1. Energy Information Administration, Renewable Energy Annual 1995, DOE/EIA-0603(95) (Washington, DC, December 1995), and Annual Energy Review 1995, DOE/EIA-0384(95) (Washington, DC, July 1996).
2. For more information on hydropower, see, for example, Energy Information Administration, Electric Power Annual 1995, Vol. 1, DOE/EIA-0348(95/1) (Washington, DC, July 1996).
3. Energy Information Administration, Estimates of U.S. Biomass Energy Consumption 1992, DOE/EIA-0548(92) (Washington, DC, May 1994).
4. Energy Information Administration, Solar Collector Manufacturing Activity 1993, DOE/EIA-0174(93) (Washington, DC, August 1994).
5. The following people provided technical data collection, research on technical issues, substantive technical review, and publications and editorial contributions: Eileen B. Berenyi, Harry Chernoff, Gabriel Sanchez, Kevin Hill, William Turner, Brent Becker, Elizabeth Kinner, and Charles L. Smith.
6. Energy Information Administration, Renewable Energy Annual 1995, DOE/EIA-0603(95) (Washington, DC, December 1995), p. xxix.
7. For a full discussion of this issue, see Energy Information Administration, The Changing Structure of the Electric Power Industry: An Update, DOE/EIA-0562(96) (Washington, DC, December 1996).
8. H.R. 3790, “The Electricity Consumers’ Power To Choose Act of 1996” (July 17, 1996).
9. H.R. 3790, “The Electricity Consumers’ Power To Choose Act of 1996,” p. xxx.
10. Energy Information Administration, The Changing Structure of the Electric Power Industry: An Update.
11. Renewable electricity generation equals the sum of domestic renewable electricity generation and net imported renewable electricity.
12. Personal communication with Leslie Wheeler, Pellet Fuels Institute (Arlington, VA, 1996).
13. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Agricultural Outlook, January-February 1997, AO-237 (Washington, DC, January 1997), p. 2.
14. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Agricultural Outlook, January-February 1997, p. 2.
15. Fourth quarter 1996 average monthly production levels were projected by the Office of Coal, Nuclear, Electric and Alternate Fuels to estimate an annual production total. Consideration was given to fourth-quarter estimates reported in Renewable Fuels Association, Ethanol Report, No. 39 (January 3, 1997).
16. Energy Information Administration, Form EI-819M, “Monthly Oxygenate Telephone Report” (December 1995).
17. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Agricultural Outlook, January-February 1997, p. 2.
18. H. Shapouri, J.A. Duffield, and M.S. Graboski, Estimating the Net Energy Balance of Corn Ethanol, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Agricultural Economic Report No. 721 (Washington, DC, July 1995).
19. University of Washington, College of Forest Resources, web site weber.u.washington.edu (August 8, 1996).
20. The profile included companies who were involved in primary paper and forest product manufacturing. For instance, companies whose primary business was package and container manufacturing were not considered. Such companies, known as “converters” are customers for and users of primary products such as wood pulp. However, the net sales data reported for the 25 largest companies also includes revenues from corporate divisions who are involved in converting operations.
21. American Forest & Paper Association, QuickFacts About America’s Forest & Paper Industry (Washington, DC, Summer 1995).
22. In considering general wood utilization and supply, some analyses do not separate U.S. and Canadian markets. This is the case for the North American Wood Energy Model utilized by the U.S. Forest Service and the Forest Products Laboratory.
23. A recent EIA publication reports (a) increased foreign investment by American (and other) companies in world markets as a result of a trend toward globalization of business and the privatization of formerly state-run or state-controlled businesses and widespread liberalization of property laws. Broad regional adoption of free market economics in Latin America has contributed to the trend in business globalization. See Energy Information Administration, Privatization and the Globalization of Energy Markets, DOE/EIA-0609 (Washington, DC, October 1996).
24. Building materials and lumber (due in part to the effect of housing starts) tend to reflect the general economy, as do some commodity paper industry products (i.e., wood pulp). Other lines, such as tissue products and products used for remodeling projects, are less cyclical. Interest rates have an impact on construction starts and therefore on the sale and manufacturing levels of many timber products.
25. Very large paper and forest product companies are frequently both vertically, horizontally, and resource integrated. This means, among other things, that they not only supply raw materials to themselves, they may also operate their own transportation and distribution organizations for their finished products. They may also be engaged in totally unrelated businesses. Some large companies do not produce enough fiber raw material to serve their own needs and are net purchasers. Others supply more than they use and are net sellers. Nevertheless, large companies still differ, widely in some cases, in their product mix, degree of integration, market share for given products, and orientation with respect to commodity or specialty product output. Almost all companies of medium or large size produce basic commodity products of some type but employ the strategies of commodity upgrading and product differentiation to create higher valued products.
26. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service, “Understanding Forestry Terms—A Glossary for Private Landowners,” Woodland Owner Note 26, web site www.ces.ncsu.edu (July 24, 1996).
27. Black liquor, a byproduct of papermaking, is a good example of this relationship. If output of wood pulp goes down at a given plant, less black liquor is recovered for fuel.
28. Waste Age (August 1996), p. 40.
29. U.S. Forest Service, Forest Resources of the United States, 1992, General Technical Report RM-234 (September 1993), Table 1.
30. U.S. Forest Service, RPA Assessment of the Forest and Rangeland Situation in the United States-1993 Update, Forest Resources Report No. 27 (June 1994), p. 4.
31. Indications of this are reflected in the annual reports of some companies. The author consulted Dan Brandon of Morbark Corporation, a manufacturer of timber processing and handling equipment, in a telephone conversation on August 3, 1996, regarding this issue. Mr. Brandon confirmed that a certain amount of relocation to the South had occurred.
32. Diamond Occidental Forest Inc., reported on page 41 of the annual report of the James River Corporation, which holds a 77-percent ownership interest.
33. Volunteers in Technical Assistance, “NICC Incident Management Report,” web site www.vita.org/disaster/wildfire/9608 (August 31, 1996).
34. Finished products are labeled recycled. It avoids confusion to refer to the wood or paper raw material supplies that are used to make them as “recovered” or “reclaimed.”
35. Republic Gypsum Corporation, 1995 Annual Report.
36. American Forest & Paper Association, Quick Facts About America’s Forest & Paper Industry (Washington, DC, Summer 1995).
37. F. Kramer, in The Virginian Pilot (September 27, 1995), p. D3.
38. Saw logs, veneer, pulpwood, and other products using higher quality timber compete with each other for supply on a more active basis.
39. K. Skog, U.S. Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, “Projected Wood Energy Impact on U.S. Forest Wood Resources,” in Proceedings of the First Biomass Conference of the Americas: Energy, Environment, Agriculture, and Industry: 1993, Burlington, VT, August 30-September 7, 1993 (Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1993), Vol. 1, pp. 18-32.
40. D.S. Powell et al., U.S. Forest Service, Forest Resources of the United States, 1992, General Technical Report RM-234, pp. 52-55.
41. Southeastern Regional Biomass Energy Program, Residential Fuelwood Consumption in the Southeastern United States, TVA/NFERC/BIO-92/5 (August 1991), p. 26.
42. T.K. Kirk et al., U.S. Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Biopulping: A Glimpse of the Future, FPL-RP-523 (December 1993), p. 1.
43. American Forest & Paper Association, Fact Sheet on 1994 Energy Use in the U.S. Pulp and Paper Industry (Washington, DC, March 27, 1996).
44. American Forest & Paper Association, Fact Sheet on 1994 Energy Use in the U.S. Pulp and Paper Industry.
45. Pacific Northwest Pollution Prevention Research Center, web site pprc.pnl.gov (September 27, 1996).
46. Engineered Wood Association, “Engineered Wood and the Environment,” web site www.apawood.org (September 23, 1996).
47. Sawdust is sometimes processed into pellet fuel or used in a variety of products, however in many cases, it remains unused and represents a waste problem. This example assumes an energy value of 10 million Btu per ton at 50 percent wet basis moisture content.
48. American Forest & Paper Association, Monthly Statistical Summary (Washington, DC, July 1996).
49. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, “Pulp Mills and White Paper: Bringing Down the Environmental Price,” web site www.lbl.gov (October 28, 1996).
50. American Forest & Paper Association, Monthly Statistical Summary (Washington, DC, July 1996).
51. The Biopulping Consortium is made up of the U.S. Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory (Madison, WI); the University of Wisconsin; the University of Minnesota; and approximately 20 forest product companies. The biopulping project and the consortium originated as a research topic recommended to the Forest Products Laboratory by a joint committee of the American Paper Institute and the Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industries.
52. U.S. Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Biopulping A Glimpse of the Future, Research Paper FPL-RP-523 (December 1993).
53. Per telephone conversation between Robert Lowe, EIA, and Dr. Masood Akhtar, Forest Products Laboratory (October 9, 1996).
54. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States: 1995 Update, EPA/530-S-96-001 (Washington, DC, March 1996).
55. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States: 1995 Update.
56. Data based on Governmental Advisory Associates, Inc., Municipal Solid Waste Combustion in the United States: 1996-97 Yearbook, Directory, and Guide (Westport, CT, 1997).
57. E.B. Berenyi and R.N. Gould, Methane Recovery from Landfill Yearbook (New York, NY: Governmental Advisory Associates, 1995).
58. Energy Information Administration, Geothermal Energy in the Western United States and Hawaii, DOE/EIA-0544 (Washington, DC, September 1991).
59. Energy Information Administration, Renewable Energy Annual 1995, DOE/EIA-0603(95) (Washington, DC, December 1995).
60. Direct uses of geothermal energy have been summarized by the Geoheat Center at the Oregon Institute of Technology and are available on-line at web site www.oit.osshe.edu. See Appendix C of this report for a brief discussion of geothermal energy and geysers.
61. Geothermal Resources Council, “NGA Power Database,” web site www.geothermal.org (October 15, 1996).
62. Environmental aspects of geothermal electricity generation are discussed in Appendix D.
63. Personal communication with Dave Anderson, former Executive Director, Geothermal Resources Council (September 13, 1996).
64. H.R. 3790, the “Electric Consumers’ Power to Choose Act of 1996,” would restructure the entire electricity generating, transmission, and distribution industry. It would also create a Federal market for renewable energy credits, which would be available from utilities contracting for electricity from geothermal facilities.
65. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Geothermal Division, FY 1996 Program Summary.
66. P.J. Lienau et al., Reference Book on Geothermal Direct Use (Oregon Institute of Technology, Geoheat Center, August 1994). Prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy, Geothermal Division.
67. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook 1994, DOE/EIA-0383(94) (Washington, DC, January 1994), Table 21.
68. Groundwater temperatures hover around 50oF most of the year in most parts of the lower 48 States. For space heating, geothermal heat pumps have the second best average equipment efficiency of the major equipment types.
69. Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook 1994, DOE/EIA-0383(94) (Washington, DC, January 1994), Table 21.
70. International Energy Agency, Wind Energy Annual Report 1995 (Paris, France, March 1996), p. 20.
71. S. Williams and B.G. Bateman, Power Plays (Washington, DC: Investor Responsibility Research Center, 1995), p. 255.
72. International Energy Agency, Wind Energy Annual Report 1995, p. 20; and Energy Information Administration, Electric Power Annual 1995, Vol. 2, DOE/EIA-0348(95/2) (Washington, DC, December 1996), pp. 15-16.
73. Energy Information Administration, Electric Power Annual 1995, Vol. 2, pp. 15-16.
74. Excludes 6.6 megawatts of utility capacity and 35 megawatts of nonutility capacity that were not captured by EIA sources.
75. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency, “Wind Energy Data: Monthly Summary Report” (September 1996), p. 7.
76. U.S. Department of Energy, Wind Energy Program Overview: Fiscal Year 1994, DOE/G0-10095-071 (Washington, DC, 1995), p. 1.
77. S. Williams and B.G. Bateman, Power Plays, p. 271.
78. S. Williams and B.G. Bateman, Power Plays, p. 266.
79. D.F. Ancona, P.R. Goldman, and R.W. Thresher, “Wind Program Technological Developments in the United States,” paper presented to the World Renewable Energy Congress (Denver, CO, June 18, 1996), p. 1.
80. D.F. Ancona, P.R. Goldman, and R.W. Thresher, “Wind Program Technological Developments in the United States,” p. 5.
81. A trailing edge aerodynamic brake is a movable flap, known as a “spoiler flap,” mounted on the downwind edge of a wind turbine blade, which rotates up or down to control turbine rotor speed. Vortex generators are small protrusions on wind turbine blades that help to keep airflow attached to the blades. Multi-blade flexible rotors are rotors with three or more turbine blades constructed of a lightweight, highly flexible material.
82. D.F. Ancona, P.R. Goldman, and R.W. Thresher, “Wind Program Technological Developments in the United States,” p. 4.
83. U.S. Department of Energy, Wind Energy Program Overview: Fiscal Year 1994, p. 6.
84. U.S. Department of Energy, Wind Energy Program Overview: Fiscal Year 1994, p. 7.
85. EPRI’s wind budget doubled from $1.1 million in 1994 to $2.2 million in 1995.
86. S. Williams and B.G. Bateman, Power Plays, p. 267.
87. U.S. Department of Energy, Wind Energy Program Overview: Fiscal Year 1994, p. 10.
88. S. Williams and B.G. Bateman, Power Plays p. 269.
89. U.S. Department of Energy, Wind Energy Program Overview: Fiscal Year 1994, pp. 9-10.
90. S. Williams and B.G. Bateman, Power Plays pp. 277-309.
91. U.S. Department of Energy, Wind Energy Program Overview: Fiscal Year 1994, p. 1.
92. J. Loyola, Wind Performance Reporting System: 1991 Annual Report (Sacramento, CA: California Energy Commission, December 1992).
93. Paul Gipe & Associates, 1996 Overview of Wind Generation Worldwide (Tehachapi, CA, July 31, 1996), p. 4.
94. S. Williams and B.G. Bateman, Power Plays, p. 255.
95. S. Williams and B.G. Bateman, Power Plays, p. 257.
96. S. Williams and B.G. Bateman, Power Plays, p. 258.
97. S. Williams and B.G. Bateman, Power Plays, p. 256.
98. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency, “Wind Energy Data: Monthly Summary Report” (September 1996), p. 7.
99. D.F. Ancona, P.R. Goldman, and R.W. Thresher, “Wind Program Technological Developments in the United States,” p. 2.
100. Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review DOE/EIA-0035(95/02) (Washington, DC, February 1995), pp. viii, ix.
101. U.S. Department of Energy, Wind Energy Program Overview: Fiscal Year 1994, p. 2.
102. Paul Gipe & Associates, 1996 Overview of Wind Generation Worldwide, p. 3.
103. Paul Gipe & Associates, 1996 Overview of Wind Generation Worldwide, p. 3.
104. S. Williams and B.G. Bateman, Power Plays, p. 262.
105. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Photovoltaic and Wind Technologies, 1996.
106. Paul Gipe & Associates, 1996 Overview of Wind Generation Worldwide (July 31, 1996), p. 3.
107. U.S. Department of Energy, Wind Energy Program Overview: Fiscal Year 1994, p. 2.
108. Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, DOE/EIA-0035(95/02) (Washington, DC, February 1995), p. xii.
109. Energy Information Administration, Renewable Energy Annual 1995, DOE/EIA-0603(95) (Washington, DC, December 1995).
110. Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-867, “Annual Nonutility Power Producers Report.”
111. D. Escobedo, “Luz Blames Government for Bankruptcy Filings,” Public Utilities Fortnightly, Vol. 129, No.2 (January 15, 1992).
112. Energy Information Administration, Renewable Energy Annual 1995, DOE/EIA-0603(95) (Washington, DC, December 1995).
113. US Department of Energy, “The Potential of Renewable Energy: An Interlaboratory White Paper” (Washington, DC, March 1990), p. G-5.
114. Net generation is gross generation minus plant use.
115. M.H. Brown and B. Foster, State Incentives for Renewable Energy Resources that Generate Electricity (Draft) (Denver, CO: National Conference of State Legislatures, August 7, 1996).
116. The value of shipments includes charges for advertising and warranties. Excise taxes and the cost of freight or transportation for the shipments are excluded.
117. A complete system is a unit with a collector and all the necessary functional components, except for installation materials. Included are thermosiphon systems, integral collector storage systems, packaged systems, and system kits.
118. The total value includes charges for advertising and warranties, but does not include excise taxes and the cost of freight or transportation for the shipments.
119. A complete photovoltaic system is defined as a power supply unit that satisfies all the power requirements of an application. Such a system is generally made up of one or more modules, a power conditioning unit to process the electricity into the form needed by the application, wires and other electrical connectors, and sometimes batteries for back-up power supply.
120. In this chapter, photovoltaic capacities given in watts refer to “peak watts.”
121. For large-scale substation support, a PV installation is used to supply power directly to a substation, in order to lessen the load on a generating station.
122. Power quality correction operations make PV-generated power consistent with conventional transmission and distribution power requirements.
123. Pacific Gas & Electric Co., 1995 PVUSA Progress Report, DOE/AL/82993-28, prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy under Cooperative Agreement DE-FC04-92-AL82993 (March 1996).
124. PCUs are used to convert direct current (d.c.) to alternating current (a.c.).
125. Interstate Renewable Energy Council, “Reports from the PV4U State Working Groups,” PV4U Connections, No. 3 (Fall 1995), web site www.eren.doe.gov/irec.
126. D.E. Osborn and D.E. Collier, Sacramento Municipal Utility District, “Utility Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Distributed Power Systems,” in American Solar Energy Society (ASES) 96 (Asheville, NC, April 1996).
127. D.E. Osborn and D.E. Collier, “Utility Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Distributed Power Systems.”
128. H.J. Wenger, T.E. Hoff, and B.K. Farmer, “Measuring the Value of Distributed Photovoltaic Generation: Final Results of the Kerman Grid-Support Project,” presented to the First World Conference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion (Waikoloa, HI, December 1994).
129. Calpine Corporation, U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission Form S-4 Registration Statement (Washington, DC, 1995).
130. “DJ Electricity Prices,” The Wall Street Journal (July and August 1996).
131. Costs were calculated as follows: $20 per megawatthour 1,080 megawatthour per year = $21,600 per year; $21,600 per year / 498 kilowatts = $43 per kilowatt per year. The additional value of Kerman output at distribution voltage at the substation (versus transmission voltage at the Oregon border) is captured in the section on nontraditional benefits.
132. H.J. Wenger, T.E. Hoff, and B.K. Farmer, “Measuring the Value of Distributed Photovoltaic Generation: Final Results of the Kerman Grid-Support Project.”
133. Pacific Gas & Electric Co., 1995 PVUSA Progress Report, pp. 4-12, 4-13, 11-5, and 11-6.
134. H.J. Wenger, T.E. Hoff, and B.K. Farmer, “Measuring the Value of Distributed Photovoltaic Generation: Final Results of the Kerman Grid-Support Project.”
135. D.E. Osborn and D.E. Collier, “Utility Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Distributed Power Systems.”
136. Personal communication with Maria Zannes, Integrated Waste Services Association (October 16, 1996).
137. Personal communication with Maria Zannes, Integrated Waste Services Association (October 16, 1996).
138. Personal communication with Eileen Berenyi, Governmental Advisory Associates, Inc. (October 18, 1996).
139. Philadelphia v. New Jersey, 437 U.S. 617 (1978).
140. Fort Gratiot Sanitary Landfill, Inc. v. Michigan Dept. of Natural Resources, 112 S. CT. 2019 (1992); Oregon Waste Systems, Inc. v. Department of Environmental Quality, 114. Ct. 1345 (1994).
141. Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. Hunt, 112S. CT. 2009 (1992).
142. C&A Carbone, Inc. v. Town of Clarkstown, New York, No. 114, S. Ct. 1677 (1994).
143. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Final Air Regulation for Municipal Waste Combustors,” fact sheet (October 31, 1995).
144. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Final Air Regulation for Municipal Waste Combustors.”
145. Integrated Waste Services Association, The 1996 IWSA Municipal Waste Combustion Directory of United States Facilities (Washington, DC, May 1996), p. 10.
146. For more information on the history of flow control, see J. Carlin, “The Impact of Flow Control and Tax Reform on Ownership and Growth in the U.S. Waste-to-Energy Industry,” in Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review, DOE/EIA-0535(94/09) (Washington, DC, September 1994); and W.L. Kovacs, “Flow Control of Solid Waste: The Continuing Conflict Between Free Competition and the Public Policy of Integrated Waste Management,” Resource Recovery Report (Washington, DC, 1996).
147. California Reduction Co. v. Sanitary Reduction Works, 199 U.S. 306, 50 L. Ed. 204, 26 S. Ct. 100 (1905); Gardner v. Michigan, 199 U.S. 325, 50 L. Ed. 212, 26 S. Ct. 106 (1905).
148. C&A Carbone, Inc. v. Town of Clarkstown, New York, No. 114, S. Ct. 1677 (1994).
149. J. Carlin, "The Impact of Flow Control and Tax Reform on Ownership and Growth in the U.S. Waste-to-Energy Industry."
150. Fort Gratiot Landfill v. Michigan Department of Natural Resources, 504 U.S. 353 (1992).
151. Philadelphia v. New Jersey, 437 U.S. 617 (1978); Chemical Waste Management v. Hunt, 504 U.S. 334 (1992); and Oregon Waste Systems v. Department of Environmental Quality, 114 S. Ct. 1345 (1994).
152. National Solid Wastes Management Association v. Myer, 63 F. 3d 652 & 7th Cir. (1995).
153. SSC Corporation v. Town of Smithtown, 66 F. 3d 502, 2d Cir. (1995); Cert. Denied 116 S. Ct. 911 (1996).
154. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (RCRA), Public Law No. 94-580, 42 U.S.C., 6901-6902, requires all solid waste to be either “utilized for resource recovery” or “disposed of in sanitary landfills” in accordance with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Standards 42 U.S.C. 6943(a)(2) (1988) and Part 258 of 40 C.F.R. (1994).
155. “The Long Island Landfill Law,” 1983 N.Y. Laws 299, N.Y. Environmental Conservation Law, 27-0704 (1984).
156. In December 1989, the towns of Smithtown and Huntington executed a Municipal Cooperation Agreement under Article 5G of the General Municipal Law of the State of New York. See N.Y. General Municipal Law, 119-m to -00 (1986 & Supp. 1994).
157. Hughes v. Oklahoma, supra at 810; LeFrancois v. Rhode Island, 669 F. Supp. 1204, D.R.I. (1987); Evergreen Waste Sys. V. Metrop. Serv. Dist., 643 F. Supp. 127, D. Or. (1986); Aff’d on Other Grounds, 820 F. 2d 1482 (1987); Shayne Bros., Inc. v. Dist. of Columbia, 592 F. Supp. 1128, D.D.C. (1984); County Comm’rs of Charles County v. Stevens, 299 Md. 203, 473 F. 2d 12 (1984).
158. 1983 N.Y. Laws 299, codified at N.Y. Environmental Conservation Law, 27-0704 (1984).
159. N.Y. Environmental Conservation Law, 27-0106 (Supp. 1995).
160. Pike v. Bruce Church, Inc., 397 U.S. 137, 25 L. Ed., 2d 174, 90 S. Ct. 844 (1970).
161. The guidance is as follows: “. . . where a statute regulates even-handedly to effectuate a legitimate local public interest, and its effects on interstate commerce are only incidental, it will be upheld unless the burden imposed on such commerce is clearly excessive in relation to the putative local benefits.” Source: USA Recycling Inc. v. Town of Babylon, 66 F. 3d 1272, 1995 U.S. App. (Lexis 27011); 41 ERC (BNA) 1254; 25 ELR 21522; p. 28.
162. Hallie v. Eau Claire, 471 U.S. 34 (1985).
163. Hallie v. Eau Clair, 471 U.S. at 47.
164. Moody’s Investors Service, Moody’s Municipal Credit Report, Moody’s Solid Waste Rating Surveillance and Rating Outlook (New York, NY, May 1995).
165. These waste figures include significant quantities of waste such as construction debris that are not included in the Environmental Protection Agency’s definition of municipal solid waste. However, these figures can be used to estimate the amount of waste that crosses State lines, municipal or total waste.
166. E. Ley, M.K. Macauley, and S.W. Salant, “Spatially and Intertemporally Efficient Waste Management: The Costs of Interstate Flow Control” (Washington, DC: Resources for the Future, June 1996), p. 4.
167. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Landfill Methane Outreach Program, EPA-430-F-95-068A (Washington, DC, April 1995).
168. “Flaring” is combustion of gas to avoid unsafe accumulation.
169. Most of the information in this section was obtained from M. Doorn, J. Pacey, and D. Augenstein, Landfill Gas Energy Utilization Experience: Discussion of Technical and Non-Technical Issues, Solutions, and Trends, EPA-600/R-95-035, prepared by E.H. Pechan and Associates, Inc., for the Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (Washington, DC, March 1995).
170. R. Woods, “Building a Better Liner System,” Waste Age (March 1992), p. 26.
171. In July 1993, the EPA provided some extensions to the effective date of the standards for existing, smaller landfills. In addition, financial assurance and closure requirements for all existing landfills were delayed for 1 year.
172. S.M. Roe, P.G. Fields, and R.E. Coad, Methodologies for Quantifying Pollution Prevention Benefits from Landfill Gas Control and Utilization, EPA-600/R-95-089, prepared by E.H. Pechan & Associates, Inc., for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (Washington, DC, July 1995).
173. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Criteria for Solid Waste Disposal Facilities: A Guide for Owners/Operators, EPA/530-SW-91-089 (Washington, DC, March 1993).
174. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Safer Disposal for Solid Waste: The Federal Regulations for Landfills, EPA/530-SW-91-092 (Washington, DC, March 1993).
175. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Using Landfill Gas for Energy: Projects that Pay (Golden, CO, May 1994).
176. M. Doorn, J. Pacey, and D. Augenstein, Landfill Gas Energy Utilization Experience: Discussion of Technical and Non-Technical Issues, Solutions, and Trends; and T.D. Williams, “Making Landfill Gas an Asset,” Solid Waste & Power (July/August 1993), p. 22.
177. RCRA defines a small landfill as one serving a community that disposes of less than 20 tons of MSW per day, averaged yearly. For further information, see U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Criteria for Solid Waste Disposal Facilities: A Guide for Owners/Operators.
178. S.A. Thorneloe, “Landfill Gas Utilization—Options, Benefits, and Barriers,” paper presented at the Second U.S. Conference on Municipal Solid Waste Management (Arlington, VA, June 3-5, 1992).
179. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Fact Sheet (Washington, DC, March 1, 1996).
180. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Using Landfill Gas for Energy: Projects that Pay (Golden, CO, May 1994).
181. Solid Waste Association of North America, List of Solid Waste Legislation Enacted in 1991 (Silver Springs, MD, 1992).
182. Telephone communication between Science Applications International Corporation (McLean, VA) and the Bureau of National Affairs, Inc. (Washington, DC) (August 28, 1996).
183. Personal communication between Science Applications International Corporation (McLean, VA) and S.A. Thorneloe, Global Emissions and Control Division, Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (August 30, 1996).
184. “Landfill Gas Recovery Projects Reviewed by NREL,” BioCycle, Vol. 37, No. 2 (February 1996), p. 25.
185. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Landfill Methane Outreach Program, EPA-430-F-95-068A (Washington, DC, April 1995).
186. Personal communication between Science Applications International Corporation (McLean, VA) and Jean Bogner, Argonne National Laboratory (Chicago, IL) (August 28, 1996).
187. M. Doorn, J. Pacey, and D. Augenstein, Landfill Gas Energy Utilization Experience: Discussion of Technical and Non-Technical Issues, Solutions, and Trends.
188. S.A. Thorneloe, “Landfill Gas Utilization—Options, Benefits, and Barriers.”
189. S.A. Thorneloe, “Landfill Gas Utilization—Options, Benefits, and Barriers.”
190. M. Doorn, J. Pacey, and D. Augenstein, Landfill Gas Energy Utilization Experience: Discussion of Technical and Non-Technical Issues, Solutions, and Trends.
191. Unless otherwise noted, the technical information on gas turbines and IC engines was obtained from M. Doorn, J. Pacey, and D. Augenstein, Landfill Gas Energy Utilization Experience: Discussion of Technical and Non-Technical Issues, Solutions, and Trends.
192. Turndown refers to gas line pressure. The efficient performance of gas-fed turbines is more sensitive to gas line pressure than is the performance of internal combustion engines.
193. G.J. Sandelli, Demonstration of Fuel Cells To Recover Energy from Landfill Gas. Phase I Final Report: Conceptual Study, EPA-600-R-92-007, prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency by International Fuel Cells Corporation (Washington, DC, January 1992).
194. According to ONSI Corporation, a subsidiary of International Fuel Cell Corporation (the fuel cell production arm of United Technologies Corporation). See M. Doorn, J. Pacey, and D. Augenstein, Landfill Gas Energy Utilization Experience: Discussion of Technical and Non-Technical Issues, Solutions, and Trends.
195. W.D. Siuru, “Researchers Test Fuel Cells To Recover LFG,” World Wastes, Vol. 38, No. 4 (April 1995), p. 8.
196. G.J. Sandelli, Demonstration of Fuel Cells To Recover Energy from Landfill Gas. Phase I Final Report: Conceptual Study.
197. S.A. Thorneloe, “Landfill Gas Utilization—Options, Benefits, and Barriers.”
198. M. Doorn, J. Pacey, and D. Augenstein, Landfill Gas Energy Utilization Experience: Discussion of Technical and Non-Technical Issues, Solutions, and Trends.
199. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Using Landfill Gas for Energy: Projects that Pay (Golden, CO, May 1994).
200. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Landfill Methane Outreach Program, EPA-430-F-95-068A (Washington, DC, April 1995).
201. Solid Waste Association of North America, web site www.swana.org (August 20, 1996).
202. M. Doorn, J. Pacey, and D. Augenstein, Landfill Gas Energy Utilization Experience: Discussion of Technical and Non-Technical Issues, Solutions, and Trends.
203. Information obtained from M. Doorn, J. Pacey, and D. Augenstein, Landfill Gas Energy Utilization Experience: Discussion of Technical and Non-Technical Issues, Solutions, and Trends.
204. Solid Waste Association of North America, web site www.swana.org (August 20, 1996).
205. Some States are planning to circumvent FERC by requiring utilities that sell at retail to buy a certain percentage of their energy from renewable supplies. As of summer 1996, no State had actually implemented such a program.
206. Assuming that the combustion efficiencies of flaring and energy recovery are similar, the CO,sub>2 emissions are comparable. Therefore, if the LFG were redirected through an energy conversion combustor/generator rather than flared, no new CO2 emissions would be created.
207. F.P. Wong, Alternative Energy and Regulatory Policy: Till Death Do We Part (Commerce, CA: Pacific Energy, March 1992).
208. M. Doorn, J. Pacey, and D. Augenstein, Landfill Gas Energy Utilization Experience: Discussion of Technical and Non-Technical Issues, Solutions, and Trends.
209. Information obtained from the Geothermal Program Office, Naval Air Weapons Station, China Lake, CA.
210. This assumption is based on the following formula: 3,412 Btu per kilowatthour 1,024 billion kilowatthours / 280,000 people = 12.5 million Btu per year per person for residential electricity = 34,000 Btu per person per day = 10 kilowatthours per person per day. For further details, see Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Outlook 1996, DOE/EIA-0383(96) (Washington, DC, January 1996), Table A8, p. 94.
211. Energy Information Administration, Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 1987-1994, DOE/EIA-0573(87-94) (Washington, DC, October 1995), Table A1, p. 76.
212. The Geysers Geothermal Association, “An Update on The Geysers, November 1994,” Geothermal Resources Council Bulletin, Vol. 24, No. 1 (January 1995), Figure 7, p. 17.
213. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Geothermal Division, FY 1996 Program Summary.
214. “The Future of Energy: The Battle for World Power,” The Economist, Vol. 337, No. 7935 (October 7, 1995), p. 23.
215. International Energy Agency, Wind Energy Annual Report 1995 (Paris, France, March 1996), p. 20.
216. This decrease is based on the total reported wind capacity of 1,731 megawatts, which excludes 6.6 megawatts of utility capacity and 35 megawatts of nonutility capacity that were not captured by EIA sources.
217. W. Sweet, “Technology 1996: Power and Energy,” IEEE Spectrum, Vol. 33, No. 1 (January 1996), pp. 70-75.
218. Paul Gipe & Associates, “1996 Overview of Wind Generation Worldwide,” web site keynes.fb12.tu-berlin.de/luftraum/konst/ overview.html (August 26, 1996).
219. P. Gipe, “Southern Stirrings,” Independent Energy, Vol. 26, No. 3 (April 1996), pp. 39-40.
220. W. Sweet, “Technology 1996: Power and Energy.”
221. J. Casey, “Here Comes the Sun,” Civil Engineering (October 1995), p. 54.
222. Personal communication between Gabriel Sanchez, Science Applications International Corporation, and Clay Aldritch, Solar Industry Association (September 10, 1996).
223. O. Ikki, “PV Activities in Japan,” Resources Total System Co., Ltd., Monthly Newsletter (June-October 1996); and personal communication between James Holihan, Energy Information Administration, and Osamu Ikki (October 1996).
224. Information derived from Utility Photovoltaic Group, PV Vision, Vol. 4, No. 2 (1996), p. 6.
225. Per telephone conversation between Robert Lowe, Energy Information Administration, and Willem Floor, World Bank, October 30, 1996.
226. All information on biomass to this point in this section was based on Robert van der Plas, The World Bank Group, “Burning Charcoal Issues,” FPD Energy Note No. 1, web site www.worldbank.org (April 1995).
227. A. Kulik, “Energy Recovery Is High Priority for Europeans,” World Wastes, Vol. 38, No. 5 (May 1995), pp. 9-12.
228. R.H. Acker and D.M. Kammen, “The Quiet (Energy) Revolution: Analyzing the Dissemination of Photovoltaic Power Systems in Kenya,” Energy Policy, Vol. 24, No. 1 (January 1996), p. 81.
229. “The Future of Energy: The Battle for World Power,” The Economist, Vol. 337, No. 7935 (October 7, 1995), p. 26.
230. “Sunshine and Showers,” The Economist, Vol. 337, No. 7937 (October 21, 1995), p. 84.
231. The information in this section was obtained from David McLellan, Office of the Counselor, Economic and Trade Policy, Canadian Embassy, Washington, DC (August 22, 1996).
232. D. Bright and S. Salaff, “RFP Role Reversal,” Independent Energy, Vol. 25, No. 9 (November 1995), pp. 16-19.
233. D. Tenenbaum, “The Greening of Costa Rica,” Technology Review, Vol. 98, No. 7 (October 1995), pp. 42-52.
234. “Tucson Electric, New World Power Joint Implementation Projects Chosen,” Global Climate Change (January 5, 1996), p. 10.
235. G. House, “Mexico’s House Cleaning Means a Mess of Opportunity,” World Trade, Vol. 98, No. 11 (December 1995), pp. 38-41.
236. International Geothermal Association, “Installed Geothermal Electricity Generation Capacity by Country and Year,” web site www.demon.co.uk/geosci/igahome.html (August 28, 1996).
237. P. Gipe, “Southern Stirrings.”
238. International Geothermal Association, “Installed Geothermal Electricity Generation Capacity by Country and Year.”
239. “Geothermal Energy in Indonesia,” East Asian Executive Reports (May 15, 1995), pp. 12-16.
240. International Geothermal Association, “Installed Geothermal Electricity Generation Capacity by Country and Year,” web site www.demon.co.uk/geosci/igahome.html (August 28, 1996).
241. P. Karnoe, “Competence as Process and the Social Embeddedness of Competence Building,” Academy of Management Journal (1995), pp. 427-431.
242. IVO Group, web site www.ivogroup.com (August 6, 1996).
243. A. Young and E. Terrado, World Bank Pipeline Renewable Energy Projects (FY97-98), Solar Initiative, The World Bank Group (August 22 and November 18, 1996).
244. Personal communication between Gabriel Sanchez, Science Applications International Corporation, and Ernie Terrado, Principal Energy Planner, Industry and Energy Department, The World Bank (October 10, 1996).
245. Inter-American Development Bank, Environment Committee, 1995 Annual Report on the Environment and Natural Resources (Washington, DC, 1996).
246. Unless otherwise noted, the source for USAID renewable energy information is personal communication between Gabriel Sanchez (Science Applications International Corporation) and Rebecca Slone (U.S. Agency for International Development, Office of Energy, Environment, and Technology, Center for Environment), October 16 and 17, 1996.
247. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Outreach, Program Briefing (February 21, 1996).
248. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Outreach, Program Briefing (February 21, 1996).
249. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Outreach, Program Briefing (February 21, 1996).
250. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Outreach, Program Briefing (February 21, 1996).
251. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Outreach, Program Briefing (February 21, 1996).
252. Even if stock data are only approximate, conventional energy stocks are normally a small percentage of production.
253. Information in this section is based on the report, “Renewable Energy Frame Review Updated Report: Survey Sampling Frame and Electricity Discrepancy Estimates,” by Decision Analysis Corporation of Virginia (Vienna, Virginia, August 1993).
254. Because the MECS is based on the Bureau of the Census’ Annual Survey of Manufacturers, EIA does not know the identity of MECS respondents.
255. J.S. Rinehard, Geysers and Geothermal Energy (New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, 1980), p. v.
256. D. Plouff, Gravity Data in Crump Geyser Area, Oregon (Menlo Park, CA: U.S. Geological Survey, 1975).
257. P. Silver and N. Valette-Silver, “Detection of Hydrothermal Precursors to Large Northern California Earthquakes,” Science, Vol. 257, No. 5075, pp. 1363-1368.
258. The boiling point of a liquid is dependent upon the pressure. The boiling point of pure water is 212oF (100oC) at sea level. In Yellowstone, the pressure is lowered because the elevation is about 7,500 feet, and the boiling point of water is only about 199oF (93oC).
259. Energy Information Administration, Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 1987-1994, DOE/EIA-0573(87-94) (Washington, DC, October 1995), p. 12.
260. Energy Information Administration, Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 1987-1994, p. ix.
261. Energy Information Administration, Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 1987-1994, p. 49.
262. Nitrogen oxides combine with hydrocarbon vapors in the atmosphere to produce ground-level ozone, a gas that causes adverse health effects and crop losses as well as smog.
263. J.S. Rinehart, Geysers and Geothermal Energy (New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, 1980).
264. The geyser at The Geysers in Northern California was man-made and is not considered part of a geyser field.
265. Excerpted from Calpine Corporation Form S-4.
266. West Ford Flat - $167/kW/yr for 27 MW and $128.90/MWh, Bear Canyon - $156-176/kW/yr and $128.90/MWh, Aidlin Facilities - $167/kW/yr for 17 MW and $128.90/MWh.
267. Thermal Power Company Steam Fields - $16.47/MWh, PG&E Steam Fields - $12.07/MWh, SMUD GEO #1 Steam Fields - $1.746/thousand pounds of steam.
268. Unless otherwise noted, the information in this appendix was obtained from M. Doorn, J. Pacey, and D. Augenstein, Landfill Gas Energy Utilization Experience: Discussion of Technical and Non-Technical Issues, Solutions, and Trends, EPA-600/R-95-035, prepared by E.H. Pechan and Associates, Inc., for the Air and Energy Engineering Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (Washington, DC, March 1995).
269. D.R. Jones, “Landfill Gas Saving Dollars as Industrial Energy Source,” Environment Today, Vol. 6, No. 6 (July 1995), pp. 3, 54.
Renewable Energy
Annual 1996
April 1997
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