water vapor is transparent to
incoming short-wave radiation but opaque to outgoing
long-wave radiation. Recent investigations by Simpson and others seem to prove that the absorption of solar heat just balances
terrestrial radiation of heat. I n all of these investiga-
tions, however, instrumental measures and the deduc-
tions therefrom are not of so refined a character as to close the door to the possibility which may be a certainty,
that there is a small residud of incoming in excess of
outgoing radiation.
This process was manifestly established as Pleistocene
glaciat8ion began its final retreat, and within certain
reasonable limits is cumulative; it is yet active; this activ- ity is be.ing recorded by retreating glaciation and advanc- ing geniaIit,y, as above pointed out.
This advance in certain local and minor instances may
have been fluctuating, but t,he inajor facts are indisput-
able and convincing. We must t,herefore adjust or modify the principles of
climatology to me,et the requirements which the naturally
recorded phenomena plainly establish and known prin-
ciples of physics account for. The phenomena wit,h which climatology has to deal are therefore not stat,ic nor in equilibrium, but are ad-
vancing towarcl a condition in which the moss of the
tundra will give way to rye and wheat and "ice covered
polar wast,es will be useful to the human race." There are therefore two vital and important inquiries
of great import in the st,at,us of climatology.
(1) From what conditions and control did the changes from geologic climates come?
(2) To what condition do the changes but recently
inaugurated t'end?
Until climntologists are able to grasp t,lie meaning of the act,ual records confrontring them they have a limited
concept~ion of the scope of their science and of its impor-
tance to the u1tiniat.e future of the human race. The,re are t,wo manifest fallacies which must be dis- carded before climat,ology can rest' upon an n.ssured basis,
particularly in t,lie division of paleo-climat'ology.
Iiit,e,nsive research by geo1ogist.s into the climates of the past has revealed the fact t,hat the present, distribution
and cont,rol of climat'es are dist,inctJy different from those
of t.he past.
These great differences have ne.cessitated the division
of climatology int,o modern and paleo-climatology. This distinction sets apart the c1iniate.s of to-day from those
of the past ages only by sc.ientific nomenclature, for when
it is asked how, when, where, and why did the changes
or tsansitions froiii one t,o t'he ot,lier ta,ke place, neither branch of t'he science gims any definite answer to ques-
tions whic.h any high-school student might be expected
to ask.
Again, since curiosity is the mother of rese,arch, he might be t,ernpt8ed bo ask, Where do t,he c.onditions which t,his t,raiisition inaugurated had?
The wrihr can not find in nny test or manual on clinistology satisfact'ory answers to these questions.
The status of climat,ology ns a. science is therefore inde.finite and misnt,isfnct.ory as to how t,he genesis of
present climat,es wns brought about and as to what con-
dit,ions they t>end.
One of the most direct references to this transition is
found in Geikie's Test Book of Geology where, after
reviewing the great Auct'uation of climates in the Pleisto-
cene ice age, he says:
The long succession of Pleistocene ages'diaded without abrupt
changes of any kind imto what is termed The human or present period." a
However lacking in abruptness this shading or transi-
t,ion niay have been, it is not lac.king in its reality and in
the significance of its results, :IS completing the most nionientous transitions of c,liniatic, geologic, and biologic
history, accomplished through a succession of interrupted
transitions or interglacial warm and cold epochs, and
culminating in a final transition in each of the great zonal
glaciations. These transitions were inaugurated "in the
I Am. Journal of Science, Vol. XLIII, p. 361. J voi. 11, P. 1347.
OCTOBER, 1929 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW 423
midst ” of climatic,, geologic, and biologic history by a glaciation more severe and more incongruous t8han any
recorded in the crust of the earth, for in Pernio Carbon-
iferous glaciation tropical latitudes were severely and
destructively glaciated down to sea level, and subpolar and polar latitudes remained genial, t,hus reversing every
principle of solar cliniat8ic distribut)ion and cont,rol and offering “a plexus of problenis of unparnlleled difficulty.
The final transition was ac.complished ns Pleistocene gla-
ciation merged in temperate and polar lat,itudes inho existing climatic distribut,ions.
Wide range has been given to the scie,nt,ific iniaginat,ion
to develop solutions based upon hypotheses, assumptions and calculations rest,ing upon assumed data, all resulting
in unsatisfactory solutions of t,hn clima.tic proble.nis pre-
sented by the researches of geologists.
The last of these is Wegener’s theory of floating c.on-
tinents. This is referred to by Dr. G. C. Simpson as follows :
There has recently been a considerable int,erest. talieu in problems
connected with past. climates. Wegener’s revolut,ionary theory of the movements of t,he coutineiit,s, associated with wanderings of
the polar asis, has met wit,li serious and strenuous opposition. One of the most important. of t,he appeals of Wegener’s theory is t,hat i t gives an explanation of the great. changes of climat,e which geo-
logical evidence indicat,es to have taken place in many part,s of tlie world.6 This has been a direct. chall~~nge to opponents of l.he t.heory t o produce esplanat,ioiis of t,liese c~liinat ic changes oil inore conserv:t-
tive lines. Variations of solar radiation is the no st obvious solu-
t i o ~~, but there are many patent objecbionu to such an esplanntion
and there seems a reluctaiice t,o postul:it,e any but. small changes in solar radiation. At. any rnt,e this is not a popular solution.
IChamberlin and Salisburv Geology, VO~. 11, p. 655.
4 In Past Climates, Quart. journ:d Royal hItL Soc. July l 9 2 i . pp. 213-230:
8 W. Kappen and A. Wegener, der hlimnte der Cteologishen Vorzeit, Berlin, IOU.
Geologists look with much more favor on theories which depend
only 011 changes in the physical status of the earth’s surface; changes
iii thc relative eltent of sca and land, changes in ocean currents
and changes in elevation, although the latter can only work in the direction of reducing surface temperatures.
It seems t o me t o he the opinion of many geologists and not a few meteorologists that there IS unlimited scope for the control of climate in the readjustment of land niasses and the introduction of
new ocean currents similar to the Gulf Stream.6
The “ revolutionary ” theory of Wegener does not appear to meet any of the rigid requirements of geologic
climates as established by geologists; the crucial objec-
tions are:
(1) The floating of the continents upon a slip joint or
surface discretely postulated beyond possible examination.
(2) The repeated alternation in climates during Pleisto-
cene glaciation from severe and destructive glaciation to
the geniality due the insolation in latitude calls for the floating of continental areas in both hemispheres from
polar latitudes into temperate latitudes to be deglaciated and back again to polar latitudes to be reglaciated.
The sanie back-and-forth floatation between tropical
and polar latitudes would be necessary to account for
corresponding alternations in cliniate during Permo-
Carboniferous glaciation and the floating would have to be
far greRter in latitude.
Moreover, the whole change is based on the unproved nssumption of solar control of geologic climates, which
assumption has proved unsatisfactory in all cases.
The hypothesis can not be allowed t o stand &s even one of the possihle causes of climatic change.
0 Sonard Phil. Transactions B 215, 1926, p. 161, Brooks Climates through the Ages. London, 1926.
gs/. 57.1 PSYCHROMETRIC OBSERVATIONS
By Capt,. M. COYECQUE, Master St,eamsliip Basse Terre
Psychrometric observa tions have been nincle during the voyage from Bordeaux, France, to Poin te-&-€ ’itre,
Guaditloupe (September 11-26, 1929), with the object of
realizing when there was any opportunity and advantage to open the hatchways for ventilating the cargo outside
of the I‘egular air current obtained by the ship’s venti- lators. The apparatus used was blie regular Richard
psychrometer, placed in a sheltered position, exposed to
the wind and moved according to the sun’s nioveinent and the ship’s course.
The absolute humidity in grains per cubic meter has been figured from tlie Sniitlisonim tables and the spe-
cific humidity in grams per kilograni calculated by the
formula
633f
f being the absolute humidity or vapor tension in iiini.
and p. the pressure in millimeters. The observations have shown along the course indicated by ship’s position the following results:
I n the Gulf of Biscaye with fair weather, H, was only
12.3 grams with a temperature of 2 0 O .5 C. It decreased
continuously between Spanish coast and Azores, showing
Ha p. -0.377j
a mininium of 11.3 grams in latitude 37 and longitude
31-in the southeast sector of a high-pressure zone
slowly inoving east-southeastward (wind NE. 3). After that dag €3, increased slowly until latitude 31 was reached.
The ship then passed into tropical air from southeast, after ti heavy thunderstorm moving northwestward.
The specific humidity, which had increased 3 grams in three clays, made a jump of 3 grams in a few hours and niaintained its degree afterwards.
Froin 17 grains it slowly reached 21 grams on the 24th
in latitude 21 with appearance of cyclonic conditions in the region. As the weather conditions improved and
showed less turbulency, H, fell down to 19 grams, and increased again to 21.9 grams close to the Guadaloupe
coast, with squally weather and temperature 2 7 O .5 C. As a rule, morning observations made about 8 a. m., local
time, showed higher spec& humidity than p. m. obser-
vations. Evening observations were generally inter- medinte and close to p. ni. data.
As a conclusion, the driest part of the voyage was the
period southwestward of the Azores in the polar air of
the moving HIGH. All the way farther south the air was
richer in moisture than the air from Bordeaux, where
cargo had been loaded.