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Contents BOXES xv PREFACE xvii PART I THE SOCIOLOGY OF SOCIAL PROBLEMS 1 How Sociologists View Social Problems: The Abortion Dilemma 1 The Sociological Imagination 2 What Is a Social Problem? 3 The Essential Elements of a Social Problem 3 Social Problems Are Relative 5 The Natural History of Social Problems 7 The First Stage: Defining the Problem, the Emergence of Leaders, and Beginning to Organize 8 The Second Stage: Crafting the Official Response 8 The Third Stage: Reacting to the Official Response 9 The Fourth Stage: Developing Alternative Strategies 10 The Role of Sociology in Social Problems 13 Sociology as a Tool for Breaking Through Emotions and Defenses 13 Sociology and Common Sense 16 Methods for Studying Social Problems 17 Should Sociologists Take Sides? 20 Should Sociologists Define Social Problems? 20 The Working Consensus 21 Summary 21 Key Terms 22 For Reference 23 Critical Thinking Questions 23 2 Interpreting Social Problems: Aging 24 Sociological Theories and Social Problems 26 Symbolic Interactionism and Social Problems 27 The Development of Symbolic Interactionism 28 Applying Symbolic Interactionism 30 Symbolic Interactionism and Social Problems: A Summary 30 Functionalism and Social Problems 31 The Development of Functionalism 32 Applying Functionalism to Social Problems 33 Functionalism and Social Problems: A Summary 35 Conflict Theory and Social Problems 36 The Development of Conflict Theory 36 Applying Confict Theory to Social Problems 37 Conflict Theory and Social Problems: A Summary 39 The Future of the Problem: The Pendulum Swings 39 Summary 44 Key Terms 45 Critical Thinking Questions 47 PART II NORM VIOLATIONS IN SOCIAL CONTEXT 3 Prostitution, Homosexuality, and Pornography 48 Sexual Behaviors as Social Problems 49 Prostitution 50 Background: Getting the Larger Picture 50 Prostitution Viewed Theoretically: Applying Functionalism 51 Research on Prostitution 53 Homosexuality 62 Background: Getting the Larger Picture 62 Homosexuality Viewed Theoretically: Applying Conflict Theory 65 Research on Homosexuality 67 Differences Between Male and Female Homosexuals 72 Pornography 73 Background: Getting the Larger Picture 73 Pornography Viewed Theoretically: Applying Symbolic Interactionism 75 Controversy and Research on Pornography 76 Social Policy 79 Criminalization of Consensual Acts 79 Alternatives to Criminalization 80 The Future of the Problem 82 Prostitution and the Future 82 Homosexuality and the Future 83 Pornography and the Future 84 Summary 84 Key Terms 85 Critical Thinking Questions 85 4 Alcohol and Other Drugs 86 The Problem in Social Perspective 87 The Scope of the Problem 89 Looking at the Problem Theoretically 92 Symbolic Interactionism 92 Functionalism 94 Conflict Theory 95 Research Findings 99 The Medicalization of Human Problems 99 The Effects of Drugs 102 The Recreational Mood Elevators 102 The Hallucinogens 114 The Amphetamines and Barbiturates 116 The Narcotics 117 Social Policy 120 The Future of the Problem 126 Summary 127 Key Terms 128 Critical Thinking Questions 129 5 Violence in Society: Rape and Murder 130 The Problem in Sociological Perspective 131 The Scope of the Problem 132 Looking at the Problem Theoretically 135 Nonsociological Theories 135 Symbolic Interactionism 137 Functionalism 139 Conflict Theory 140 In Sum 141 Research Findings 141 Rape 142 The Natural History of Rape as a Social Problem 142 The Social Patterns of Rape 143 Profiling the Rapist 145 Unreported Rapes 148 Reactions to Rape 149 Murder 151 The Social Patterns of Murder 152 Social Bases of the Social Patterns 154 Social Policy 160 Dealing with Offenders 160 Dealing with Victims 161 Preventing Violence 162 The Future of the Problem 163 Summary 164 Key Terms 164 Critical Thinking Questions 165 6 Crime and Criminal Justice 166 The Problem in Sociological Perspective 167 The Scope of the Problem 168 Crime as a Social Problem 168 The Criminal Justice System as a Social Problem 169 Looking at the Problem Theoretically 172 Symbolic Interactionism 173 Functionalism 174 Conflict Theory 177 Research Findings 178 Juvenile Delinquency 178 White-Collar Crime 184 Professional Crime 187 Organized Crime 188 Political Crime 191 The Criminal Justice System 192 Social Policy 199 The Future of the Problem 207 Summary 208 Key Terms 209 Critical Thinking Questions 209 PART III PROBLEMS OF SOCIAL INEQUALITY 7 Economic Problems: Wealth and Poverty 211 The Problem in Sociological Perspective 212 Economic Systems and Changes 212 Four Economic Problems Facing the United States 214 The Nature of Poverty 216 The Scope of the Problem 216 Social Inequality 217 Distribution of Income and Wealth 217 The Extent and Impact of Poverty 220 Looking at the Problem Theoretically 222 Symbolic Interactionism 222 Functionalism 223 Conflict Theory 224 In Sum 226 Research Findings 226 Who Are the Poor? 226 Is There a Culture of Poverty? 229 Who Rules America? 231 Inequality and Global Poverty 236 Social Policy 237 Historical Changes in Social Policy 237 The Feminization of Poverty 239 Progressive Taxation 239 Four Types of Public Assistance Programs 240 Private Agencies and Volunteer Organizations 241 Regulating the Poor 242 Giving the Poor More Money 243 Education Accounts 243 Providing Jobs 244 The Future of the Problem 244 Summary 245 Key Terms 245 Critical Thinking Questions 246 8 Race and EthnicRelations 247 The Problem in Sociological Perspective 248 The Scope of the Problem 253 Looking at the Problem Theoretically 260 Symbolic Interactionism 260 Functionalism 262 Conflict Theory 264 In Sum 265 Research Findings 266 Native Americans 267 Latinos (Hispanics) 270 African Americans 273 Asian Americans 276 Social Policy 279 Encouraging Cultural Pluralism 279 Preventing Ethnic Discrimination 279 The Dilemma of Affirmative Action 280 Principles for Improving Ethnic Relations 281 The Future of the Problem 281 Summary 283 Key Terms 283 Critical Thinking Questions 284 9 Sex Discrimination 285 The Problem in Sociological Perspective 286 The Scope of the Problem 287 Looking at the Problem Theoretically 288 Symbolic Interactionism 288 Functionalism 291 Conflict Theory 294 Research Findings 295 The Question of Natural Differences Between the Sexes 295 Discrimination in Everyday Life 298 Discrimination in Education 299 The Mass Media 301 The World of Politics 303 The World of Work 304 Why Is Our Work Force Segregated by Sex? 308 Sexual Harassment 308 Violence Against Women 312 Social Policy 312 An Area of Irreconcilable Ideologies 312 The Battle Lines 314 Ideology and Social Policy 315 The Future of the Problem 315 Summary 317 Key Terms 318 Critical Thinking Questions 318 10 Medical Care: Problems of Physical and Mental Illness 319 The Problem in Sociological Perspective 320 The Social Nature of Health and Illness 321 The Social Organization of Medicine as a Source of Problems 322 The Scope of the Problem 325 Illness as a Social Problem 325 Looking at the Problem Theoretically 332 Symbolic Interactionism 332 Functionalism 334 Conflict Theory 336 Research Findings 337 An Overview of Health Problems 338 How Disease Is Related to Behavior and Environment: The Case of AIDS 338 Social Inequalities in Physical Illness 342 Social Inequalities in Mental Illness 343 Social Policy 347 Being Paid to Stay Healthy 347 Prepaid Medical Care 348 Physician Extenders 349 Training Physicians 349 Outreach Services 350 Practicing Preventive Medicine 351 Humanizing Health Care 355 Self-Care Groups 355 The Future of the Problem 356 Technology 356 Redirecting Medicine 357 Summary 359 Key Terms 359 Critical Thinking Questions 360 PART IV SOCIAL CHANGE AND MEGAPROBLEMS 11 The Changing Family 361 The Problem in Sociological Perspective 362 The Scope of the Problem 365 Looking at the Problem Theoretically 372 Symbolic Interactionism 373 Functionalism 375 Conflict Theory 377 Research Findings 379 Cohabitation and the Changing Age at First Marriage 379 Childlessness 380 Family Violence 381 Sexual Abuse in the Family 384 Old Age and Widowhood 386 The Death of the Family? 388 Social Policy 389 The Future of the Problem 394 Summary 396 Key Terms 397 Critical Thinking Questions 397 12 Urban Problems 398 The Problem in Sociological Perspective 399 The Scope of the Problem 403 Looking at the Problem Theoretically 403 Symbolic Interactionism 404 Functionalism 406 Conflict Theory 407 Research Findings 408 Is the City Inherently Alienating? 408 The Decline of the Central City 413 Urban Violence 415 The City in Change 420 The Emerging Megalopolis 423 Social Policy 425 Specific Programs 426 Educating the Poor 428 The Future of the Problem 429 Summary 432 Key Terms 432 Critical Thinking Questions 433 13 Population and Food 434 The Problem in Sociological Perspective 435 The Scope of the Problem 440 Looking at the Problem Theoretically 442 Symbolic Interactionism 442 Functionalism 444 Conflict Theory 447 Research Findings 448 The New Malthusians 448 The Anti-Malthusians 450 Has the Population Explosion Peaked? 452 Problems in Forecasting Population Growth 453 Does the United States Have a Population Problem? 454 Social Policy 457 Exporting Western Agriculture 457 Policy Implications of the Anti-Malthusians 458 Policy Implications of the New Malthusians 458 Restructuring International Markets 461 The Future of the Problem 461 The New Malthusian Viewpoint 461 The Anti-Malthusian Viewpoint 462 The Long-Term Anti-Malthusian Viewpoint 463 Which Will It Be? 463 Summary 465 Key Terms 465 Critical Thinking Questions 466 14 The Environmental Crisis 467 The Problem in Sociological Perspective 468 The Scope of the Problem 470 Looking at the Problem Theoretically 472 Symbolic Interactionism 472 Functionalism 474 Conflict Theory 475 Research Findings 477 Air Pollution 477 Land Pollution 479 Water Pollution 481 Toxic Chemicals 483 Nuclear Pollution 484 Food Pollution 486 Pollution in the Industrializing Nations 489 Getting the Other Side 491 In Sum 492 Energy and Resources 493 The Coming Resolution 496 Social Policy 498 The Steady State Society 498 Pollution 498 Energy 502 Determining National Priorities 503 The Future of the Problem 504 Summary 506 Key Terms 507 Critical Thinking Questions 507 15 War, Terrorism, and the Balance of Power 508 The Problem in Sociological Perspective 509 The Scope of the Problem 512 Looking at the Problem Theoretically 514 Symbolic Interactionism 514 Functionalism 515 Conflict Theory 517 Research Findings 518 What Reduces War? An Overview of Findings 518 The Costs of War 519 The Military-Industrial Complex 525 The Possibility of Accidental War 527 Biological and Chemical Warfare 531 Political Terrorism 532 Social Policy 538 Political Terrorism 539 Nuclear Warfare and the Elusive Path to Peace 539 The Future of the Problem 542 Summary 544 Key Terms 545 Critical Thinking Questions 545 BIBLIOGRAPHY 547 PHOTO CREDITS 581 NAME INDEX 583 Subject Index 595
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Social problems.
Deviant behavior.
Equality.
Social change.
Symbolic interactionism.
Functionalism (Social sciences).
United States -- Social conditions -- 1980-.