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ATOD Resource Guide: Elementary Youth

From the Acting Director of CSAP...

What better time to invest in our children's future than during the elementary school years! Taking steps to prevent the future use of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs is one of the most effective ways we can help youth reach their full potential.

The listing of materials or programs in this resource guide does not constitute or imply endorsement by the Center for Substance Abuse Prevention, the Public Health Service, or the Department of Health and Human Services. The materials have been reviewed for accuracy, appropriateness, and conformance with public health principles.

This Alcohol, Tobacco, and Other Drugs Resource Guide was compiled from a variety of publications and data bases and represents the most current information to date. It is not an all-inclusive listing of materials on this topic. This guide will be updated regularly, and your comments or suggestions are welcome. To suggest information or materials that might be included in future editions, please write to the National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information, P.O. Box 2345, Rockville, MD 20847-2345, or to info@health.org.

For further information on alcohol and other drugs, call 301-468-2600, 800-729-6686, or TDD 800-487-4889.

Please feel free to be a "copy cat," and make all the copies you want. You have our permission!

Inventory Number MS421

Contents

Section 1: Prevention Material
Section 2: Studies, Articles, & Reports
Section 3: Groups, Organizations, & Programs

This curriculum is designed to address several facets of intervention with children of alcoholics and other students at high-risk. While it was intended to be used in rural school districts, the basic information may be helpful for all communities. The curriculum includes eight sessions devised to identify, teach, and intervene with youngsters at-risk. Sessions contain handouts, overheads, and activities.

Family involvement is crucial for solving adolescent alcohol and other drug problems. This curriculum contains four sessions and is designed to assist communities in understanding the importance of family and developing skills that will strengthen families. A list of references and resources is also included.

This attractive, 22 x 30 inch poster shows McGruff the crime dog and points out how various body parts function when they are kept "healthy and drug-free." The poster shows McGruff with a "sharp mind to think with," "clean lungs to breath air," and "active muscles for playing sports." The poster is an excellent addition to any classroom.

This eye-catching comic book features the ever-popular Fat Albert gang and conveys a no-use message regarding alcohol. Buzzy, a young basketball player and friend of the Cosby kids, gets into trouble with alcohol and learns through his coach and school counselor about the risks associated with the drug.

This bilingual booklet gives parents practical information about alcohol and other drugs and offers suggestions on how to keep their children drug-free. It explains how alcohol affects the body, how to tell if their child has been drinking, why children start to drink, and how to help children refuse peer pressure. A resource guide is also included.

This video, targeted towards children in first to sixth grades, looks at the issue of alcohol and other drug use in an educational and innovative light. Three children from the future travel back to the 20th century to take on the life-threatening problem of drug use. Each of the 10 animated programs emphasizes a different message. A guide is included.

This curriculum provides a flexible framework for classroom-based prevention efforts for kindergarten through grade 12. It presents the stages of child development as they relate to drug prevention. Facts about drugs, suggested lesson plans, tips on working with parents and the community, and a resource section are included. The curriculum informs teachers how to integrate prevention messages into their classroom presentations.

This videotape, targeted towards children in grades four through six, contains six 15-minute episodes that discuss the risks associated with drugs. Academy award-winning actor Lou Gossett Jr., as Cosmo, takes a boy named Ben on a journey in the fate elevator. Ben's travels teach him valuable lessons about why drugs are harmful and how to refuse them. A guide is also available.

In this comic book Alpha the robot teaches kids to "Take pride in what you put inside." He shows kids why smoking cigarettes or using other tobacco products is an unhealthy decision. The influence that parents, advertising, and peers have on kids is discussed, and facts about the physical effects of cigarette smoking are mentioned.

This entertaining video is designed for children in grades four through six. Actor Richard Kiley, as Mentor, takes three elementary school students on a mysterious trip to the future with the Fast Forward machine. This ingenious contraption allows the students to see what will happen if they use drugs and what will happen if they remain drug free. A guide is available.

This coloring/story book looks into the lives of three characters, called "Woolums," who are living in homes where there is alcoholism or other drug dependencies. Woolums share their fears and sad feelings and then find a grownup to talk to for help. The book, available in English and Spanish, is designed to help young children of substance abusing parents cope with the problems at home and find the necessary support.

This training video provides information for educators, parents, and prevention specialists who work with special needs and drug exposed children. The video discusses how these children are at risk for developing an alcohol or other drug problem and how it is necessary to create "safe spaces" for them to grow. Part one of the video addresses awareness, skills, and practice; part two discusses early intervention and family collaboration.

This black and white bilingual poster entices youngsters to color in the community-building motif on the front. The flip side highlights in English and Spanish some of the free materials for kids, parents, and community leaders that are available through the National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information.

This tri-colored T-Shirt is a walking billboard that says "thank you for not smoking near me." On the front it also explains that second hand smoke is bad for everyones health.

This book explains what parents need to do to stop the flow of drugs through their local schools. The author gives parents the tools they need to evaluate their school's drug-fighting approach and to then begin an effective drug education and awareness program in the classroom. The book looks at fund raising ideas, working with the media, and more.

Think About It combines material drawn from two existing videos: CSAP's Be Smart! Stay Smart! Don't Start! music video and Straight Up! Material from both videos was edited and combined with newly created interactive segments in which young moderators provide opportunities for discussing the important issues presented. The video concludes by prompting youth to consider how this information applies to their own situations.

This book provides recommendations and step-by-step directions on how to "get it together" and create drug-free communities. It includes ideas on how to work effectively with youth and suggests how to involve other members of the community. Resources also are listed for further information.

This 8 1/2 by 3 1/2-inch card is a great hand-out that young children can keep or share with friends. Through words and pictures, children learn how to make the most of a drug-free lifestyle. The card advises kids to call a friend, be nice to themselves, get involved, dream ...and a lot more!

This book is designed for use with elementary school students and provides extensive information and prevention activities concerning the use of tobacco. The book teaches about the risks of tobacco use and includes chapters such as "Our Bodies and Our Breathing," "Tobacco¾No Type Is Safe," and "Using Tobacco Makes Our Hearts Unhappy." Lessons are conveyed in a fun and informa- tive manner, and each plan contains suggestions and more ideas for teachers.

This coloring/activity book teaches children some of the negative effects of drug use and urges kids to stay drug-free. The book shows how alcohol and other drugs (AOD) may lead to violence and states that AOD can cause people to act crazy, hurt themselves, and lose friends.

This book looks at the difficulty of living in a household with a chemically dependent brother or sister. It explores the roles that family members may adopt, such as enabler or clown, and provides suggestions on how to find help for a brother or sister. The book also stresses the need for self-help and lists several resources for support.

Two hand puppets, Ruffus (a dog) and Andy (a young boy), face a difficult decision when their friends ask them to use drugs. The video portrays a week in their lives, including a visit to their favorite radio station. The "super cool" DJ tells Andy that alcohol and other drugs are not cool and urges him and Ruffus to stay drug-free.

This upbeat, full-color poster is one item of several that make up the Urban Youth Campaign series. It features African American kids engaged in a variety of fun and interesting projects. Reading, sports, science, and music are featured as some alternative activities to using drugs.

The Discovery Kit is a cross-cultural program designed for communities to build resiliency in 10- to 15-year-old kids by helping them connect to positive influences in their lives. The messages and materials are designed to help all children but especially children of alcoholics and other children who are at higher risk for developing alcoholism or other drug problems. The kit includes two videos, activity sheets, posters, booklets, and a program guide.

This poster is a picture of McGruff, the crime dog, with arrows pointing at different parts of the body to depict how a body functions properly when free from drugs. A few examples include: healthy heart that cares, bright and healthy smile to make friends, and confident mouth to say no to drugs and violence.

This video provides children with age-appropriate facts about AIDS and HIV and explains how the virus can and cannot be transmitted. Kids share their fears about AIDS, and an AIDS expert corrects their misconceptions about the disease. The video stresses that you cannot contract AIDS from casual contact, and that kids with AIDS, like everyone else, need acceptance and friendship.

Preparing for the Drug-Free Years (PDFY) is a dynamic educational tool for parents of children about to enter their teens. It is designed to help parents realize the widespread dangers of teen drug use and empower them to develop an action plan to keep drugs out of the family. The curriculum kit includes the following: 35 PDFY Family Activity Books; one PDFY Workshop Leaders Guide; one set of five PDFY Video Training Tapes; one set of A Guide to Adapting PDFY for Diverse Communities; one set of PDFY Workshop Transparencies; and one audiocassette: How the Experts Answer the 20 Most Asked Questions About Risks for Drug Abuse.

This booklet, in English and Spanish, provides teachers with extensive information on the risks associated with alcohol use. It explains the effects of alcohol on the body, why children start to drink, how teachers can help their students refuse alcohol, and how to deal with the first signs of drinking. The booklet also lists several resources that teachers can contact for additional information.

Reaching parents with AOD prevention messages is one of the most effective ways of reaching children. This 3 1/2 in. x 8 1/2 in. card provides parents with easy steps to help prevent their child from using alcohol or other drugs, including tobacco. The card is an excellent handout for special events such as fairs, workshops, or conferences.

This fun-filled, bilingual activity book contains dozens of exercises for kids to enjoy. ¡Dile Que No! gives preteens and young adolescents a variety of activities, tips, posters, games, and suggestions to help them refuse alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs. It is an ideal handout for students and community group participants.

This book contains valuable information to help communities identify and carry out programs on effective parenting. It details roles parents play in rearing children who are free of alcohol, tobacco, and other drug problems; highlights ethnic and cultural considerations; and gives characteristics of successful prevention programs.

Success Stories from Drug-Free Schools salutes the 107 schools honored by the U.S. Department of Education's Drug-Free Schools Recognition Program. School leaders talk about their achievements, the obstacles they faced, how they overcame them, and the tasks that remain to be done. The booklet also offers helpful tips on how to assess a drug problem, enlist community support, shape and enforce policies, and involve parents.

The Quick List is one in a series of materials from the Urban Youth Campaign, a campaign designed to communicate alcohol and other drug abuse prevention messages to the African American community. The Quick List is a parent's guide and offers 10 steps on how to build community pride. It is tailored to African American adults and the community at large.

Operation PAR describes the successful operation of a local program in St. Petersburg, Florida, designed to prevent and treat alcohol and other drug problems. It includes an executive summary and lists successes and challenges the program has faced. The book looks at 16 program vignettes and lists several resources for further information.

Government Publications and Journals

This technical report reviews literature on alcohol and drug use among Hispanic youth. It addresses factors that complicate assessing the problem, such as a lack of a clear definition of Hispanic shortcomings related to research methodology and limitations related to the use of drug statistics. This is followed by a description and summary of emerging issues based on the CSAP grant application and site visits and general programmatic recommendations in prevention, intervention, and treatment. Such recommendations include the need for longitudinal studies to understand changes in patterns of alcohol and other drug use, additional research on the use of specific substances by specific Hispanic subgroups, obtaining specific information on environmental factors, the need for innovative outreach models, and the need for publications and media that reflect the Hispanic culture.

The broad social and cultural environment in which prevention programs are created and developed is examined. Trends in illicit drug use and promising treatment approaches are discussed. The treatment of drug use by the mass media is explored. Drug availability is evaluated from a public health perspective. Ways in which drug-free environments may be created successfully are described.

The systematic development of a preventive intervention for elementary school-age children of alcoholics (COAs) is described. First, the risk status of children of untreated alcoholics is established. Second, risk and protective factors that appear to be mediators of mental health status or COAs are identified. Third, a preventive intervention is designed to teach coping skills and enhance self-esteem. Fourth, the intervention is pilot- tested to assess its feasibility and potential. Finally, plans for a large-scale, experimental field trial of the revised curriculum are outlined. The advantages of following a systematic intervention development plan are demonstrated.

Elementary and secondary school students (N = 2,290) from four rural school districts responded to a questionnaire measuring incidences and attitudes toward drug and alcohol use. The subjects' responses indicate that social learning theory is a viable theory for explaining drug involvement in the young. The data suggest that intervention with drug and alcohol education programs should begin before the onset of adolescence.

This report summarizes 16 demonstration grants that provide prevention models for working with Native American youth. It also reviews 80 articles identifying more than 60 prevention interventions. Among the programs described, cultural considerations are especially prevalent, as well as concern for CSAP's two key target groups: youth and pregnant and postpartum women and their infants.

New structures and approaches are needed to reach and retain youth at high risk and their parents in prevention programs, along with new ways of delivering prevention and early intervention services. In this chapter, concepts and approaches that show promise are identified. They are based on a review of the literature and the actual experiences of several prevention programs that were identified and contacted to obtain information about their outreach and retention strategies. This chapter discusses community outreach strategies, outreach in natural settings, outreach through programs and institutions, involving families, motivating youth and parents to participate, utilizing role models, and incentives. Six programs are described that illustrate promising outreach and retention strategies. 10 Ref.

Parental drinking provides a central focus for the lives of young children of alcoholics (YCOA). Until recently, this group was thought to be the least affected by parental alcoholism because of their immaturity; however, research now indicates that the opposite is more likely to be true. Little is done conventionally in an alcoholic household. When entire families organize around the behavior of an alcoholic, individuals are continually kept off balance anticipating drinking behaviors that are entirely unpredictable. Children worry when they are away from home about the safety of the drinker and frequently blame themselves for parental drinking. Small children raised in alcoholic homes have little sense of power over their own lives. As if childhood trauma is not enough, children of alcoholics are at high risk for future problems, as well. School systems are definite resources for supplying assistance since all children attend school or come to the attention of school authorities. Children in the classroom are observable for long periods of time at various activities, and the public school system is generally connected to a much wider network of community agencies, so many services can be mobilized to effect specific or serious YCOA issues. Young children of alcoholics are in need of assistance in understanding and coping with familial alcoholism before they can effectively use the skills and knowledge that are the main tasks of education professionals. The greatest stumbling block to serving children from alcoholic homes is the problem of identifying them, but when an elementary school works hard to reach its YCOA population and intervenes, the entire school system is likely to reap future benefits. The child-centered approach to family alcoholism in the schools begins with the assumption that children can be helped to understand their feelings and change their behavior whether or not parents are involved in treatment. 31 Ref.

An alcohol misuse prevention study (AMPS) curriculum for fifth- and sixth-grade students was developed, implemented, and evaluated with over 5,000 students. The AMPS program emphasized social pressures resistance training, focusing on the immediate effects of alcohol, risks of alcohol misuse, and social pressures to misuse alcohol. Schools were randomly assigned to curriculum, curriculum plus booster, or control groups with half of each group pretested and all posttested. Measures focused on susceptibility to peer pressure, internal health locus of control, understanding of the curriculum material, alcohol use, and alcohol misuse. After 26 months, there was a significant treatment by occasion interaction on internal health locus of control (sixth grade). A significant treatment by occasion interaction effect was also found with respect to curriculum measures in both grades. There were no significant treatment by occasion interactions with respect to alcohol use or misuse when the groups as a whole were considered. When subgroup analyses based on type of prior drinking experience were conducted, however, significant program effects on alcohol misuse were found among sixth-grade students who had experienced unsupervised, as well as supervised drinking prior to the prevention program.

This study reports the results of a test of the quality of program delivery (program integrity) as a variable that may moderate the effectiveness of alcohol prevention programs. Two theory-based programs, Resistance Training and Normative Education, were delivered to fifth-grade students who were then tested on program relevant mediating variables. Resistant Training was found to improve students' knowledge of peer pressure resistance strategies, their performance on a behavioral assessment of peer pressure resistance skills, and the manifestation of their future intentions to drink alcohol. Normative Education was found to improve students' perceptions of a conservative norm, regarding alcohol use, facilitated their belief that refusing unwanted offers to drink alcohol could be easily accomplished, and reduced their perceptions of the prevalence of alcohol use. Program integrity was measured by program specialists who taught the programs to students and by trained observers. Ratings of program integrity were found to significantly moderate outcomes for three of seven mediating variables. Affected were knowledge of peer pressure resistance strategies, behavioral pressure resistance skills, and perceived self-efficacy. These results suggest that the quality of program delivery and reception may play an important moderating function on prevention program effectiveness.

Mission and background information is provided on the Office of Substance Abuse Prevention's (CSAP's) High-Risk Youth Demonstration Grant Program and risk and resiliency factors that guide the development of Alcohol and Other Drug (AOD) use demonstration grants are listed. Eighteen of the original grants awarded by CSAP in 1987 are examined. Each program is described in terms of challenges faced and lessons learned as preventionists developed and put into place programs for youth in high-risk environments.

Early intervention is examined through new approaches to school- based prevention. Entry into school marks a major transition in the developmental path toward adulthood and autonomous functioning. Schooling itself has a pervasive influence on emotional and social development, as well as cognitive development. The school is, in essence, a major socialization influence. Research findings from four school-based, early intervention programs show that models based on a holistic developmental approach and focused on promoting positive social development, rather than simply preventing problems, can lead to healthy development for some adolescents. Based on these programs and other child development research, a tentative model of socialization and social development is proposed. This model rests, in part, on the establishment of a positive, affective bond between the individual child and important socializing agents and institutions. The role of these agents is to promote interpersonal relatedness, competence, and autonomy. The proposed model implies that schools should be concerned with the whole child. The model presented can serve as an initial framework for guiding demonstration research projects in school-based prevention. 112 Ref.

This article is concerned with the familial and socioeconomic factors that contribute to the high prevalence rates of drug use in African American children. In addition to detailing the impact of drug use in African American children and their families, the authors consider how this critical health problem can be prevented using existing knowledge and strategies known to mental health professionals. A model program entitled Project for a Substance Abuse-Free Environment (SAFE) is outlined. Its objectives are to implement: (1) a broad-spectrum family intervention to empower disadvantaged and families in high-risk communities; (2) a competency-based skills intervention to increase resilience and decrease drug use and other maladaptive behaviors in at-risk children; (3) alternative activities that will promote self-efficacy, achievement, and self-esteem; (4) a culturally-relevant evaluation plan that includes both formative (process) and summative (outcome) evaluation; (5) a comprehensive approach for assessing project impact; and (6) systematic procedures for enhancing the maintenance and generalization of gains in participating children and families.

Other Publications

While few programs for the prevention of drug use among children have been systematically examined, those that do exist focus on junior high and high school children. This study investigated the effectiveness of a program with elementary school fourth graders. A total of 100 children was assigned to an experimental group or a no-treatment control group and was assessed at pretreatment, post-treatment, and a 2-month follow-up. Subjects in both groups were seen for three 1-hour sessions in groups of approximately 20 children. The children receiving the drug use prevention program were taught information about drugs and drug use, the difference between good and bad drugs, information about addiction and being "conned" into drug use, and safety rules for preventing drug use. Children in the control group were seen for an equal amount of time by an experimenter but were taught their regular class lessons. Relative to the control group, children in the experimental group acquired more information at the post assessment. While the differences between the two groups in this area diminished somewhat at follow-up, differences between the two groups' application of skills emerged at follow-up. The results indicate that children in elementary school can be taught basic information concerning drug use prevention.

Families and Schools Together (FAST) is a collaborative alcohol and other drug program between elementary schools, a mental health agency, an alcohol and other drug prevention agency, and families. It targets elementary school children at high risk using a family-based approach. FAST is structured to address four factors that have been correlated with adolescent substance use: parental substance abuse; low self-esteem; inability to discuss feelings; and lack of routines, rituals, structure, and communication. The children served by FAST are not yet involved in substance use but are referred through their teachers who find them at risk for school failure, juvenile delinquency, and alcohol and other drug use. FAST recognizes the school as a hub in families' lives and therefore creates a community within a community by bringing families in the same geographical school district together to participate in the program. The program consists of multiple family meetings in two phases: eight weekly meetings followed by monthly meetings for graduate families that continue for at least 2 years. Exposing families to information and resources in these meetings is seen as an important part of empowerment. FAST has been successful in increasing children's attention spans and self-esteem and decreasing behavior problems, strengthening parent-child relationships, enhancing overall family functioning, encouraging family networking, and helping families feel more comfortable in their dealings with schools and other community resources.

A comprehensive guide for establishing a support group program in a school setting is presented for educators in a step-by-step format. Examples and ready-to-use ideas are included, and an irrefutable case is made for the importance and impact such programs have. It is contended that offering K-6 children a support group program like the one outlined in the guide gives them the opportunity to acquire the skills and motivation they will need to preserve and increase their health and ways of healthful living throughout their lives. 29 Ref.

A student support program has been implemented in 21 elementary schools in York and Adams counties in Pennsylvania. The model has been replicated in both urban and rural areas, in schools with small and large populations, and in all socioeconomic groups. Every effort is made to work within each school's philosophy and perceived student needs to collaborate with existing pupil personnel services. The referral process has been integrated into pre-existing referral teams, such as elementary student support teams, instructional support teams, and child study teams. This model interfaces smoothly with the Pennsylvania State model of instructional support teams that are being phased into every elementary school throughout the State by the 1994-1995 school year. The support groups are a viable onsite intervention strategy for children identified by the instructional support team as needing life skills remediation. The comprehensive program focuses on school, parent, and community resources in a supportive network surrounding the child's needs. Referrals may be made to additional services outside of the school environment for the child and/or family who are severely traumatized. 4 Ref.

Underlying many of society's problems is a core issue: many children who turn to drug use, sexual acting out, suicide, and crime are non-attached children who never bonded adequately to a parent or caregiver. It is suggested that educators can learn to spot the early patterns of these children at high-risk to prevent devastating consequences in the teenage years. Secure bonding has implications far beyond emotional well-being. Healthy attachment helps children think logically, attain full intellectual potential, become self-reliant, cope with stress and frustration, reduce jealousy, and develop healthy relationships. Non-attached children who have reached school age often exhibit impulsive, uncontrolled behavior, easily provoked frustration, and apathy. Securely attached children have predictable relationships with their caregivers. Anxious attachments produce kids who are easily agitated, controlling, and difficult to console. Avoidantly attached kids give the impression of independence, acting cool, distant, and not inclined to seek help. The latter two types may be clingy, angry, or aggressive; these strategies adopted by the children to help them get along in the world help to alienate other people, reinforcing their belief that they will never be loved. Suggestions are provided for elementary teachers working with non-attached children who are still capable of forming alliances.

Over the past several years, student assistance programs (SAPs) have become increasingly common in public education. While today's youth are faced with more and tougher decisions, they also find themselves with increasingly less control and support from home. In addition to support and guidance, SAP student support groups provide other benefits. After participating in support groups, students often express a more positive attitude toward teachers, and teachers gain a greater understanding and compassion toward students. Another benefit of SAPs is that of student self-esteem. The basic elements necessary for self-esteem are outlined and include a sense of belonging, a sense of uniqueness, a sense of power, and a model for personal standards.

The most effective programs to prevent alcohol use among African American adolescents have adapted a culture-specific, alcohol-specific educational model that focuses on the individual and his or her environment. An alcohol education program for African American youth must provide opportunities for these youngsters to discard negativism. Many of these youngsters have been hardened by the reality of their lifestyles, but it is possible to help them beyond the present and set positive goals for the future. Because African American youth often are confined to their communities, they may lack knowledge or exposure to the majority community. This can make any contact frustrating, intimidating, or frightening. Because drinking is part of American society and African American culture as well, youth alcohol use prevention efforts should focus on teaching responsible decision making about alcohol use. It is contended that an understanding of the reasons that youth drink, the influence of role models and value systems, and the significance of African American culture are important considerations when designing behavioral change programs. 11 Ref.

Substance use prevention studies published between 1980 and 1990 are reviewed for content, methodology, and behavioral outcomes. Studies were classified based on the inclusion of 12 content areas: Information, Decision Making, Pledges, Values Clarification, Goal Setting, Stress Management, Self-Esteem, Resistance Skills Training, Life Skills Training, Norm Setting, Assistance, and Alternatives. Six groups of programs (Information/Values Clarification; Affective Education; Social Influence; and Comprehensive, Alternative, and Incomplete Programs) are identified. Reports are analyzed for two major threats to validity, selection bias and statistical power. Program groups generally have similar selection biases but have important differences in statistical power. Comprehensive and Social Influence Programs are found to be most successful in preventing the onset of substance use.

Eight model demonstration programs funded by the Office for Substance Abuse Prevention (CSAP) are described. These models demonstrate that: (1) preventive interventions appear to maximize their potential for lowering rates of alcohol and other drug (AOD) use when targeted toward youth burdened by combinations of risk factors; (2) the development and implementation of a community-based preventive intervention is a complicated undertaking; and (3) the evaluation of community-based preventive interventions concerns far more than determining the proportion of program participants using AOD relative to their non-recipient counterparts.

A rap contest methodology for smoking prevention was tested with sixth and seventh grade students in a predominantly minority public school district. Contests were held after initial assemblies in which students heard anti-smoking rap messages from same-age and older peers on audio and video tape. Pretesting and posttesting (N = 268) indicated high preference ratings for most aspects of the intervention. Analyses of variance revealed no differences across races on any of the dependent measures. However, smaller assemblies were more effective than larger ones in enhancing attitudes against smoking and obtaining more positive contest evaluations and predictions about smoking behavior. A rap contest method therefore may be effective against the initiation of smoking by disadvantaged children in sixth and seventh grades because it is highly acceptable and preceived as culturally relevant. This effectiveness may be better demonstrated in a single classroom environment rather than larger assemblies.

This article describes and evaluates the impact of Boys & Girls Clubs recently installed in residential public housing developments. Because most prevention interventions to date have been school-based, this study marks a development in prevention interventions for problem behavior among youth at high-risk. The evaluation compares sites without Boys & Girls Clubs to sites with both previously and recently installed Boys & Girls Clubs. The results show that public housing developments with Boys & Girl Clubs have less drug-related activity, measurably fewer damaged and unoccupied units, and increased parental involvement in youth activities.