Introduction  

The educational system of the Czech Republic began to undergo a "profound process of transformation" (MEYS, p.1) as a result of the political, economic, and social changes brought about by the collapse of communism. Since the dissolution of Czechoslovakia and the establishment of two separate nations - the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic - in 1993, the Czech educational system has continued to be in a "state of transition" (Graves and Gargiulo, p.205).

In general, the trend has been one of devolution of authority from the national government to the district and school levels, though the extent of this devolution is unclear. In addition, several reforms introduced during this period of educational transformation have had important impacts on schooling in the Czech Republic. These reforms include the extension of the basic educational program to include the 9th year of schooling and the establishment of two experimental projects, the "Primary School" and the "Middle School" projects, the first of which, in particular, has supported teachers in their efforts to be innovative in their teaching methods.

Structure of Schooling  

The overall educational structure in the Czech Republic is an integrated system, consisting of preschool, basic, secondary, and higher education. Under this system, the nine-year basic education program is compulsory for children aged 6 through 15.

Under the recent reforms, primary schools include forms 1 through 5, and middle schools include forms 6 through 9. Until recently, the 9th form was part of secondary education, with basic education comprising forms 1 through 8. However, as legislated under the School Law Amendment of 1995, the 9th year now serves to extend the compulsory basic education program from 8 years to 9 years nationwide.

Upper secondary schools are divided into three main categories:

• Grammar schools, or gymnasia, provide a general secondary education, preparing students for university. Traditionally four-year institutions, grammar schools are increasingly expanding to include younger children (i.e., middle school-aged children) in an eight-year program (years 6 through 13 of schooling). One effect of this trend is that more able students - and, perhaps, more able teachers - are being separated from their age mates earlier than they were prior to the shift toward eight-year grammar schools (Hausenblas).
• Secondary professional schools and conservatories are four-year institutions that "prepare students for professions in the fields of technology, economy, education, health care, law, arts and culture" (MEYS, 1994, p.12). Although grammar schools are the institutions with primary responsibility for preparing students for university study, graduates of professional secondary schools can also choose to pursue higher education.
• Apprentice-training schools, or apprentice centers, provide students with vocational training for entry to "blue-collar professions" (MEYS, 1994, p.12).

Of basic school graduates in 1994, 76.4% chose professional secondary schools, 18.4% chose grammar schools, and 5.2% chose apprentice centers (Czech Embassy, p.3).

School Governance and Finance   

Governance. The Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports (MEYS) has general control over the educational system through the Czech School Inspection Program it administers. MEYS has sole jurisdiction over basic and most secondary schools (grammar schools and most of the secondary professional schools), while other government branches are involved in the administration of particular types of schools. For instance, apprentice centers are run jointly by MEYS and the Ministry of Economy, and secondary professional schools of health care are administered by the Ministry of Health Care, as are nursery schools for children under the age of 3.

At both the national and district (okres) levels, legislation in recent years has aimed at decentralizing school administration by "re-delegating some of the powers and responsibilities from state authorities to the individual schools and teachers" (MEYS, p.5). Consequently, local school boards (which include in their membership parents, teachers, and other local citizens) and headteachers increasingly participate in the administration of schools. Headteachers, who are appointed by the school board, are "in charge of implementing the curricula and syllabi and the professional and pedagogical standards of the education provided by the school" (MEYS, p.9), within the framework established by the ministry.

Finance. The primary and secondary school system is funded primarily from the state budget through the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports (MEYS, 1994, p.10); in 1992, about 68 percent of funds for primary and secondary education came from the state government, while the remaining 32 percent came from local sources (OECD, p.117). All schools are funded on the basis of total school enrollment, and funding is allocated according to a predetermined per-student figure multiplied by the total number of students at the school. Private schools are also eligible for similar per pupil levels of funding from the state budget as state schools (Czech Embassy, p.1).

At the end of 1991, a new method for funding secondary professional schools and apprentice centers was introduced, devolving responsibility for internal budgeting to the individual institutional level (MEYS, p.30).

Curriculum  

Standardized or model curricula exist for all levels and types of schools. However, unlike the past, these curricula are "no longer inflexibly binding" (MEYS, p.23), though the new flexibility extends primarily to teaching methods used with the established curriculum. New standardized national curricula for various school levels were developed, and many went into effect, in the early 1990's. Two significant changes brought about by these newly adopted curricula are an increased emphasis on the teaching of foreign languages and the separation of job-related secondary education from general secondary education.

The curriculum for forms one through four of basic schools consists of nine subjects: Czech language and literature, introduction to acquiring knowledge, the fundamentals of geography and geology, the fundamentals of natural sciences, mathematics, physical education, musical education, work education, and drawing, painting and sculpture (MEYS, p.62). For the fifth through the eighth year of basic school, the curriculum contains more subjects, including foreign language, civic education, history, biology, physics, and chemistry. In addition, students can choose optional subjects, such as a second foreign language, computer science, or technical education.

Similarly, separate curricula exist for all three types of upper secondary schools. While the curricula for grammar schools are oriented to academic education in both the humanities and the natural sciences, the curricula for both secondary professional schools and apprentice centers focus on vocational training and specialized subjects.

Standards for Student Performance and Gateways to Promotion and Higher Education  

MEYS is currently working with the Ministry of Economy to set educational standards. In addition to its effort to ratify curricula, MEYS "sets and guarantees standards for all basic schools within its jurisdiction" (MEYS, p.9). As has been noted above, headteachers have responsibility for ensuring that the professional and pedagogical standards espoused by the school are met.

Promotion. Promotion from grade to grade is mainly determined by a student's performance on oral and written examinations at the completion of each school year. These examinations are developed and administered by individual teachers (therefore, examinations are not necessarily consistent within or across schools).

Examinations. Students who wish to attend upper secondary schools are admitted after completing the 9th form of basic school. "Until recently, there were uniform written examinations in mathematics and the Czech language for [admission to] secondary schools" (Czech Embassy, p.8). However, secondary schools are enjoying more flexibility and autonomy than ever before, and they can enroll students more freely based either on the applicant's previous academic record alone or on a combination of the entrance examinations and interviews. Most secondary schools, however, continue to rely primarily upon written exams for making admissions decisions.

Graduation, or exit, examinations exist for all upper secondary schools. Students at grammar schools and professional secondary schools must take what are known as maturita examinations, while those who complete their education or training at apprentice centers must pass a final examination to obtain a vocational certificate. The maturita examination for grammar school students has a uniform structure for all students across the country, and students must take exams in the Czech language, mathematics, and two other subjects of their choice. The maturita is administered and scored by local teachers, and the exams are not necessarily comparable across schools.

Access to Higher Education. Since state-planned university enrollment was eliminated in 1990, new requirements for entrance to universities have been introduced. Although admission requirements for individual universities vary, in general, applicants are expected to have obtained a "school-leaving certificate" by passing the upper secondary school maturita examination. (Students' scores on the maturita are typically not considered by universities in their admissions decisions, though students must have passed the exam to be eligible for admission.) Many universities also require applicants to pass an entrance examination (MEYS, p.37), which usually consists of a written test administered by the individual university.

Recently, a private effort to establish a system of university entrance exams in Czech, mathematics, natural sciences, foreign languages, and "general aptitude" has been put forward. However, the future of this effort remains to be seen. (Hausenblas).

Teacher Training and Certification  

Completion of secondary professional schools is the minimum requirement for kindergarten teachers. To teach at the basic or secondary school levels, prospective teachers are required to have completed their university education. Accordingly, teacher training usually occurs within the faculties of universities, and graduates from these faculties are qualified to teach two subjects at all levels of basic and secondary education (MEYS, p.43). Academic training at the university level takes four to six years. As part of their training, all prospective teacher candidates are expected to complete practical training in "faculty schools," which are basic and secondary schools that collaborate with a particular university for teacher-training purposes (MEYS, p.43).

References  

General Reference

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (1995). Education at a glance: OECD indicators. Paris: Author.

Husen, T., & Postlethwaite, N. (Eds.) (1994). The international encyclopedia of education (Second edition). Oxford: Pergamon Press.

U.S. Department of Education (1993). Teacher training abroad: New realities. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

References - The Czech Republic

Graves, S.B. & Gargiulo, R.M. (1994). Early childhood education in three Eastern European countries. Childhood Education, 70(4), 205-209.

Hausenblas, O. (April 6, 1996). Letter to Amy Stempel, Council for Basic Education. Unpublished.

Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports of the Czech Republic. (1994). National report on the development of education: 1992-1994. Prague: Author.

The Embassy of the Czech Republic (undated). Education-Introduction. Washington, D.C.: Unpublished manuscript.