APRIL, 1912. MONTHLY WEA
wm abeut $25,000. This storm last exhibited destruc- tive violence at Calumet, Canadian County, where it At this place the pat'h was
fined. Three pmons were killed and 4 injured. The damage is conservatively estimated at $100,000. After pmsing Calumet this storm apparently died out. The
third storm was observed first a t Rocky, Washita County, at 2 p. In. The storm traveled in a northeasterly direc- tion with a welldefined funnel cloud, and the path of
destructmion was about one-half mile wide. About 50
houses were destroyed in the town and some stock was killed in the cenntry. Two persons were injured but' none waa killed. The fourth storm occurred at Elk Cit,y, Custer County, about 5.07 p. m. There were five funnel-shaped c.louds, and the combined width of the aths was from 1 to 2
many farm implements were destroyed. Two p'ersons
were killed and 7 injured in this locahty. The fift,h storm ap eared at Butler, Choctaw County, about 6.30 p. m., an a moved in the anonia.lous direct,ion from sout,hertst to northwest,. The funnel cloud was well defined and the ath of dastruction about 500 feet wide. One person was h l e d and 3 were injured. The property damage; is estimated at $50,000 in t,hat, city and vicinity. The sixth tornado made its appearance in the vic.init,y
of Hobart, Kiowa County, about 8.30 p. m., reac.htd Sentinel, Washita Count , about 9 p. m., and here
exhibited two fu,nnel clou c9 s.
The seventh tornado occurred in t8he vicinity of Sen-
tinel about 1.30 a. ni. of t,he 28th. The p%t,h was not well defined, the funnel cloud apparent,lp dipping down and destroying a building and then liftsing over several and again descending. About 60 houses were blown down, and 2 persons were killed and 2 injured. I t is
impossible to estimate the loss in money t,ernis, but it was great. Tomadoes i.n. Ka.nsas, Apr2 20, 1912.-Tornacloes occurred in south-central Kansas April 20, 1912. There
were t,hree storms. The first appeaaed at Bison, Rush County, a t 3 p. m., moving from the sout,h-sout,hwests t'o north-northeast, and there was a funnel-shaped cloud. The path of greatest destruction was about SO yards wide. Two persons were killed and about, 15 injured. The da.niage to property amounted to about, $70,000.
The second tornado made its a pearance near Nash-,
t,he southwest towar8 the northeast and passed near Willowdale, Kingman Count , about 4 p. ni. The funnel-shaped cloud was visib I e a t both {laces. In t,he vicinity of Nashville the pat,h of greatmest, est,ruction was
250 yards wide. Two ersons were injured, a few head
were blown down. In t,he vicinity of Willowdale the at,h of greatest destruction was about 150 feet, wide. !?wo persons were injured, and buildings wort,li $8,000
were destro ed.. The third t,ornado appeared 3 miles
from the south toward the nort,h. The path of greatest
dest,ruct,ion was about one-fourth mile wide. One per-
son was killed and 8 were injured. The damage to buildings and the loss of live stock amount'ed t,o about
eared about 3.14 p. m.
a "I? out one-half mile wide and the funnel was well de-
miles. Thirty-five buildings, 13 1 ead of live stock, and
. ville, Kingman Count about. 3. P 0 p. m., moving from
of live st,ock were kille if , and about 10 houses and barns
west of Wa i &on, Harper County, a.t, 4 p. m., moving
$io,ooo.
CITY AND SUBURBAN ~EiWPERATUREB.
By E~WABD D. COB~RLY, Local Foreaurter.
Mwh' i a s been writ,t,en on this subject during t,he
last few ye-, md surne investigators have gone so far as to assert, t'hhat only tern eraturea reduced to what they would be if taken in t g e open country should be
.THER REVIEW. 573
used in the construction of general isothermel charh. There can be no doubt that in the cities, where instm- nients are exposed on the tops of large office buildin&, the temperature records are more or less affected, par- ticularly so when the atmosphere is sluggish and wmds
light. The large brick and steel buildings undoubtedly absorb great quantities of heat during the day in the bright sunshine and radiate the same at night. In winter the innumerable fires niust give off an appreciable amount of heat, the effects of which are shown in our tem erature records. The large quantitiee of b t and sin0 E e particles in the atmosphere of our citiea also
exercise a great influence on radiation. Moreover, 88
these records are usually made at heights varying from
'75 to 300 feet above the ground, the nocturnal cooling of the air near the surface of the earth is not shown by them. of some of the results of other inveati-
tion. and the following short quotations from Ham's Climatology (Ward), pages 29-30, are given:
As a general rule, it is found that the mean annual temperature of the air in places where there are many buildings M from 0.9O to 1 .8 O
too high. The differences are reatest in the morning and evening and least at noon. The diurni range of temperature is smaller in cities, especially in summer. The mean temperature which k usual1 'ven for Par% is 1.4' too high; and thk is likewke true for Brume{, Tondon, and other citiea. The mean temperature of the city of Vienna is 49.5', that of the wr- rounding country 48.6'. Hellnian also took into consideration the
differences in the exposure of the thermometers, and found that Berlin is 0.5' warmer than the surrounding country in winter; 1.1' warmer 0
in spring and summer; and 0 .7 O warmer in autumn. The evening temperatwed in Berlin, however, are 2.2' higher in apring and summer, and 1.4O higher in the mean annual. In the caae of Park there waa found to be a difference of +4.2O on summer ni hts; the temperatures are the aame at noon, and the differ-
than the country by these amounb. The mean mimima are much higher in the cities, while the mean maxima may be the me aa those of the country, or sometimes even lower. The cooling by radia- tion at night k much greater in the open than in places which are built up. Mendenhall states that during the cold waveci of January, 1884, the mean minimum temperatures registered at the regular Weather Bureau stations in Toledo, Cleveland, Columbus, and Cincin- nati, Ohio, were from 3.1' to 14.9' higher than those recorded at cooperative stations outside the large cities.
temperature for the year is 0.3' higher and the mean &mum 3.3" lower at Ohio State University (a country
exposure) than at the regular Weather Bureau office
in the heart of the city at,Columbus, Ohio. He states that the minimum temperatures are considerably lower at the university than m the city. At New Orleans records have been kept for the last
23 ears at the Louisiana Su ar Experiment Station in Auiubon Park, and we s h 5 compare these records with those of the regular Weather Bureau station in this cit covering a simultaneous period. During this
have been made on the roof of the customhouse, ab*out one-fourth mile from the Mississippi River and 90 feet
above the street level; this station will be desi ated "New Orleans No. 1" in our discussion. "New 8 deans No. 2," or Audubon Park, is 6 miles west of the regular Weather Bureau office and about SO0 feet from the
Mississippi River. The instruments are exposea in a
standard shelter, 6 feet over sod, and the location is ideal, being removed from buildings and pavdd &wets,
so that the exposure may be taken as almost perfect.
higher at the customhouse than at t 5 e park. T h e monthly mean temperature is hi her at station No. 1
month, except June and B uly, when the excess
A brief summa gations in this fie '9 d seems to be pertinent in this connec-
ence is $2 d in the diurnal and the annual means. The city M m e r
Prof. J. Warren Smith finds that the mean maximum '
time a1 7 records at the regular Weather Bureau station
It is found that the mean annual tern erature is d.6" '
mean at the park is 0.2' and 0.3", respectively,
57 4 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW. APRIL, 1912
January.. ....... *. ................... February.. .......................... March ................................ Apr .................................. Nay .................................. June ................................. July .................................. August ............................... September. .......................... October .............................. November.. ......................... December.. ..........................
Year ...........................
more, have been observed on adjacent plats of ground
due to this cause. A condensed table showing temperature conditions at t'he regular Weather Bureau station, New Orleans, La., and at the sugar experiment station, Audubon Park, this city, is ap ended.
,4 short ibliograph of works which have been consulted in the preparation of t is paper, which may be of service to those who desire to go more thoroughly into this subject of city and country temperatures and the control of noc- turnal radiation by local causes, is given below.
7l E
54.7 56.0
63.7
69.0
75.2 80.5 81.9 82.2 79.3 70.5 62.0 55.3
69.2
__
The greatest excess in the monthl mean at the custom- house station, 1.5', occurs in Octo SJ er. The mean maxi- mum temperature at t,he park is higher in every month
of the year, the excess rangin from 0.2' in November
maximum is 1.3' higher at the park than at the re.gular
Weather Bureau stat'ion. Just t,he reverse of t,he case just stated is found for the minimum temperatures, those at the park being lower, and the difference bet,iveen the two stahons is about twice as great as in the case of the maximum temperatures. The annual mean mini- mum at the park is 2.6' lower than at the customhouse. The difference is least in midsummer and greatest in the autumn months, October and November, being 4.2' and
3.6", respectively. It is the opinion of the writer that this is largely due to the generall light wind movement durin the nocturnal hours at t'&s season of the year,
of the park and cool rapidy by conduction to the cold ground which has radiated its heat much faster than the buildings in the heart of the city. clearly shown b the light fog which hangs over t,he par
every morning, during the autumn mont,hs, while none is visible over paved streets less than half a d e away.
It will also be noted that the maximum temperatures are usually 1' to 3' higher and the minimum readin to 6' lower in the o en exposure than on the top o the buildings. This di&rence in t,he case of minimum tem- qeratures is very im ort,ant in its bearing on t,he forma-
If conditions are favorable for bhe occurrence of frost or frost t,emperature-t,hat is, clear skies and light winds with the necessary fall in temperature-this inevhable difference between the temperature in the city and count should alwa s be borne strict1 in mind, as in
mean the saving or losing of an entire crop. These differences in minimum temperatures, especially, are much accentuated when the distance between country and cit,y stations is increased somewhat and the countr station is ent'irely removed from the city. After a119
, these differences are dependent solely on the causes which control nocturnal terrestrial radiation. Some striking examples have come to notice.
The temperature varies greatly in different localities in adjacent neighborhoods. The temperature a t regular Weather Bureau stations is often very different from that which prevails in t,he neighboring agricultural communities. In this connection, Mr. H. Meyer, under date of Bertrandville, La., November 23, 1901, eays: "There is con-
siderable truckiydone here in the early spring, and I hope you will give us warning w en a cold wave comes along. What I can not under- stand ie that the 16th of this month your record at New Orleans was 44' while at, this place, 25 miles fmther south, we had 32'. Ice formed 8.8
thibk as window glam. "
A corn arison of the minimum t,enlperiIi;.res recorded at, the up nited St'ates Weather Bureau ofice, St.. Louis, Mo., wit.h those recorded at t,he Forest, Park Ohsermtor shows that the mean monthly minimum n.t, Forest, Parg
was 1.5' t.o 9 O below t,he mean monthly minimum at t.ha Weather Bureau stgtion. In t,he discussion of this mat,t,er the writers say:
In the atudy of these observations it was found that durin. the clear skies of September the maaimum differences were recorcftd, while during the cloudiest months (March and December) the differences were least, and that they remained small during all of the winter months. There were, however, marked exceptions to this rule, as, for instance, in January, 1892, when the difference exceeded 20° on three successive dates.
There also seems to be a marked control over radiation exerc,ised by the color of the soil and whether or not the same be covered by vegetation. Differences of 10' or
to 2.1' in June and 2.0' in Ju ?i y, and the annual mean
Y
thus a gll owing the air to lie uietly over t,he grassy &retch
T at the time of P owest temperature, about sunrise nearly
T lo
tion of frost's, and t K e occurrence of frost temperatures.
critic3times the cii il erence of even a P ew degrees may
This is ve
Dr. I . M. Cline says:
+1.2 +0.7 +0.8
+0.6
f0.2 -0.2 -0.4 +0.3 +0.9 +1.5 +1.3 f0.7
+0.6
Nonths.
62.3 63.0 62.8 63.8 72.6 73.5 76.8 78.7 83.4 85.3 88.2 80.3 88.9 80.9 89.6 80.7 88.6 87.4 77.9 79.0 70.5 70.7 62.5 63.7
76.8 78.1 ---
I 8
-0.7 -1.0 -1.0 -1.9 -1.9 -2.1 -2.0 -1.1 -0.8 -1.1 -0.2 -1.2
-1.3 --
!I
46.6 47.3 56.5 60.9 67.7
,4.9 75.4 72.9 63.4 54.5 47.1
61.7
73.2
Months.
January.. ............................ 43.8 February.. ........................... 4Q8 March.. .............................. 54,l April.. ............................... 58.6
June .................................. 71.5 July .................................. 73.5 August ............................... 73.9 September.. .......................... 70.1 October .............................. 59.2 November.. .......................... 50.9 December.. .......................... 44.2
Year ............................ 59.1
May .................................. 64.2
-
-
H
$&
$6 -2
t z
53.5 55.3 62.9 68.4 75.0 80.7 a?. 3 81.9 78.4 69.0 60.7 54.6
68.6
-
-
+?. 8 +2.4 +2.4 +2.3 +3.5 +1.7 +l. 4 +1.5 +3.8 +4.3 +3.6 +2.9
+2. 6 -
~
22 21 7 6 31 30 41 40 5246 6 0 5 8
63 65 6 8 6 5 5 5 5 2 40 35 2 9 2 8
21 19
0 7 6 ---
- -
5
!A
;i
i -
+1
+1 +1 +1
+6
+2
-a +3 +3
+5 +1 +2
+1
-
-_
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
AIKEN, JOHN.
CLINE, Dr. ISAAC M.
On the number of dust particles in the atmosphere. . Trane. Royal SOC. Edinburgh. XSXV, p. 1. 1888. Proceedings of third convention of Weather Bureau officials, Peoria, Ill., 1904, pp. 250-253. Freezes of November, 1911, 111 the su ar and trucking region of Louisiana and Texas. Monthly Weatherseview , Climatological District No. 5, Nov., 1911. Frost8 and temperature conditions in the cranberry manshes of Wisconsin.
Cnx, Prof. H. J.
CUMMINO. Heat treated experimentally. DavIs, W. M. Elementary meteorology. HAMYON, W. H. Bulletin 23, Weather Bureau. HANN, J. (Ward). Hmdbook of climatology, pp. 29-30. New York, 1903. HTNDMAN, H. H. FRANCIS. MCADIE. Prof. A. G. Bulletin 29. Weather Bureau. Monthly Weather Review, pp. 282-283, Feb., 1912. Covering almond trees for frost protection. MAXWELL, J. CLERK. Theory of heat. MINDLING, GEORGE W. Monthly Weather Review, pp. 1280-1283, Aug., 1911. MOORE. Prof. WyILLIs L. Paper. American Meteorological Journal, Vol. X, No. 2, p PALMER, ANDREW%. Monthly Weather Review, pp. 1284-1286, Aug., 1911. Is the heat generated by great cities changing their climates? SMITH, Prof. J. WARREN. Monthly Weather Review, pp. 30-31, Jan., 1912. The climate of city and country compared. VERY, FEANK W. Bulletin G, Weather Bureau, Atmospheric radiation.
United States Weather Bureau bulletin T.
Radiation, London, 1898.
Influence of artificial heating on the climate of cities.
89 et seq.