Priority Species for Conservation

Below is a list of priority landbird species breeding in each Biogeographic Region in Alaska. Priority species were identified using a ranking procedure developed by Carter et al. 2000 (Auk 117(2):541-548).  This procedure determines the priority rank of a species based on its abundance in North America, the degree to which breeding and wintering distributions are restricted and threatened, proportion of the species' range occupied by the Bioregion, and population trend.  The methods for ranking species are also provided in the Landbird Conservation Plan for Alaska Biogeographic Regions version 1.0.

Southeastern Alaska

GYRFALCON (Falco rusticolus) 

 Distribution: Gyrfalcons are uncommon or rare breeders in arctic tundra and subarctic mountain areas of Alaska, Northern Canada, Greenland, Iceland, and Eurasia. In Alaska, gyrfalcons are most common in the Northern bioregion, portions of the Western bioregion (particularly the Seward and Lisburne Peninsulas), and the Alaska Range (Central bioregion). Densities up to 1 pair per 200 km 2 have been found in these areas, but densities are usually much lower throughout most of their range in Alaska. An estimated 375-635 pairs of gyrfalcons nest in Alaska, and 700-800 breeding pairs are estimated to nest in Yukon Territory, Canada. Most gyrfalcons do not migrate. Adult gyrfalcons generally remain on their breeding territories throughout the winter, but some gyrfalcons move southward to southern Canada and the northern U.S. Wintering gyrfalcons are often found near concentrations of avian prey such as near wetlands, coastal, dunes, or airports. 

 Biology/Natural History: Gyrfalcons are monogamous and hold individual territories. They prey on mammals, including ground squirrels and hares, and birds (primarily ptarmigan, but also grouse, seabirds, waterfowl, jaegers, and shorebirds). They generally hunt from an exposed perch (tree or rock outcrop) and chase their prey. Hunting is also done by rapid contour flying, where they fly fast and low over the terrain to surprise their prey; gyrfalcons seldom stoop as peregrines do. Gyrfalcon numbers vary directly with ptarmigan numbers, and gyrfalcons will forego breeding when prey is scarce. Though ptarmigan numbers in spring determine the number of gyrfalcons that breed, spring weather conditions influence their productivity. Gyrfalcon nests are generally located on cliffs and rock outcrops, though tree nests have been reported. Gyrfalcons tend to nest early in the season and actively seek out vertical faces of rock with overhangs to protect them from late season snows and spring thaw runoff. Suitable nesting sites may limit distribution and numbers of gyrfalcons, and they will nest in dense clusters where cliffs are abundant such as along rivers on the North Slope. Although nests are rare above 1000 m, nests in the Brooks Range have been found to 1400 m. Stick nests of ravens, golden eagles, or other raptors are often used by gyrfalcons, and nest sites are marked with excrement. One brood is produced between mid-May and mid-June. Three to 5 eggs (57 mm) are laid in a scraped nest. Eggs are creamy white suffused with some variant of pale reddish cinnamon, overlaid with spots and blotches of various reddish browns, varying from nearly unmarked to uniform brownish. early nestling phase. 

 Habitat: Gyrfalcons are found primarily in arctic and subarctic tundra. The vegetation structure basically consists of a shrub layer and ground cover. Shrub layers of birch and willow are found in moist areas and along waterways and rivers. Willow, Dryas, and various forbs predominate in the ground cover layer in alpine tundra areas, whereas Eriophorum spp., Carex spp., graminoids, and other forbs are prominent in lowland tundra and on the North Slope. The abundance of gyrfalcons in an area may be limited by cliff or rock outcrop availability, since these sites are required for nesting and used for perching. Nests in Denali National Park were found on rock outcrops at elevations between 750 m-1350 m; nest areas were characterized by steep slopes and primarily southerly exposures. Gyrfalcon habitat is generally remote, with few roads, powerlines, or other human impacts. Gyrfalcons cover extensive areas while foraging and are seemingly limited only by prey density (ground squirrels and ptarmigan) and nest site availability. Ground squirrels and ptarmigan fluctuate in population numbers, and the size of the breeding population is closely tied to prey abundance. When prey populations are low, gyrfalcons may irrupt south, increasing their chance of encountering human-related problems in the more populated areas of southern Canada and the northern border states of the U.S. Seabirds and hares may serve as alternate food sources during primary prey scarcity.

 Management Issues and Special Concerns: Common. Populations of gyrfalcons in Alaska are presumably stable and no imminent threats have been identified. Less than 10 gyrfalcon chicks were collected annually for falconry purposes in Alaska in the early 1990's, but more are occasionally taken (Ted Swem, pers. commun.). Chick harvest for falconry is often directed at the rare white and black morphs of the gyrfalcon; this could affect genetic composition of the population. Gas and oil exploration and development have increased human activities and structures in gyrfalcon habitat on the North Slope. Increased road access to remote areas associated with gas and oil development may increase human access to and disturbance of gyrfalcon nests during the nesting season. Slightly higher mortality from shooting, trapping, collision with autos, etc. may also occur. Conversely, gyrfalcons appear to adapt to human-made structures (e.g. drilling platforms and gold dredges) and have used them for nesting and perching sites. Specialized monitoring techniques specifically targeting gyrfalcons may be required as current Breeding Bird Survey and Off-road Point Count techniques are insufficient. 

 Literature Cited:

Shank, C.C. and K.G. Poole. 1994. Status of gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus populations in the Northwest Territories, Canada. in Meyburg, B.-U. and R.D. Chancellor, eds.

Raptor Conservation Today. Proceedings of the IV World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls. World Working Group on Birds of Prey, Berlin. 799pp.

Swem, T., C. McIntyre, R.J. Ritchie, P.J. Bente, and D.G. Roseneau. 1994. Distribution, abundance, and notes on the breeding biology of gyrfalcons Falco rusticolus in Alaska. in Meyburg, B.-U. and R.D. Chancellor, eds.

Raptor Conservation Today. Proceedings of the IV world conference on birds of prey and owls. World Working Group on Birds of Prey, Berlin. 799pp. 

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BLUE GROUSE (Dendragopus obscurus) 

 Distribution: Occurs from Southeastern Alaska and southern Yukon south through British Columbia and extreme western Alberta and throughout Rocky Mountains in the contiguous U.S. to extreme western South Dakota. Also found in coastal ranges of British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and northern California and the Cascades and Sierra Nevada mountains to southern California and western Nevada. In Alaska, range is restricted to mainland and insular Southeastern Alaska except Prince of Wales Island (A.O.U. 1998, Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959).  

 Biology/Natural History: Feeds mostly on vegetative matter including conifer needles, leaves, flowers, buds and berries, also insects. Generally forages on the ground in summer, often in trees in the winter depending on snow cover. Male’s low hooting during mating is conspicuous. Courtship displays include: hooting; short and loud fluttering flight; strutting with raised and fanned tail feathers; neck feathers spread showing bright skin patches. Shallow nest scrape of needles, twigs, leaves, and feathers is on ground, usually under a log, rock, or ledge. Female incubates up to 12 buff-colored eggs for 25-28 days. Young leave nest within a day of hatching; young chicks follow female, but forage on their own. Young able to fly short distances at 8-9 days and are fully grown by 13 weeks. Longest known migration of adults is approximately 50 km; migration is often accomplished by walking (Kaufman 1996). 

 Habitat: Habitat affinities vary by season and region. Coastal birds tend to remain in old-growth or recently logged forests all year. Inland birds prefer forest edges in summer, coniferous forests in winter (Kaufman 1996). Found in coniferous and mixed forests in Southeastern Alaska; also in dwarf conifer forests at treeline. 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: Could be negatively affected by forest management practices. Show initial increases in clearcuts, but are absent in young, even-age stands. Old-growth forest appears to be preferred habitat (Kaufman 1996). 

 Literature Cited:

American Ornithologists’ Union. 1998. Check-list of North American birds. 7th Edition. American Ornithologist’s Union (Allen Press), Lawrence, Kansas. 829pp.

Gabrielson, I. N., and F. C. Lincoln.  1959.  The birds of Alaska.  Stackkpole Co., Pennsylvania, and the Wildlife Management Instit., Washington DC. 922pp.

Kaufman, K 1996. Lives of North American Birds. Houghton Mifflin, New York. 675 pp.  

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WHITE-TAILED PTARMIGAN (Lagopus leucurus)

 Distribution: Year-round resident in alpine from southcentral and southeastern Alaska, throughout much of Yukon Territory and into southwestern Northwest Territories, south through the Rocky Mountains of British Columbia (generally absent from Coastal Range of British Columbia) and southwestern Alberta and extending into the Cascades of Washington. Found discontinuously throughout Rocky Mountain cordillera from Montana to northern New Mexico. Isolated populations exist on Mt. Ranier and on Vancouver Island. Has been introduced in some mountainous areas in Oregon, California, Colorado, Utah. Reintroduced in Pecos Wilderness Area of New Mexico. (Braun et al. 1993). In Alaska, it is found in alpine areas from the Kenai Peninsula, throughout Southcentral and mainland Southeastern Alaska north of the Taku River (D. Gibson, pers commun.). Not known to occur north of Alaska Range. A few records exist from Eek and Kwethluk rivers on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta and at Kagati Lake (Petersen et al. 1991). 

 Biology/Natural History: This alpine species subsists primarily on buds, stems, and seeds in winter, adding leaves, fruits, flowers, and insects to its diet in summer. Prefers willow, but will browse birch and alder in the former’s absence. Found in winter on windswept ridges and areas where vegetation extends above snow cover. Non-territorial in winter (loose flocks up to 80 birds), but becomes territorial in summer. Male courtship displays include bowing, strutting and chasing, the latter two with flared eye combs, extended wings, and fluffed feathers. Mate guarding from pair formation until incubation is nearly constant; mates stay in close proximity (<20 m) during breeding season. When both members of a pair return to the same breeding area, mate fidelity is high (85%). Generally monogamous; female builds nest on ground by repeated scraping with bill and feet to form a shallow bowl of dried vegetation and some body feathers. First clutches are 4-8 eggs, second clutches 2-6. Color or eggs is variable (usually cinnamon colored). Incubation usually begins with the penultimate egg. Nest attentiveness is high as female is unwilling to vacate nest when disturbed. Precocial young hatch 22-25 days after eggs are laid and leave nest within 12 hours after hatching. Young are capable of foraging at 1 day of age, and consume more invertebrates than adults do for first 3 weeks. Brooding is done solely by female (Braun et. al 1993).

 Habitat: In summer, found at or above treeline from 1,200-4,300 m (1,200-1,600 m in Alaska) often in rocky areas, krummholz, moist vegetation near streams, snowfields, willow stands, and dwarf shrubs. In winter, found mostly in willow basins from near sea level (Alaska) to 3,650 m depending on location. Much altitudinal variation in winter distribution due to severity of weather and snow quantity. 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: Activities which impact alpine areas are potential threats to white-tailed ptarmigan habitat and populations. Road construction, relay stations, alpine ski areas, mining, water reservoirs, overgrazing and snow fences may reduce local populations. Hunting also threatens some populations. L. l. saxatilis on Vancouver Island is considered vulnerable by the provincial government. 

Literature Cited:

 Braun, C. E., K. Martin, and L. A. Robb. 1993. White-tailed Ptarmigan (Lagopus leucurus). In The Birds of North America, No. 68 (A. Poole and F. Gill, Eds.). Philadelphia: The Academy of Natural Sciences;  Washington, DC: The American Ornithologists’ Union.

Petersen, M., D. N. Weir and M. H. Dick. 1991. Birds of the Kilbuck and Ahklun Mountain Region, Alaska. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. North American Fauna No. 76. 158 pp.

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SHARP-TAILED GROUSE (Tympanuchus phasianellus) 

 Distribution: Resident from central Alaska and Yukon to northwestern MacKenzie, northern plains provinces and Ontario to west-central Quebec, south to eastern Washington and Oregon, southern Idaho, central Utah, Colorado, and Nebraska, eastern Dakotas, central Minnesota and Wisconsin, northern Michigan and southern Ontario (A.O.U. 1998). In Alaska, found chiefly in the Interior from as far north as Anaktuvuk Pass and the north fork of the Kuskokwim River, east to the Alaska-Yukon border and west to Holy Cross and south to Alaska Range. Found along upper Yukon and Tanana valleys and associated drainages (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959). 

 Biology/Natural History: Diet consists mostly of seeds, buds and leaves, flowers, shoots, grains and berries. Summer diet includes insects. Feeds in trees and shrubs in winter, on ground in summer. Males gather on display grounds in spring to attract females with elaborate courtship behavior including inflation and deflation of neck sacs and cooing. Females mate with one male. Female builds shallow nest of grass, leaves and ferns. Large clutch (5-17) of speckled brown eggs is incubated 23-24 days by female. Female leads precocial young soon after hatching to feeding areas. Young can fly short distances within 1-2 weeks after hatching (Kaufman 1996). 

Habitat: Grasslands and those associated with sparse woodlands, brushy hills, oak savannas and riparian woodland edges (A.O.U. 1983). In Alaska, found in willow flats, stunted spruce thickets, muskegs and forest edges. Prefers more open habitat than do forest grouse (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959, Armstrong 1995). 

Management Issues/Special Concerns: Depletion of habitat in lower 48 states poses a serious threat. Habitat loss in Alaska is probably not a major concern. Its status as a game bird increases its vulnerability to a population decline due to hunting. Little data exist on populations in Alaska; more is known in the Yukon. 

Literature Cited:

American Ornithologists’ Union. 1983. Check-list of North American birds. 6th Edition. American Ornithologist’s Union, Washington, D.C. 877 pp.

American Ornithologists’ Union. 1998. Check-list of North American birds. 7th Edition. American Ornithologist’s Union (Allen Press), Lawrence, Kansas. 829pp.

Armstrong, R. H. 1995. Guide to the birds of Alaska, fourth ed. Alaska Northwest Books, Anchorage, Alaska. 322pp. 

Gabrielson, I. N., and F. C. Lincoln.  1959.  The birds of Alaska.  Stackkpole Co., Pennsylvania, and the Wildlife Management Instit., Washington DC. 922pp. 

Kaufman, K 1996. Lives of North American Birds. Houghton Mifflin, New York. 675 pp.

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WESTERN SCREECH-OWL (Otis kennicottii) 

 Distribution: Resident from Southeastern Alaska along coast to Baja California. East to central British Columbia and south to Washington, Oregon, Idaho, western Montana, Wyoming and Colorado, throughout Arizona and New Mexico and most parts of Nevada and California. Also in west Texas (Kaufman 1996). In Alaska, found mostly in Southeast and as far north as Yakutat (Isleib and Kessel 1973). Recent specimens have been found near Cordova and there are a few records near Seward and Tern Lake on the Kenai Peninsula. Found throughout mainland and insular Southeast (D. Gibson, pers. commun.). 

 Biology/Natural History: Hunts soon after dusk over meadows and treetops. Diet varies with habitat, but usually consists mostly of small mammals; may also feed on large insects, reptiles, amphibians and birds. Locates prey by sight or sound. Male bows and clicks bill during courtship (Terres 1980). Pairs preen each other and call in duets (Kaufman 1996). Nests in natural cavities, hollow stumps, and abandoned nesting holes of other birds. Usually does not use nesting materials. Breeds in late winter/early spring, laying 2-8 (usually 4-5) white, oval eggs. Incubation is by female, although male may roost in hollow with female during the day. Incubation lasts approximately 26 days. Male feeds incubating female and both parents feed young; young fly at about 28 days. Parents aggressively guard nest. Call is distinctive; a series of monotonous, evenly pitched notes, starting slowly then increasing in cadence and ending with a whinny. 

 Habitat: Found in a variety of habitats, especially open coniferous and deciduous forests and along rivers, creeks, ponds and bogs. Also forest edges and in suburban areas in parks, orchards and gardens. Often nest near water (Campbell et al. 1990). In southern part of range in mesquite groves and saguaros (Kaufman 1996). Probably non-migratory in Alaska due to sufficient habitat to meet year-round requirements (P. Schempf, pers. commun.). In Yakutat, appears to favor riparian spruce (B. Andres, pers. commun.). 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: Very little is known about this species in Alaska. Development of an owl survey program in Southeast would provide much-needed information concerning this owl’s distribution and relative abundance. Threat to this owl in Southeast Alaska is most notably loss of old growth forest. Young forests, with their high stem densities, probably do not provide suitable nesting, roosting, or foraging areas for owls.  

 Literature Cited:

Campbell, W. R., N. K. Dawe, I. McTaggart-Cowan, J. M. Cooper, G. W. Kaiser and M. C. E. McNall. 1990. The Birds of British Columbia. Vol. 2. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, BC, Canada. 635pp.

Isleib, M. E. and B. Kessel 1973. Birds of the North Gulf Coast-Prince William Sound Region, Alaska. Biological Papers of the University of Alaska, No. 14. University of  Alaska, Fairbanks. 149pp.

Kaufman, K 1996. Lives of North American Birds. Houghton Mifflin, New York. 675 pp.

Terres, J. K.  1980.  The Audubon Society encyclopedia of North American birds.  Random House, New York.  1109pp.  

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GREAT GRAY OWL (Strix nebulosa) 

 Distribution: Found in boreal and coniferous forests in Alaska and throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Uncommon to rare breeder in Central, Southcoastal and Southeastern Alaska. Unevenly distributed across boreal and coniferous forests of Canada from Yukon east to Ontario and probably Quebec. In the US, from Washington, Idaho and Montana south through Cascades and Sierra Nevada to east-central California and in Rocky Mountains to northwestern Wyoming. Tendency to wander irregularly south in winter, rarely as far south as Colorado and Pennsylvania. 

 Biology/Natural History: Territorial call primarily nocturnal, males lower pitched than females. With adequate prey, territories may be established in fall or be maintained all year (and pairs remain bonded). Usually monogamous, polygyny occasionally suspected. Timing of breeding varies with availability of prey. Egg-laying from late March to mid-May. Clutch size ranges from 2-5 eggs; more when prey abundant. Incubation period approximately 30 days; begin incubation with laying of first egg. Female broods young for 2-3 weeks after hatch. Males feed females and young at nest. Young leave nest about 4 weeks after hatch, and climb leaning trees to roost above ground. Capable of flight 1-2 weeks after leaving nest. Female stays near young, and male continues to provide food. Young become independent at about 3 months. Most breed first at 3 years of age, occasionally at 2, and rarely at 1. Hunts from perches, stoops on prey within 100 m. Capable of detecting and capturing prey up to 45 cm beneath snow, and through hard crust. Voles constitute 90% or more of prey. In Central Alaska, yellow-cheeked voles are most important species (50-75% of items). Active nests in abundant prey years may be 1-2 km or less apart. From aerial surveys, adult densities in Central Alaska ranged 0.01- 0.002 birds/km 2 in a 500-800 km 2 area over 4 years. Availability of nest sites, old raven and raptor stick nests, and broken-top snags (owls do not construct their own nests), may limit population growth. Predation on juveniles by Great Horned Owls and Northern Goshawks may also negatively affect populations. 

 Habitat: Forest interspersed with openings. In Central Alaska, white spruce/balsam poplar riparian forest with oxbow meadows; also open spruce and mixed forests. Require openings for hunting. Often nests in dead trees, especially poplars. May use dense conifers for winter roosts. 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: Great gray owls are generally uncommon throughout their range. Timber harvest would reduce number of large diameter, old trees that become nest trees, and leaning trees used for roosting by fledglings. Man-made nest platforms have enhanced breeding in some locales. Boreal Partners in Flight ranking for North American abundance=4 (Rare). 

 Literature Cited:

Bull, E.L. and J.R. Duncan. 1993. Great Gray Owl (Strix nebulosa). In The Birds of North America, No. 41 (A. Poole and F. Gill, Eds.). Philadelphia: The Academy of Natural Sciences; Washington, D.C.: The American Ornithologists’ Union. 

Nero, R.W. 1980. The Great Gray Owl: phantom to the northern forest. Smithsonian Inst. Press, Washington, D.C.

Nero, R.W., R.J. Clark, R.J. Knapton and R.H. Hamre, eds. 1987. Biology and conservation of northern forest owls: symposium proceedings. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-142. Fort Collins, CO.

Osborne, T.O. 1987. Biology of the Great Gray Owl in Interior Alaska. pp 91-95 in Nero, R.W. et al. eds. Biology and conservation of northern forest owls: symposium proceedings.  Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-142. Fort Collins, CO. 

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BOREAL OWL (Aegolius funereus) 

 Distribution: Found in boreal and subalpine forests in Alaska and throughout the northern hemisphere. Breeds in all regions of Alaska but Northern and Southeastern; is rare in winter in Southeast, and accidental or casual in other seasons (Armstrong 1995). Range in North America extends east through boreal forest to southern Labrador, and south down Cascades to Oregon and in the Rockies to northern New Mexico. Winter movements in North America are poorly studied; in Europe are nomadic in response to snow depth and prey availability, females are less tied to breeding areas than males. 

 Biology/Natural History: Males may sing as early as December or January, but most singing is heard in March and early April. Males sing to attract mate and advertise nest cavity, and cease singing after pairing. Polygyny and polyandry observed in years with abundant prey in Europe, but have not been documented in North America. Males feed female at nest. Clutches range 2-6 eggs, and vary with abundance of prey. Incubation begins with laying of 1st egg, and averages 29 days. Young remain in nest about 30 days after hatching. Male provides food for first 3 weeks while female broods young. First breed at 1-2 years, females more often at 1 year old. ‘Sit-and-wait” nocturnal predator on small mammals, especially red-backed voles, and shrews; and less commonly on birds (thrushes, chickadees, redpolls). Young snowshoe hares may be important during peak of hare cycle. Home ranges in Idaho and Colorado ranged 230-2,390 ha in summer and 320-3,390 ha in winter; in Ontario 3 males used areas of 100, 250 and 500 ha. Active nests within 500 m of one another are common in productive agricultural areas in Scandinavia. Availability of nest cavities may limit distribution and abundance; dependent primarily on Northern Flickers and other large woodpeckers for creating cavities. Predation at nest by marten and possibly red squirrels; Great Horned Owl and Northern Goshawk likely predators of young and adults (Hayward and Hayward 1993). 

 Habitat: Boreal forests of black and white spruce, aspen, balsam poplar, or paper birch. Nests may be more common in mixed or deciduous forests (especially aspen) where suitable cavities are available. Conifers are preferred for roosts. Boreal Owls appear to prefer closed-canopy forests, in contrast to Great Gray and Northern Hawk owls (potential competitors for prey) that use more open forests. Boreal Owls also hunt in forest openings (Meehan and Ritchie 1982). 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: Extensive logging of the boreal forest would impact boreal owls. Retention of large aspen and poplar may provide nest sites. In Scandinavia, where logging has had a dramatic impact, man-made nest boxes provide nest sites and help maintain owl populations in the absence of extensive forests. Boreal owls are not monitored by Alaska BBS. Considered rare or uncommon throughout North America. 

 Literature Cited:

Armstrong, R. H. 1995. Guide to the birds of Alaska, fourth ed. Alaska Northwest Books, Anchorage, Alaska. 322pp.

Hayward, G.D. and P.H. Hayward. 1993. Boreal Owl (Aegolius funereus). In The Birds of North America, No. 63. (A. Poole and F. Gill, Eds.). Philadelphia: The Academy of Natural Sciences; Washington, D.C.: The American Ornithologist’ Union. 20pp. 

Nero, R.W., R.J. Clark, R.J. Knapton and R.H. Hamre, eds. 1987. Biology and conservation of northern forest owls: symposium proceedings. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mtn Forest and Range Exp. Stat. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-142. 309pp.

Meehan, R.H. and R.J. Ritchie. 1982. Habitat requirements of Boreal and Hawk owls in Interior Alaska. pages 188-196 in Raptor management and biology in Alaska and Western Canada (W.N. Ladd and P.F. Schempf, eds.). USDI, Fish and Wildlife Service, Alaska Region. Rep. FWS/AK/Proc-82. 

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BLACK SWIFT (Cypseloides niger (borealis)) 

 Distribution: The breeding range of the Black Swift extends from Southeastern Alaska, and British Columbia to Washington, southwestern Alberta, and northwestern Montana. They are also found in the mountains of central and southern California, along the coast of central California, and the mesa country of western Colorado. Within this area, Black Swifts only occur in isolated colonies (Knorr 1961). The Black Swift is an uncommon probable breeder in the river valleys of the southern mainland of Southeastern Alaska from the Stikine River south, including adjacent islands (Kessel and Gibson unpubl. rep.). The Black Swift is a casual spring migrant and summer visitant as far north as Haines (B. Browne, pers. comm.). There are no repeated annual observations north of the Stikine River (Kessel and Gibson unpubl. rep.). Swarth (1911) reported it as common in June 1909 in large flocks at the head of Marten Arm of Boca de Quadra and at Portage Cove on Revillagigedo Island. Eleven years later, Swarth (1922) documented flocks of 75-100 birds at Sergief Island on the Stikine River. Gibson and MacDonald (1975) observed Black Swifts on the Unuk (27 birds), Salmon (56 birds) and Stikine (26 birds) rivers. MacDonald and MacDonald (1975) reported the largest flock (100 birds) on the Chickamin River on 13 August. Nine swifts were observed at Annette Island, near Ketchikan (Isleib et al.1986). Andres et al. (1999) observed Black Swifts 11 miles upriver flying over the Chickamin lowlands (6 birds), upriver on the Marten (8 birds) and Walker (8) Rivers and in the south Arm of Rudyerd Bay(7 birds) in Misty Fiords National Monument. Variation in flock size is dependent on season; large groups appear to be dispersing or migrating flocks. Black Swifts winter in southern and western Mexico south to Costa Rica and the Greater Antilles (except Puerto Rico) and into northern South America (Ehrlich et al. 1988, Stiles et al. 1989). 

 Biology/Natural History: Black Swifts are summer residents in select river valleys in southern Southeastern Alaska, occurring from May to September. Black Swifts begin arriving in late May (McDonald and McDonald 1975). Alaska's latest fall record is September 12 on Annette Island (Isleib et al. 1986). Black swifts fly fairly high in the air, feeding exclusively on flying insects captured on sustained, long-distance foraging flights. Swifts forage over extremely wide areas, often far from their breeding site (USDA Forest Service 1994). Foraging height seems to be influenced by weather and topography; they often use updrafts associated with cliffs or storm fronts and may be found foraging near ground or water within low pressure systems. Gibson and McDonald (1975) noted they are most often seen in changing weather and observed Black Swifts foraging over both fluviatile and lacustrine waters. Black Swifts nest in small colonies and have a very low reproductive potential, laying just 1 egg each year. Individuals return to traditional breeding sites and add fresh nest material to existing nests (USDA Forest Service 1994). Kondola (1973) found Black Swifts nesting at the same site in Alberta where they had been reported 46 years earlier and then for 7 successive years. Nest failures are apparently common although the cause is unknown, but may be most often related to heavy precipitation events (Hunter and Baldwin 1962). 

 Habitat: During the breeding season in Southeastern Alaska, Black Swifts appear to be restricted to river valleys with steep unvegetated cliffs. Although nesting has not been confirmed in Southeastern Alaska, summer sightings in adequate habitat suggest Black Swifts are a probable breeder. Five physical factors were found to be present in a study of Black Swift nest sites in the Colorado Rockies (Knoor 1961); presence of water at nesting site, high relief, inaccessibility to ground-dwelling predators, darkness and unobstructed flyways. Water seems to be one of the most significant factors. These features are found in abundance in fiords and river valleys of mainland mountains and, to a lesser degree, on adjacent islands in southeastern Alaska. In Misty Fiords Monument, swifts were observed in mid June 1977, from 0.25-11 miles up several mainland river systems, foraging at forest canopy level to about 700 feet (Canterbury 1997, unpubl. data). MacDonald and MacDonald (1975) documented the arrival of Black Swifts in May foraging over estuarine meadows; 3 days later they began appearing upriver. In July flocks of 20-40 birds were observed 11 miles upriver where the steep cliffs and large freshwater marshes of the Chickamin River provide suitable nesting and foraging sites. Wet sea cliffs may also provide nesting habitat for Black Swifts in Southeastern Alaska; such habitats along the outer coast have not been surveyed. 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: Concern for Black Swifts should be high due to their small population size, low reproductive potential, and documented high frequency of nest failure. Habitat features, such as cliffs, are available throughout the mainland and many areas offer dark, moist inaccessible niches for nest sites. The factors causing Swifts to colonize some areas, but not others are unknown. The Black Swift may be influenced by the availability of freshwater marshes. These marshes, usually formed by beaver dams, are found in major river valleys of mainland Southeastern Alaska. 

 Literature Cited:

Andres, B. A., J. Canterbury, and P. A. Cotter. 1999. Review of the status of the Black Swift in Alaska. Unpublished report, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Anchorage, Alaska. 4pp.

Ehrlich, P. R., D. S. Dobkin, and D. Wheye.  1988. The birder’s handbook:  A field guide to the natural history of North American birds.  Simon and Schuster Inc., New York.  785pp.

Gibson D. D. and S.O. MacDonald. 1975. Bird species and habitat inventory mainland southeast Alaska, summer 1974. University of Alaska Museum Contract report No. 01-248. USFS. 72pp.

Hunter, W.F., and P.H. Baldwin. 1962. Nesting of the black swift in Montana. Wilson Bull. 74:409-416.

Isleib, M.E., R.L. Scher, T.G.Tobish. 1986. Birds on Annette Island, Southeast Alaska. 16pp. 

Knorr, O.A. 1961. The geographical and ecological distribution of the black swift in Colorado. Wilson Bull. 73:155-170.

Kondola, N.G. 1973. Nesting of the black swift at Johnston's Canyon, Alberta. Can. Field-Nat. 87:64-65.

MacDonald S.O. and N. MacDonald. 1975. The Birds of the Chickamin River. 157pp.

Stiles, F.G., A.F. Skutch, and D. Gardner. 1989. A guide to the birds of Costa Rica. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. 511pp.

Swarth, H.S. 1911. Birds and mammals of the 1909 Alexander Alaska Expedition. Univ. California Publ. Zool., vol. 7, pp. 9-172.

Swarth, H.S. 1922. Birds and mammals of the Stikine River region of northern British Columbia and southeastern Alaska. U. Calif. Pub. in Zool.,vol.24,no. 2. p.125-314.

USDA Forest Service. 1994. Neotropical Migratory Bird Reference Book. USDA., For. Ser., Pac. Southwest Reg. 

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VAUX’S SWIFT (Chaetura vauxi) 

 Distribution: Breeds from southeastern Alaska, southern and western British Columbia to northern Idaho, northwestern Montana, northern and western Washington, through the Cascade and Sierra Nevada ranges to central California. Local breeder in eastern Mexico. Winters in southern Mexico and Central America. North American migrants and Central American populations may mix in winter. Southern limit of winter range is unknown (DeGraaf and Rappole 1995). In Alaska, observations are restricted to Southeast. Observed on mainland rivers: Chickamin, Unuk, Salmon, Stikine, and Taku, in Boca de Quadra, on Revillagigedo Island and near Juneau, Sitka, Wrangell and Petersburg (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959, Gibson and MacDonald 1975, Gibson 1976). No confirmed breeding records exist in Southeastern Alaska, but a female with a partly formed egg was collected on the Chickamin River (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959). 

 Biology/Natural History: Very little is known about this species in Alaska. Feeds mostly on flying insects such as flies, bees, ants, moths, aphids, beetles and mayflies. Occasionally eats spiders and flightless insects. Forages singly and in flocks. May nest in colonies or as solitary pairs. Will nest in unused chimneys. Courtship involves much chasing, gliding with wings in a “V” above body is common. Both male and female build nest, usually in a hollow tree, from twigs acquired during flight. Nest is a half cup and secured to inside wall of tree; twigs are glued together with saliva. Eggs (3-7, usually 6) are incubated (18-19 days) by both parents. Both sexes feed and care for young. Additional help for incubation and nestling care may come from other adults. Young fledge at 28-32 days, but may remain near or return to nest for several days after hatching (Kaufman 1996, Campbell et al. 1990).  

 Habitat: Nests in coniferous and mixed forests, especially old-growth. Often observed foraging over lakes, rivers, open country and clearcuts. Many records from Southeastern Alaska are along rivers and estuaries (Kaufman 1996, Gibson and MacDonald 1975). 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: Need to determine breeding status of Vaux’s Swift in Alaska. Monitoring should include repeat visits to known observation sites, which may lead to breeding status information. Trend data from other regions varies. 

 Literature Cited:

Campbell, W. R., N. K. Dawe, I. McTaggart-Cowan, J. M. Cooper, G. W. Kaiser and M. C. E. McNall. 1990. The Birds of British Columbia. Vol. 2. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, BC, Canada. 635pp.

DeGraaf, R. M. and J. H. Rappole. 1995. Neotropical migratory birds. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca, N.Y. 676pp.

Gabrielson, I. N., and F. C. Lincoln.  1959.  The birds of Alaska.  Stackkpole Co., Pennsylvania, and the Wildlife Management Instit., Washington DC. 922pp.

Gibson, D. D. 1976. Bird species and habitat inventory: Alexander Archipelago, Alaska, summer 1975. University of Alaska Museum Contract Report No. 01-283. U.S. For. Serv. 66pp.

Gibson D. D. and S.O. MacDonald. 1975. Bird species and habitat inventory mainland southeast Alaska, summer 1974. University of Alaska Museum Contract report No. 01-248. USFS. 72pp.

Kaufman, K 1996. Lives of North American Birds. Houghton Mifflin, New York. 675pp.  

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RUFOUS HUMMINGBIRD (Selasphorus rufus) 

 Distribution: Breeds from Southcoastal Alaska southeast to southwestern Yukon, northwestern and southern British Columbia, southwestern Alberta, throughout Washington, northern Oregon and Idaho and western Montana. Coastally, breeds south to northern California (Kaufman 1996). In Alaska, breeds from Cook Inlet east and south throughout Prince William Sound and Southeast Alaska. Winter range extends from southern Texas south to Guerrero and Veracruz, Mexico. 

 Biology/Natural History: Arrives in Alaska as early as late April via a Pacific coast migratory route (Kessel and Gibson 1978). Males usually precede females to breeding grounds. Polygynous, and during courtship, male flies a steep “U” or vertical oval, popping and whining at the completion of diving portion. May also buzz back and forth before perching female. Female builds nest of plant down, spider webs, buds, lichens, moss and other plant fibers and lines it with plant down. Nests are often refurbished and used in succeeding years. Nests low (up to 10 m) in conifers, deciduous shrubs, and vines. White eggs (usually 2) are incubated 15-17 days. Chicks are fed by female and fledge at about 21 days. Diet is predominately nectar, but occasionally insects. Tends to aggressively defend feeding territories against intruding birds and small mammals (Kaufman 1996, Ehrlich et al. 1988). Leaves Alaska beginning in late July. Thought to migrate south via an inland route along the Rockies and Sierras and through the southwestern U.S. 

 Habitat: Found in a variety of habitats throughout breeding range including old growth, second growth, thickets, and shrubby hillsides (A.O.U. 1983). Multiple sources from Southeastern Alaska reflect the diverse habitats used by this species in summer. Found in hemlock/spruce forests, deciduous woodlands, muskeg forests, early successional spruce/hemlock forests, riparian shrubs, old growth and scrub forests (Pogson et al. 1999). High densities have been reported in a variety of habitats, most often in scrub or early successional habitats. In wintering areas, found in pine and pine-oak forests and second-growth scrub (Stotz et al. 1996). Clarification of nesting and foraging habitat-use patterns is needed. 

 Special Concerns/Management Issues: Not adequately monitored by Alaska BBS; specialized survey may be needed to ascertain population trends for this species.  

 Literature Cited:

American Ornithologists’ Union. 1983. Check-list of North American birds. 6th Edition. American Ornithologist’s Union, Washington, D.C. 877 pp.

Ehrlich, P. R., D. S. Dobkin, and D. Wheye.  1988. The birder’s handbook:  A field guide to the natural history of North American birds.  Simon and Schuster Inc., New York.  785pp.

Kaufman, K 1996. Lives of North American Birds. Houghton Mifflin, New York. 675 pp.

Kessel, B. and D. D. Gibson. 1978. Status and distribution of Alaska birds. Studies in Avian Biology, No. 1. Cooper Ornithological Society (Allen Press), Lawrence, Kansas. 100pp. 

Pogson, T.H., S.E. Quinlan and B. Lehnhausen. 1999. A manual of selected Neotropical migrant birds of Alaska National Forests. U.S. For. Serv., Juneau, Alaska.

Stotz, D. F., J. W. Fitzpatrick, T. A. Parker and D. K. Moskovits. 1996. Neotropical birds: ecology and conservation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. 478pp.  

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RED-BREASTED SAPSUCKER (Sphyrapicus ruber) 

 Distribution: Breeds from southeastern Alaska, western, coastal and insular British Columbia, south through western Washington and Oregon to northwestern California. Also found in Sierra Nevada and in extreme western Nevada. Found locally in southern California mountains. Possibly breeding in extreme western Arizona. Winters throughout much of the breeding range except interior British Columbia, and south to Baja California (Kaufman 1996, A.O.U. 1998). In Alaska, restricted to Southeast. On mainland, Gibson and MacDonald (1975) found them to be more common south of the Stikine River. Gibson (1976) found them common throughout the islands of Southeast, and Gabrielson and Lincoln (1959) considered them “an uncommon resident from Icy Straits and Skagway south to Dixon Entrance, being more frequently seen from Petersburg to Ketchikan”. 

 Biology/Natural History: Many life history details of this species remain to be elucidated, but are thought to be similar to Yellow-bellied and Red-naped Sapsuckers. Diet is variable, including insects found in tree bark, sap, berries and fruit. Courtship display not well described, but thought to differ from Yellow-bellied Sapsucker due to lack of sexual dimorphism. Outside of Alaska, nests commonly in deciduous trees, but also in spruce (B.A. Andres, pers. commun.). In Southeast, known to nest in hemlock/spruce forest (Gibson 1976). Studies in British Columbia reveal a tendency to nest in dead trees versus live trees. Nest site is often on edge of forest, near a marsh, lake or other opening. Nests in cavities ranging from 1.8 m to 24.3 m, usually below 10 m. Clutch size is up to at least 6 eggs and nestling period is at least 22 days (Campbell et al. 1990). If like Yellow-bellied Sapsucker, both parents incubate eggs and tend to young. Incubation probably about 12-13 days (Kaufman 1996). 

Habitat: Often associated with mature stands, especially hemlock and/or spruce in Pacific Northwest and Southeastern Alaska, but may not be an obligate old-growth species. Dellasala et al. (1996) had significantly higher detections in virgin old-growth forest than in any of 3 other stand types. Kessler and Kogut (1985) found them commonly nesting in riparian clearcut snags. Kessler (1979) recorded them only on old-growth transects, but also observed them in recent clearcuts. 

 Special Concerns/Management Issues: Numbers have probably declined elsewhere, but the bird is still considered numerous (Kaufman 1996). The species is frequently observed on Alaska BBS; it occurs on all routes in Southeastern (11.3 birds per route). Adding more off-road point count routes to monitoring scheme may be sufficient for monitoring this species. 

 Literature Cited:

American Ornithologists’ Union. 1998. Check-list of North American birds. 7th Edition. American Ornithologist’s Union (Allen Press), Lawrence, Kansas. 829pp.

Campbell, W. R., N. K. Dawe, I. McTaggart-Cowan, J. M. Cooper, G. W. Kaiser and M. C. E. McNall. 1990. The Birds of British Columbia. Vol. 2. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, BC, Canada. 635pp.

Dellasala, D. A., J. C. Hagar, K. A. Engel, W. C. McComb, R. L. Fairbanks, and E. G. Campbell. 1996. Effects of silvicultural modifications of temperate rainforest on breeding and wintering bird communities, Prince of Wales Island, Southeast Alaska. Condor 98:706-721.

Gabrielson, I. N., and F. C. Lincoln.  1959.  The birds of Alaska.  Stackkpole Co., Pennsylvania, and the Wildlife Management Instit., Washington DC. 922pp.

Gibson, D. D. 1976. Bird species and habitat inventory: Alexander Archipelago, Alaska, summer 1975. University of Alaska Museum Contract Report No. 01-283. U.S. For. Serv. 66pp.

Gibson D. D. and S.O. MacDonald. 1975. Bird species and habitat inventory mainland southeast Alaska, summer 1974. University of Alaska Museum Contract report No. 01-248. USFS. 72pp.

Kaufman, K 1996. Lives of North American Birds. Houghton Mifflin, New York. 675 pp.

Kessler, W. B. 1979. Bird population responses to clearcutting in the Tongass National Forest of Southeast Alaska. U. S. Forest Service, Report No. 71, Ketchikan, Alaska. 22pp.

Kessler, W. B., and T. E. Kogut. 1985. Habitat orientations of forest birds in southeastern Alaska. Northwest Science 59:58-65.  

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BLACK-BACKED WOODPECKER (Picoides arcticus) 

 Distribution: Resident throughout the boreal forest of North America. Occurs from western and central Alaska, southern Yukon and Northwest Territories, northern Alberta and Saskatchewan, central Manitoba, most of Ontario, southern Quebec and Labrador to Newfoundland, and south through most of British Columbia (except coast) to northern Idaho, western Montana, and down the Cascade and Sierra Nevada ranges, and east across central plains provinces to Great Lakes states and northern New England, and maritime provinces (Kaufman 1996, A.O.U. 1998). In Alaska, found throughout Interior forests from base of Alaska and Seward peninsulas eastward. Generally, not found on the coast.   

Biology/Natural History: Eats larvae of wood-boring beetles; also other insects and spiders, fruits and nuts. Forages by flaking bark from dead trees or logs; sometimes gleans insects from live trees. Exhibits a large repertoire of aggressive and courtship displays (Kaufman 1996, Ehrlich et al. 1988). Both sexes excavate nest 2-15 feet in dead tree or stub; usually a conifer, but also in deciduous trees. Both sexes incubate the 3-4 white eggs; male usually incubates at night. Eggs hatch at 12-14 days. Both sexes feed nestlings; male forages farther from nest. Young are thought to fledge at about 25 days. Migration is erratic, birds often move into new burns. Southward irruptions in winter are not uncommon. 

 Habitat: Boreal coniferous forests. Prefers areas with many dead or dying trees; found in high densities in burns and flooded areas with dying trees. Occurs in lowland forests in the north, mountains in the west (Kaufman 1996). Uncommon in mixed or coniferous forests (A.O.U. 1998). 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: Due to sporadic movements and preference for new burns and flooded areas, it is difficult to monitor. Population is thought to be stable.  

 Literature Cited:

American Ornithologists’ Union. 1998. Check-list of North American birds. 7th Edition. American Ornithologist’s Union (Allen Press), Lawrence, Kansas. 829pp.

Ehrlich, P. R., D. S. Dobkin, and D. Wheye.  1988. The birder’s handbook:  A field guide to the natural history of North American birds.  Simon and Schuster Inc., New York.  785pp.

Kaufman, K 1996. Lives of North American Birds. Houghton Mifflin, New York. 675 pp. 

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OLIVE-SIDED FLYCATCHER (Contopus cooperi) 

 Distribution: Regularly breeds at low densities throughout the coniferous boreal and coastal forests of Alaska (often characterized as uncommon or rare [Armstrong 1995]). Ranges to northern and western extent of coniferous forest to Noatak River in the northwest, Bethel and Katmai areas in the west/southwest, and to Colleen and Porcupine rivers in the northeast (Kessel and Gibson 1978). North American breeding range extends east through coniferous forests to southern Labrador, in the Northeast south to Massachusetts and locally to North Carolina, in the Midwest south to northern Wisconsin and northeastern Ohio, and in the West south along coastal ranges to Baja California and in the Rockies to southeastern Arizona and western Texas. Winters primarily in mountains of northern and western South America from Venezuela south to se Peru and n Bolivia. Also reported wintering as far east as Sao Paolo, Brazil, and north to Panama and uncommonly from Costa Rica into Mexico (Altman 1997). 

 Biology/Natural History: Males return to Central Alaska breeding areas in mid- to late May, with most females returning 1-2 weeks later. Remains in Central region through late August. Feeds from prominent perches by aerial hawking large insects such as Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, ants), and Coleoptera (especially bark beetles); in Central Alaska, especially yellowjacket wasps, and dragonflies, especially the large blue Libellula (6.5 cm long and 0.6 g). Nests almost exclusively in conifers, from 1.5 to 25 m above ground, on a horizontal limb. In Central Alaska, 19 nests averaged 6.4 m above ground (range 3-12 m) in trees averaging 9.4 m tall (range 4.5-17 m), primarily black spruce (n=15), also 3 nests in white spruce and 1 nest in larch. One clutch of 4 eggs, 2 clutches with 3 eggs were observed in renests. Incubation lasts 14-15 days, fledging 16-18 days after hatch. Adults and young remain together on or near territory for at least 14-17 days after fledging. One brood per season, renesting not uncommon after nest failure. May occasionally be polygynous. In Central Alaska, 50% of 14 first nest attempts failed; predation by red squirrels and gray jays suspected. Very limited marking of adults indicates both breeding (by both sexes) and wintering site fidelity. Males use large singing territories; in Central Alaska 17 territories averaged 17.9 ha (range 9.7-26.4); in other parts of range, breeding densities suggest territories in 8-16 ha range but some up to 40-45 ha per male. Therefore, caution should be used in calculation of territory size from density. In Central Alaska territories did not saturate open coniferous forest habitat, but were often aligned along drainages or otherwise associated with openings or water, interspersed with large gaps of unused habitat (Wright 1997). 

 Habitat: Considered an indicator species of the coniferous forest biome throughout North America, although it is occasionally found in mixed deciduous/coniferous forests. In Central Alaska, most often found in open conifer forest. Usually associated with openings (muskegs, meadows, burns, and logged areas) and water (streams, beaver ponds, bogs, and lakes). Apparently requires an uneven canopy or openings for aerial hawking, and wet areas productive of insect prey. Regularly uses prominent dead or partially dead trees for perching, singing, and hawking. In Central Alaska, perches averaged 1.4 times the height of surrounding tree canopy; 25% of perches were dead trees, 51% were partially dead (most with dead tops), and 24% were live. Nests were placed in live trees slightly shorter than surrounding canopy. 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: BBS data provide strong evidence for population declines over most of breeding range. Because no consistent impact is immediately obvious across its broad breeding range, declines may relate to problems on the winter range. As noted above, its primary wintering habitat (based on limited anecdotal information) -- mature evergreen forests of low-mid elevation in the Northern and Central Andes -- is one of the most heavily altered habitats in South America. Andean valleys are almost completely deforested, and 85% or more of montane forests have been cut. Potential impacts on the breeding range are less obvious. Fire suppression policies may have reduced breeding habitat by eliminating or reducing a primary mechanism for creating forest openings and uneven canopy structure. Singing males have been detected in logged areas where snags remain, but some speculate that logging is not equivalent to fire, and that logged areas may not provide adequate prey or may expose olive-sides to increased predation. 

 Literature Cited:

Altman, Bob. 1997. Olive-sided Flycatcher in western North America: status review. Unpubl. rep., U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Portland, Oregon. 61 pp.

Armstrong, R. H. 1995. Guide to the birds of Alaska, fourth ed. Alaska Northwest Books, Anchorage, Alaska. 322pp.

Kessel, B. and D. D. Gibson. 1978. Status and distribution of Alaska birds. Studies in Avian Biology, No. 1. Cooper Ornithological Society (Allen Press), Lawrence, Kansas. 100pp.

Wright, J.M. 1997. Preliminary study of Olive-sided Flycatchers. Alaska Dep. Fish and Game, Fairbanks, AK. Proj. SE-3-2,3. 34 pp.  

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WESTERN WOOD-PEWEE (Contopus sordidulus) 

 Distribution: From east-central Alaska, southern Yukon, southwestern Northwest Territories, south through British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Washington, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, northern and coastal California, and throughout Sierra Nevada, eastern Arizona, western New Mexico, and extreme west Texas (Kaufman 1996). Winters from Panama to Peru. In Alaska, it is an uncommon breeder along mainland Southeast rivers, and in east central Interior as far west as Denali National Park, south to northern Kenai Peninsula. Occasional spring and summer visitant in northern and western Alaska to the Kobuk and Ambler rivers and Nome (Kessel and Gibson 1978, B.A. Andres, pers. commun.). Rare in Southcoastal Alaska (Kessel and Gibson 1978). 

 Biology/Natural History: Nearly obligate insect eater. Diet includes flies, bees, wasps, ants, moths, beetles. Sallies from exposed perches to catch flying insects; sometimes hovers while gleaning insects from leaves and twigs. Male defends territory by singing. Little is known of courtship behaviors. Nest is probably built by female and placed some distance from trunk 15-40 feet from ground. Nest is an open cup of grass, plant fibers, plant down with an exterior of moss, lichen, and leaves; usually placed in a deciduous tree. Female incubates 2-4 whitish (often with brown and lavender blotches on large end) eggs 12-13 days. Both parents care for young which fledge at 14-18 days (Kaufman 1996). 

 Habitat: Found in a variety of wooded habitats. Aspen groves, pine-oak woods, and riparian cottonwood/willow. In Southeastern Alaska, occurs along large mainland rivers, much less common on islands (Kessel and Gibson 1978). Found in pure deciduous stands on Fort edges and scrub woods are winter habitats (Kaufman 1996).   

Management Issues/Special Concerns: Common through much of its range, but has experienced long-term declines (DeGraaf and Rappole 1995). Degradation of riparian habitats throughout this species’ range could negatively affect the population. 

 Literature Cited:

DeGraaf, R. M. and J. H. Rappole. 1995. Neotropical migratory birds. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca, N.Y. 676pp.

Kaufman, K 1996. Lives of North American Birds. Houghton Mifflin, New York. 675 pp.

Kessel, B. and D. D. Gibson. 1978. Status and distribution of Alaska birds. Studies in Avian Biology, No. 1. Cooper Ornithological Society (Allen Press), Lawrence, Kansas. 100pp.  

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HAMMOND’S FLYCATCHER (Empidonax hammondii) 

 Distribution: Common breeding species in east-central Alaska. Uncommon, local breeder in southeastern Alaska along mainland rivers. Casual/accidental in Southcentral. (Armstrong 1995). One record from northern Alaska (Sadlerochit River 1937; Kessel & Gibson 1978). Breeds south through Rockies to southern Utah and north-central New Mexico, south through coastal ranges and Cascades to northern California, and in Sierra Nevada to east-central California. Winters from southeast Arizona, western Chihuahua, southern Coahuila, central Nuevo Leon and central Tamaulipas through highlands of Mexico, Guatemala, and El Salvador to Honduras and probably north-central Nicaragua (Sedgwick 1994). 

 Biology/Natural History: Earliest returning flycatcher in Central Region; average first arrival in Fairbanks around 1 May. Departs late August (Kessel & Gibson 1978). Feeds within forest on small insects primarily by aerial hawking, but may occasionally forage extensively on leaf surfaces or on ground. Foraging tactics vary with stage of breeding cycle; foraging high in canopy and from leaves commonly occurs early in season. Eats Coleoptera, Diptera, Homoptera, Hymenoptera, and Lepidoptera. Prefers horizontal limbs for nest, but may also nest in crotch of trunk/limb (especially in deciduous trees). Cup nest of weeds, grass, bark, lichens with lining of feathers, fur and plant down is constructed by female. Average nest height is 7.5-19 m (range 3.2-31 m). First breed as second-year birds. Clutch of 3-4 eggs, 4 eggs predominating; incubation 15 days; fledge 16-18 days after hatch. One brood per season. Nest success to fledging is about 50% in a study in Pacific Northwest coniferous forest; significant predation was by jays. Very limited information indicates possible nest site fidelity by breeding adults. Estimates of density in deciduous or mixed deciduous/coniferous forests range from 14-47 birds/km 2 in 3 studies (Sedwick 1994); 1.3 territories/10 ha in aspen forest near Northway, Alaska (Spindler and Kessel 1980).   

Habitat: In Central Alaska, most often in deciduous stands, especially mature aspen (Spindler and Kessel 1980). In southeastern Alaska, found in riparian deciduous forests (Kessel and Gibson 1978, Armstrong 1995). In remainder of range, dense fir forests and other coniferous forests are primary habitat, though use of pure aspen stands has been observed in Colorado (Sedgwick 1994). Prefers mature stands with openings (Spindler and Kessel 1980), generally of at least 10 ha (Sedgwick 1994). Openings and heterogeneous vertical structure may be acceptable or even preferred in Alaska. Winters in highland forests of Mexico and Central America (Stotz et al. 1996). 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: Prefers mature and old-growth forests for nesting in Washington, California and Alaska. Stands of >10 ha and minimum of 80-90 years old recommended in northern California Douglas-fir/tan oak forests; intact stands >15ha are of more benefit than stands with openings of scattered large trees. More study of specific habitat requirements in Alaska is needed. Large-scale harvest of aspen forests for pulp and other uses would eliminate suitable habitat in Central region. 

 Literature Cited:

Armstrong, R. H. 1995. Guide to the birds of Alaska, fourth ed. Alaska Northwest Books, Anchorage, Alaska. 322pp.

Kessel, B. and D. D. Gibson. 1978. Status and distribution of Alaska birds. Studies in Avian Biology, No. 1. Cooper Ornithological Society (Allen Press), Lawrence, Kansas. 100pp.

Peterjohn, B. G., J. R. Sauer, and C. S. Robbins. 1995. Populations trends from the North American breeding bird survey. Pages 3-39 in T. E. Martin and D. M. Finch eds. Ecology and management of Neotropical migratory birds: a synthesis and review of critical issues. Oxford Univ. Press, New York.

Sakai, H.F. and B.R. Noon. 1991. Nest-site characteristics of Hammond’s and Pacific-slope Flycatchers in NW California. Condor 93:563-574.

Sedgwick, J.A. 1994. Hammond’s Flycatcher (Empidonax hammondii). In The Birds of North America, No. 109 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA, and The American Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, D.C. 16 pp.

Spindler, M.A. and B.A. Kessel. 1980. Avian populations and habitat use in interior Alaska taiga. Syesis 13:61-104.

Stotz, D. F., J. W. Fitzpatrick, T. A. Parker and D. K. Moskovits. 1996. Neotropical birds: ecology and conservation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. 478pp. 

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PACIFIC-SLOPE FLYCATCHER (Empidonax difficilis) 

 Distribution: Breeds from southcoastal Alaska and western British Columbia south through western Washington, Oregon and California, west of Cascade and Sierra Nevada ranges, and south to Baja (Pogson et al. 1999). Winters from southern Baja to southern Mexico. In Alaska, fairly common to common breeder throughout Southeast (Brann and Andres 1997, Gibson 1976, Gibson and MacDonald 1975). Sparse breeder north to Yakutat (B.A. Andres, pers. commun.). 

 Biology/Natural History: Arrives in Southeastern Alaska in mid-May (Pogson et al. 1999). Eats insects, especially wasps, bees, flies, caterpillars, moths and beetles by sallying from a below-canopy perch. Occasionally eats berries and seeds and gleans insects from foliage. Female constructs nest low in forest subcanopy or on the ground, but may nest higher up if building on an unnatural structure. In British Columbia, known to nest in deciduous and coniferous trees as well as shrubs. Cup nest is built of moss, grass, rootlets, strips of bark, lichens, leaves and lined with hair, feathers and plant down; nest construction takes up to 6 days. Lays 3-5 white eggs with brown blotches. Female incubates 14-15 days, but both parents attend nestlings. Young fledge at 14-18 days (Kaufman 1996). Often produces 2 broods each year in British Columbia, but such detailed information is lacking for Alaska. 

 Habitat: Prefers old-growth coniferous forests, especially near streams. Dellasala et al. (1992) found them to be 7-16 times more numerous in old-growth than in 20-year old successional forests. Coastal birds are more closely associated with forest habitats than are interior birds in British Columbia. Winters in west Mexican cloud forests. 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: This species is common throughout Southeastern Alaska; occurs on all BBS routes in the region (>19 birds per route) and is adequately monitored in the region. 

 Literature Cited:

Brann, D. L. and Andres, B.A. 1997. Inventory of breeding birds on Alaska Army National Guard training areas in Southeastern, Southcoastal, and Southwestern Alaska, U. S. Fish and Wildl.1997 Prog. Rep.

Dellasala, D. A., J. C. Hagar, K. A. Engel, W. C. McComb, R. L. Fairbanks, and E. G. Campbell. 1996. Effects of silvicultural modifications of temperate rainforest on breeding and wintering bird communities, Prince of Wales Island, Southeast Alaska. Condor 98:706-721.

Gibson, D. D. 1976. Bird species and habitat inventory: Alexander Archipelago, Alaska, summer 1975. University of Alaska Museum Contract Report No. 01-283. U.S. For. Serv. 66pp.

Gibson D. D. and S.O. MacDonald. 1975. Bird species and habitat inventory mainland southeast Alaska, summer 1974. University of Alaska Museum Contract report No. 01-248. USFS. 72pp.

Kaufman, K 1996. Lives of North American Birds. Houghton Mifflin, New York. 675 pp. 

Pogson, T.H., S.E. Quinlan and B. Lehnhausen. 1999. A manual of selected Neotropical migrant birds of Alaska National Forests. U.S. For. Serv., Juneau, Alaska.   

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NORTHERN SHRIKE (Lanius excubitor) 

 Distribution: In summer, found from northern and western Alaska (west to Unimak Island) east to Northwest Territories and northern edge of prairie provinces to northern Ontario, Quebec and central Labrador. Winter range includes much of breeding range from central Alaska, south to central California, southern New Mexico and central Arizona and eastward across Midwestern states to central Illinois, Indiana and Great Lakes states and southern Canada, eastward to Maryland and northern Virginia and north to New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and insular Newfoundland (Terres 1980). During summer in Alaska, shrikes are found from the arctic coastal plain south to the northern foothills of the Brooks Range and Chukchi and Bering Sea coasts, west to Adak Island in the Aleutians, east to Canada and south to northern Prince William Sound (Isleib and Kessel 1973, Cade and Swem 1995). In winter, from Alaska Peninsula, lower Kuskokwim and Fairbanks south to Kodiak, Prince William Sound and Southeast (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959). 

 Biology/Natural History: Perches high in territory watching for prey. Frequently changes perches by flying low and rising rapidly just before alighting on new perch. Diet is varied and includes grasshoppers, crickets, ants, beetles, wasps, cutworms, caterpillars, spiders, flies and bees; small mammals including voles, gophers, lemmings and mice; also birds ranging in size from chickadees and redpolls to mourning doves; when available will feed on lizards, snakes and frogs. Lays 2-9 (usually 4-6) green/gray-white eggs with brown/lavender spots in a bulky, twig nest 5-45 feet above ground in a willow, spruce, or bush. Incubation period is unknown, but young are thought to leave nest approximately 20 days after hatching (Terres 1980). Successful nests in Alaska have fledged 5-6 young (Cade 1967). Parents feed young out of the nest for up to 10 days. 

 Habitat: Lives throughout coniferous forest region, but prefers edges and open willow shrub areas in Alaska and swamps and bogs with shrub borders elsewhere. On tundra, inhabits tall shrubs along riparian corridors. 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: Alaska may be breeding grounds for a high percentage of total population. Threats on breeding grounds do not seem imminent, but threats on wintering grounds could be more substantial. Concern based on rarity and reported declines in other shrike species. Lack of sufficient monitoring effort may be greatest reason for concern. 

 Literature Cited:

Cade, T. J. 1967. Ecological and behavioral aspects of predation by the northern shrike. Living Bird, 6. pp. 43-86.

Cade, T. J. and T. Swem. 1995. Ecology of Northern Shrikes in arctic Alaska. Proc. Western Found. Vertebrate Zool. 6:204-214.

Gabrielson, I. N., and F. C. Lincoln.  1959.  The birds of Alaska.  Stackkpole Co., Pennsylvania, and the Wildlife Management Instit., Washington DC. 922pp.

Isleib, M. E. and B. Kessel 1973. Birds of the North Gulf Coast-Prince William Sound Region, Alaska. Biological Papers of the University of Alaska, No. 14. University of  Alaska, Fairbanks. 149pp.

Terres, J. K.  1980.  The Audubon Society encyclopedia of North American birds.  Random House, New York.  1109pp.  

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STELLER’S JAY (Cyanocitta stelleri) 

 Distribution: From southcoastal Alaska, south along coast to central California, east across central British Columbia to western Alberta. Occurs throughout Rocky Mountains of western Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico, northern and southeastern Idaho, south through Utah and Arizona. Also found in Cascades of Washington and Oregon, northeastern Oregon, and in the Sierra Nevada of California (Kaufman 1996, A.O.U. 1998). In Alaska, from Cook Inlet and Anchorage east across Prince William Sound and south through mainland and insular Southeast (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959). 

 Biology/Natural History: Omnivorous, but probably eats mostly vegetable matter; eats many seeds, berries and wild fruits. Also eats beetles, wasps, spiders, bees, and other insects and vertebrates (bird eggs, lizards and rodents) and food scraps. Generally forages high in trees, but also on the ground. Courting male feeds female; pair is quiet during nesting season, except if nest is threatened. Nest is built by both sexes usually 10-30 feet from ground. Nest is large and constructed of twigs, leaves, moss and lined with grass, rootlets, and pine needles, and cemented with mud. Up to 6 (usually 4) blue-green eggs spotted with brown or olive are incubated by female for 16-18 days. Both parents feed young and fledging is probably about 3 weeks. Usually a permanent resident throughout its range; sometimes migrates short distances in winter to a better food supply (Kaufman 1996). 

 Habitat: In Alaska, found predominately in coniferous forests; Dellasala et al. (1996) found no difference in densities between several young-growth treatments and old-growth forests in Southeastern Alaska. In other areas may be in pine, pine-oak or deciduous forests; also found in woodlands and orchards (Kaufman 1996). 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: Forest management practices may impact this species; its range in Alaska is entirely within timber producing regions of the state. 

 Literature Cited:

American Ornithologists’ Union. 1998. Check-list of North American birds. 7th Edition. American Ornithologist’s Union (Allen Press), Lawrence, Kansas. 829pp.

Dellasala, D. A., J. C. Hagar, K. A. Engel, W. C. McComb, R. L. Fairbanks, and E. G. Campbell. 1996. Effects of silvicultural modifications of temperate rainforest on breeding and wintering bird communities, Prince of Wales Island, Southeast Alaska. Condor 98:706-721.

Gabrielson, I. N., and F. C. Lincoln.  1959.  The birds of Alaska.  Stackkpole Co., Pennsylvania, and the Wildlife Management Instit., Washington DC. 922pp.

Kaufman, K 1996. Lives of North American Birds. Houghton Mifflin, New York. 675 pp.  

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NORTHWESTERN CROW (Corvus caurinus) 

 Distribution: Coastal species from Cook Inlet and Kodiak Island south and east to southwestern Washington and occasionally northwestern Oregon (A.O.U. 1998). In Alaska, it inhabits coastal areas from the Alaska Peninsula to Kodiak, Prince William Sound, Yakutat, and throughout Southeast (Isleib and Kessel 1973, Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959). 

Biology/Natural History: Closely related to American Crow, but is an obligate tidewater inhabitant. Feeds on fish and other animal carcasses as well as clams, mussels, marine worms, and other intertidal fauna. Also eats eggs of nesting gulls and other seabirds, and, occasionally elderberries and salmonberries (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959). Often seen dropping clams and mussels while flying and retrieving exposed contents on beach. Sometimes caches food on territory. Solitary nesters; both sexes build nest of twigs, sticks, bark, plant fibers, mud which is lined with grasses, hair and other soft materials. Sixty-four percent of 391 nests in British Columbia were in trees, mostly conifers. Also nests in shrubs or on ground. Nest height usually is 1.2 - 8 m, but can be as high as 45 m. Eggs (4-5) are blue-green or gray-green with brown and gray blotches. Incubation from last egg laid is 18-19 days. Information on fledging date is variable; reports from British Columbia are 23-35 days (Campbell et al. 1997). Adapts easily to human-induced environmental changes and are becoming increasingly common in and around coastal towns and cities. Systematic status has always been debated as some feel it is conspecific with American Crow (Campbell et al. 1997). 

 Habitat: Coastal beaches, rocky shores, estuaries, coastal ponds and inshore islands. Rarely wanders more than a few kilometers of the coast, except during salmon runs when it is known to forage upriver (Campbell et al. 1997). 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: Due to its strict adherence to the coast, may be vulnerable to ocean pollutants such as oil spills, sewage, or industrial wastes dumped into estuaries and coves. Numbers are thought to be stable in British Columbia (Campbell 1997). 

 Literature Cited:

American Ornithologists’ Union. 1998. Check-list of North American birds. 7th Edition. American Ornithologist’s Union (Allen Press), Lawrence, Kansas. 829pp. 

Campbell, W. R., N. K. Dawe, I. McTaggart-Cowan, J. M. Cooper, G. W. Kaiser and M. C. E. McNall. 1997. The Birds of British Columbia. Vol. 3. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, BC, Canada. 693pp.

Gabrielson, I. N., and F. C. Lincoln.  1959.  The birds of Alaska.  Stackkpole Co., Pennsylvania, and the Wildlife Management Instit., Washington DC. 922pp.

Isleib, M. E. and B. Kessel 1973. Birds of the North Gulf Coast-Prince William Sound region, Alaska. Biological Papers of the University of Alaska, No. 14. University of Alaska, Fairbanks. 149pp.  

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CHESTNUT-BACKED CHICKADEE (Poecile rufescens) 

 Distribution: Occurs from southcoastal Alaska, south to southeastern Alaska, western and insular British Columbia, throughout western and northern Washington, southeastern British Columbia, northern Idaho and northwestern Montana. South through western Oregon and California to Santa Barbara County. Also present through Cascade and Sierra Nevada to central California. Occurs locally in western Alberta (A.O.U. 1998). In Alaska, a resident of coastal spruce/hemlock forests from Kenai Peninsula throughout Prince William Sound to Yakutat and south to mainland and insular Southeastern Alaska (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959). 

 Biology/Natural History: Forages mainly by gleaning insects such as caterpillars, moths, beetles, leafhoppers, and small wasps; probes into bark for insects. Also eats berries and seeds; often caches food for later use. Common visitant to feeders. Little is known about its reproductive biology, but pairs appear to remain together all year. Nests in cavities left by other birds or may excavate their own cavity. Nest is often less than 7 m above ground, but occasionally much higher. Nest is composed of moss, lichens, feathers, bark, plant down and animal hair. Lays 5-9 white eggs with small reddish-brown dots on large end. Incubation is approximately 15 days, and brooding is approximately 16-19 days (Campbell et al. 1997). Details of incubation and brooding are not well known, but female is suspected of incubation. Both parents are probably involved with caring for young. 

 Habitat: Coniferous forests, including shore pine muskegs. Tree species variable depending on location. In Southeastern Alaska, common in mature hemlock/spruce forests and also in pole and sawtimber stages of successional forests (Kessler and Kogut 1985, Gibson 1976, Gibson and MacDonald 1975). Common in hemlock/spruce forests in Prince William Sound (Isleib and Kessel 1973). 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: This species’ preference of old-growth forests makes it vulnerable to timber harvesting and clearcutting. Well represented on BBS routes in Southeast (present on all routes, >16 birds/route/year), less so in Southcoastal. Supplemental monitoring via off-road counts, especially in Southcoastal, would be useful. Possible candidate as an indicator species due to its status as a year-round resident, relative high abundance, and reliance on cavities. 

 Literature Cited:

American Ornithologists’ Union. 1998. Check-list of North American birds. 7th Edition. American Ornithologist’s Union (Allen Press), Lawrence, Kansas. 829pp.

Campbell, W. R., N. K. Dawe, I. McTaggart-Cowan, J. M. Cooper, G. W. Kaiser and M. C. E. McNall. 1997. The Birds of British Columbia. Vol. 3. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, BC, Canada. 693pp.

Gabrielson, I. N., and F. C. Lincoln.  1959.  The birds of Alaska.  Stackkpole Co., Pennsylvania, and the Wildlife Management Instit., Washington DC. 922pp.

Gibson, D. D. 1976. Bird species and habitat inventory: Alexander Archipelago, Alaska, summer 1975. University of Alaska Museum Contract Report No. 01-283. U.S. For. Serv. 66pp. 

Gibson D. D. and S.O. MacDonald. 1975. Bird species and habitat inventory mainland southeast Alaska, summer 1974. University of Alaska Museum Contract report No. 01-248. USFS. 72pp.

Isleib, M. E. and B. Kessel 1973. Birds of the North Gulf Coast-Prince William Sound region, Alaska. Biological Papers of the University of Alaska, No. 14. University of Alaska, Fairbanks. 149pp.

Kessler, W. B., and T. E. Kogut. 1985. Habitat orientations of forest birds in southeastern Alaska. Northwest Science 59:58-65. 

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AMERICAN DIPPER (Cinclus mexicanus) 

 Distribution: Resident species from northwestern Alaska and northeastern British Columbia south to southern California and New Mexico, eastern foothills of Rocky Mountains, and into central Mexico. In Alaska, from Norton Sound and Kotzebue Sound, west along the Aleutians, and south to Ketchikan. Local distribution reflects preference for fast-flowing mountain streams, whereas they avoid low, relatively flat areas such as the Columbia basin and Snake River. Local altitudinal migrations occur on occasion in search of open water. 

 Biology/Natural History: Dippers primarily feed on aquatic insect larvae, but occasionally take other invertebrates, small fish, and plant material. Nests are typically dome-shaped of woven moss, constructed on rocks, ledges, upturned roots of fallen trees, or bridges in close proximity to running water. Probably raises two broods in a season under favorable conditions throughout most of its range, except the more northerly latitudes. Polygyny has been documented in dippers, dependent on access to larger food supplies where nesting sites are infrequent, and therefore territory size increases (Price and Bock 1973). Dippers lay 3-6 eggs, incubate for 13 days; young fledge at 18 days (Bent 1964). Ground-nesting dippers are susceptible to predation from mink, marten, weasel, skunk, and water snake. Dippers may compete to some extent with Harlequin Duck, Spotted Sandpiper, and Belted Kingfisher for suitable habitat; however, these other species feed in a wider range of habitats and differ in their foraging behavior relative to dippers. 

 Habitat: Dippers are a riparian-obligate species and are totally dependent on the productivity of streams and rivers. Territories are oriented linearly along streams, and may vary from 950 m to over 2,000 m in length, depending on the availability of suitable nesting sites. While dippers will forage in deep and swift water, they typically wade in shallow water with their heads submerged, or make short dives into deeper pools. Habitat suitability depends on the stream substrate as well as the amount of food. Favorable bottom substrate consists of rock rubble (3-20 cm in size) with many emergent rocks for perching. 

 Management Issue/Concerns: Average counts for American Dipper on the North American BBS is less than one in most of its range; therefore, population trends are difficult to monitor for this species. Habitat loss or indirect impacts may occur from mining, forestry (erosion, water levels), river engineering projects, pollution, and water drawdowns for agricultural, industrial or domestic uses. Positive effects on populations may be realized by the construction of walls, bridges and buildings near streams which may otherwise have limited nesting sites.

 Literature Cited:

Bent, A. C. 1964. Life histories of North American nuthatches, wrens, thrushes, and their allies. Dover Publ. Inc., Univ. Washington.

Campbell, W. R., N. K. Dawe, I. McTaggart-Cowan, J. M. Cooper, G. W. Kaiser and M. C. E. McNall. 1997. The Birds of British Columbia. Vol. 3. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, BC, Canada. 693pp.

Price, F. E., and C. E. Bock. 1973. Polygyny in the dipper. Condor 75(4):457-459. Price, F. E., and C. E. Bock. 1983. Population ecology of the Dipper (Cinclus mexicanus) in the Front Range of Colorado. Studies in Avian Biology No. 7. 84 pp.

Root, T. 1988. Atlas of wintering North American birds. Univ. Chicago Press. 312 pp.

Sauer, J. R., B. G. Peterjohn, S. Schwartz, and J. E. Hines. 1996. The North American Breeding Bird Homepage: Version 95.1. Patuxent Wildl. Res. Center, Laurel, MD. 

Tyler, S. J., and S. J. Ormerod. 1994. The Dippers. T & A. D. Poyser, London. 225 pp. 

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GOLDEN-CROWNED KINGLET (Regulus satrapa) 

 Distribution: Breeds from Cook Inlet south and east to southern Yukon, northern Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba, central Ontario, southern Quebec and throughout maritime provinces of Canada south along coast and eastern mountains to southern and eastern California, northern Nevada, southern Utah, southeastern and central Arizona, southcentral New Mexico and throughout highlands of Mexico and western Guatemala. In the east, breed in northeastern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, Upper Peninsula of Michigan, throughout New England states and south through the Appalachian mountains. Not found in Great Plains states and provinces. Winters from Southcoastal Alaska throughout the U.S. and southern Canada except the plains, southern California, Nevada and southwestern Arizona, south to Baja, Guatemala, Tamaulipas, the Gulf Coast and Florida (A.O.U. 1998, Kaufman 1996). In Alaska, breeds coastally in Southcentral from Kodiak, throughout Prince William Sound and south through Southeast. Winters in smaller numbers throughout breeding range in Alaska (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959, Isleib and Kessel 1973). 

 Biology/Natural History: Eats a myriad of small insects including beetles, gnats, caterpillars, aphids. Also eats spiders and, occasionally, sap, and fruit. Active feeder in trees and shrubs, especially conifers, where it often hangs upside to retrieve food from the underside of needles and leaves. Rarely hovers or sallies for food. Singing male defends breeding territory, sometimes aggressively, by raising crown feathers and flicking wings and tail. Female builds nest high over 4-6 days in conifer (up to 20 m). Nest is usually attached to horizontal branch, often close to trunk, and is made of moss, lichens, bark stripes, spider webs, twigs and lined with plant down, feathers, and rootlets. Lays 5-11 eggs. Eggs are whitish with brown and gray spots. Female incubates 14-15 days and may be fed by male while on nest. Both parents feed young. Young fledge at 14-19 days (Campbell et al. 1997, Kaufman 1996). 

 Habitat: Found in coniferous forests (spruce, fir, and hemlock) all times of year; also in mixed forests in southcoastal and central Alaska. In winter and migration, can be found in other trees and shrubs. 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: Reliance on dense coniferous forests makes this species particularly vulnerable to intensive timber cutting. Data from British Columbia shows a slight decrease in kinglet numbers over the past 3 decades (Campbell et al. 1997). May be a candidate for forest health monitoring in Southeast Alaska where sufficient numbers overwinter. 

Literature Cited:

American Ornithologists’ Union. 1998. Check-list of North American birds. 7th Edition. American Ornithologist’s Union (Allen Press), Lawrence, Kansas. 829pp.

Gabrielson, I. N., and F. C. Lincoln.  1959.  The birds of Alaska.  Stackkpole Co., Pennsylvania, and the Wildlife Management Instit., Washington DC. 922pp. 

Isleib, M. E. and B. Kessel 1973. Birds of the North Gulf Coast-Prince William Sound region, Alaska. Biological Papers of the University of Alaska, No. 14. University of Alaska, Fairbanks. 149pp.

Kaufman, K 1996. Lives of North American Birds. Houghton Mifflin, New York. 675 pp.  

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GRAY-CHEEKED THRUSH (Catharus minimus) 

 Distribution: Breeds from northeastern Siberia, northern Alaska, across Yukon and Northwest Territories to Quebec, Labrador and Newfoundland, south to northern British Columbia and plains provinces, northern Ontario, central Quebec, and northern New England; Vermont, Maine and New Hampshire. Winters on Hispaniola, the Guianas, Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia (DeGraaf and Rappole 1995). Breeds in Alaska from Chukchi and Bering Sea coasts across northern foothills of Brooks Range as far as shrubby willows are found (records from Wales, Barrow and Wainwright may be migrants), south to base of Alaska Peninsula, throughout the Interior and to northwestern Kenai Peninsula. Uncommon and local in Southcoastal and Southeastern Alaska (Kessel and Gibson 1978, Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959). 

 Biology/Natural History: Diet is variable, includes beetles, ants, caterpillars, cicadas, sow bugs and earthworms; also crowberries, blueberries. Often forages on ground. Male arrives on breeding grounds first, establishes territory and defends it by singing. Courting consists of male chasing female. Eggs (3-6, usually 4) are green/blue to pale blue with dark spots and laid in a nest of sedges, grasses, mud, leaves, bark, and mosses. Nest height is up to 5-6 m above ground (usually about 2 m) in alders, willows or spruces. Nests found on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta were approximately 1 m above ground (B. J. McCaffery, pers. com.). Incubation is 12-14 days and young fledge 11-13 days post-hatching. Both parents feed young. In fall, Alaska birds are thought to migrate far east before flying south to their wintering areas in South America (Kaufman 1996). 

 Habitat: In Alaska found in a variety of habitats: willow and alder thickets in lowland, upland and subalpine areas; upland and riparian deciduous woodlands; coniferous forests and woodlands (McCaffery 1996, Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959). On Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge total numbers and frequency of observation much higher on tall shrub (lowland riparian and alpine riparian) point count routes than on forest (mixed spruce/birch and spruce woodland) routes. Prefers broadleaf forest and woodlands in winter (DeGraaf and Rappole 1995). 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: Considered vulnerable to human alteration of tropical broadleaf forest (Petit, et al. 1993). Analysis of BBS data suggests a decline in eastern North America between 1978-1988 (Sauer and Droege 1992). 

 Literature Cited:

DeGraaf, R. M. and J. H. Rappole. 1995. Neotropical migratory birds. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca, N.Y. 676pp.

Kaufman, K 1996. Lives of North American Birds. Houghton Mifflin, New York. 675 pp.

Kessel, B. and D. D. Gibson. 1978. Status and distribution of Alaska birds. Studies in Avian Biology, No. 1. Cooper Ornithological Society (Allen Press), Lawrence, Kansas. 100pp.

Gabrielson, I. N., and F. C. Lincoln.  1959.  The birds of Alaska.  Stackkpole Co., Pennsylvania, and the Wildlife Management Instit., Washington DC. 922pp.

McCaffery, B. J.1996. Distribution and relative abundance of gray-cheeked thrush (Catharus minimus) and blackpoll warbler (Dendroica striata) on Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska. Report to the Alaska Natural Heritage Program.

Petit, D. R., J. F. Lynch, R. L. Hutto, J. G. Blake, and R. B. Wade. 1993. Management and conservation of migratory landbirds overwintering in the neotropics p. 70-92. In Status and management of Neotropical migratory birds. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech Rep. RM-229. Fort Collins, CO. 422 p.

Sauer, J. S., and S. Droege. 1992. Geographic patterns in population trends of Neotropical migrants in North America. Pages 26-42 in J. E. Hagan III and D. W. Johnston eds. Ecology and conservation of Neotropical migrant landbirds. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. 

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VARIED THRUSH (Ixoreus naevius) 

 Distribution: Breeds from northern and western Alaska, south to base of Alaska Peninsula and Kodiak Island east throughout Alaska and Yukon (except extreme northern portion of territory), and south throughout British Columbia, southeastern Alaska, southwestern Alberta, northern Idaho, western Montana, northern and western Washington, western (and portions of eastern) Oregon, and extreme northern California. Winters in much of southern portion of breeding range; also in northern California, California coast, and Sierra Nevada (Kaufman 1996, A.O.U. 1998). In Alaska, breeds from extreme western Alaska as far north as the Kobuk River, south to Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, and Kodiak, and east to Kenai Peninsula, Prince William Sound, Yakutat, and throughout Interior to the Canadian border. Also breed throughout insular and mainland Southeast. In winter, found coastally from Seward, Prince William Sound, and throughout Southeast (Isleib and Kessel 1973, Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959). 

 Biology/Natural History: Diet is predominately insects and berries. Summer diet of mostly insects includes beetles, ants, caterpillars, crickets, millipedes, sowbugs, earthworms, spiders and other invertebrates. Winter diet includes more berries and seeds. Often feeds on ground in heavy brush, but is also seen in open lawns; eats berries and seeds in trees or on ground. Male defends nesting territory by singing. Nest is usually in conifer, except in northern portion of range where nest may be in deciduous thickets, and can be on the ground or in trees at various heights. Bulky nest of twigs, moss, leaves, bark, and lined with softer grasses and rootlets is probably constructed by female. Eggs (2-5, usually 3-4) are pale blue with brownish spots are incubated by female for about 2 weeks. Both parents feed nestlings; fledging times are not well documented (Kaufman 1996). 

 Habitat: Found mostly in thick, wet, coniferous forests of the coast; also in dense inland mixed forests. In western Alaska, found also in deciduous shrub and thickets (often riparian) and foraging in open tundra (Kaufman 1996, Armstrong 1995). 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: Loss of forests, especially old-growth, is probably greatest conservation concern. Large scale logging may negatively affect populations, especially in coastal areas where this species is found in highest densities. 

 Literature Cited:

American Ornithologists’ Union. 1998. Check-list of North American birds. 7th Edition. American Ornithologist’s Union (Allen Press), Lawrence, Kansas. 829pp.

Armstrong, R. H. 1995. Guide to the birds of Alaska, fourth ed. Alaska Northwest Books, Anchorage, Alaska. 322pp.

Gabrielson, I. N., and F. C. Lincoln.  1959.  The birds of Alaska.  Stackkpole Co., Pennsylvania, and the Wildlife Management Instit., Washington DC. 922pp.

Isleib, M. E. and B. Kessel 1973. Birds of the North Gulf Coast-Prince William Sound region, Alaska. Biological Papers of the University of Alaska, No. 14. University of Alaska, Fairbanks. 149pp.

Kaufman, K 1996. Lives of North American Birds. Houghton Mifflin, New York. 675 pp. 

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BOHEMIAN WAXWING (Bombycilla garrulus) 

 Distribution: Breeding range extends from western Alaska southeast through western and central Canada (Bent 1965; Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959; Godfrey 1986). The northern edge of the breeding range extends from Kotzebue Sound, along the south side of the Brooks Range to the Mackenzie Delta, southeast through the Northwest Territories along Great Bear and Great Slave Lakes to Nueltin Lake, and along the southern edge of Hudson Bay from northeast Manitoba to James Bay. The southern boundary of the breeding range extends from western (excluding coastal) and southcentral Alaska, through the Yukon Territory and British Columbia (except for the coast) to northern Washington, Idaho, and Montana, and through northern Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba to Ontario. Winter range extends from southcoastal Alaska through central and southern British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba and continues south to southern California, northern Arizona, and New Mexico, western Kansas, central Nebraska, and the eastern Dakotas (Bent 1965; Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959; Godfrey 1986). It is an irregular winter visitor to Minnesota, the Great Lakes area, Ontario, southern Quebec and on to Nova Scotia and New England (Bent 1965; Godfrey 1986). Found throughout the forested areas of Alaska (Kessel and Gibson 1978). Fairly common migrant and breeder, but rare winter visitor throughout central Alaska . Uncommon to rare migrant and breeder in western and southwestern Alaska, casually visiting treeless areas beyond the spruce edge. Uncommon breeder and common fall/early winter resident in Anchorage area and at Seward, otherwise rare visitor or migrant in other areas of southcoastal Alaska. Fairly common migrant and winter visitor and rare summer visitor and possible breeder in southeastern Alaska. 

 Biology/Natural History: Feeds primarily on fruits and insects including mountain ash berries, soapberries, cranberries (highbush and lowbush), blueberries, crowberries, bearberries, rose hips, wild raspberries, juniper and cedar berries, hawthorn fruit, crabapples, chokecherries, flowers, tree sap, flies, dragonflies, beetles, and bees (Bent 1965; Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959). Also feed on poplar buds and birch seeds (Bent 1965). Frequently dart out from perches to catch insects or catch them while flying. Nests in spruce, tamarack, fir, or pine (Bent 1965). Nests are usually 1-17 m above ground on horizontal branches often close to the trunk, occasionally farther out on a limb (Bent 1965). Nest is usually constructed of twigs, grasses, leaves, lichens, and mosses and is lined with fine materials such as rootlets, fine grass, plant fibers, conifer needles, mammal hair, insect cocoons and feathers (Bent 1965). The 4-6 eggs are incubated for 14 days, and chicks fledge in 15-17 days (Baicich and Harrison 1997). Not strongly territorial during the breeding season and are nomadic and sociable during the non-breeding season; will form large feeding flocks in the fall and winter, sometimes mixed with cedar waxwings and robins (Bent 1965). An irruptive species which will invade farther south or east if food supplies fail in their usual range (Bent 1965). Very tame and can often be approached closely (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959). 

 Habitat: Breed in coniferous and mixed woods, open muskeg, and burned areas (Godfrey 1986). Winter in areas with abundant berry-producing trees and shrubs, such as urban areas centers with ornamental shrubs (Godfrey 1986). 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: Major increases have been recorded by western Breeding Bird Surveys, while slight decreases have been noted during the Christmas Bird Count (Stokes and Stokes 1996). This species is not adequately monitored by BBS or off-road point counts in Alaska and is captured in very small numbers during statewide banding activities. 

 Literature Cited:

Baicich, P. J. and C. J. O. Harrison. 1997. A Guide to the Nests, Eggs, and Nestlings of North American Birds. Academic Press, London.

Bent, A. C. 1965. Life Histories of North American Wagtails, Shrikes, Vireos, and their Allies. Dover Publications, Inc., New York.

Godfrey, W. E. 1986. The Birds of Canada, revised edition. National Museum of Natural Sciences, Canada.

Gabrielson, I. N., and F. C. Lincoln.  1959.  The birds of Alaska.  Stackkpole Co., Pennsylvania, and the Wildlife Management Instit., Washington DC. 922pp.

Kessel, B. and D. D. Gibson. 1978. Status and distribution of Alaska birds. Studies in Avian Biology, No. 1. Cooper Ornithological Society (Allen Press), Lawrence, Kansas. 100pp.

Stokes, D. W. and L. Q. Stokes. 1996. Stokes Field Guide to Birds: Western Region. Little, Brown and Company, Boston and New York. 

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TOWNSEND’S WARBLER (Dendroica townsendi) 

 Distribution: Breeds from eastern interior Alaska and southern Yukon Territory, through British Colombia and southwestern Saskatchewan, and south through the Rocky Mountains to northwestern Wyoming and southern Idaho. The southern portion of the breeding range extends west to the Cascades and interior ranges of Oregon and through most of Washington excluding the Central Basin (Wright et al. 1998). Occurs in interior Alaska along the Tanana River drainage where it is a common summer resident near Fairbanks but uncommon east toward Tok and Northway (Kessel and Springer 1966, Spindler and Kessel 1980, T. Doyle pers. commun.). In southcentral Alaska, the species is locally abundant in the greater Anchorage area, on the Kenai Peninsula, and near Cordova in the eastern Prince William Sound-Copper River Delta (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1958, Kessel and Isleib 1973, Matsuoka et al. 1997 a, unpublished BBS data). Abundant throughout southeastern Alaska (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959, Kessel and Gibson 1978). Winter range extends from the coast of California through Mexico and Central America and south to Nicaragua and Panama. Large concentrations of wintering birds occur along the central California coast (Root 1988) and the highlands of Chiapas, Mexico (Vidal-Rodriguez 1992). 

 Biology/Natural History: The Townsend’s Warbler first appears in Alaska late April to early May and departs between early August to mid-September (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959, Matsuoka et al. 1997 a). During the breeding season feeds almost entirely on insects. Prefers coniferous foliage for foraging (Mannan and Meslow 1984, Matsuoka et al. 1997b). Nests almost exclusively in coniferous trees (Mannan et al. 1983, Matsuoka et al. 1997a). Prefers to nests in large trees where the incidence of nest predation is low relative to smaller trees (Matsuoka et al. 1997a). The bulky, open-cup nest is typically placed on a main limb or in a group of branchlets of a spruce or fir and is generally well concealed by foliage (Matsuoka et al. 1997a, Wright et al. 1998). Composition of the base and the walls of the nest may include bark, conifer needles, small twigs, small branchlets, plant fibers, dried grass, lichens, or spider cocoons depending on local availability. The cup is neatly lined with fine grasses, moss sporophyte stalks, and the hairs of cervids (Mannan et al. 1983, Matsuoka et al. 1997a, Wright et al. 1998). Clutch size varies with latitude with clutches in Alaska (5-7 eggs) larger than those reported in the contiguous United States (3-5 eggs; Matsuoka et al. 1997a). The incubation period is 11-14 days; young fledge 9-10 days following hatch (Matsuoka et al. 1997a). Raises one brood per year. In southcental Alaska, nests are initiated mid-May to early June; young fledge mid-June to early July. 

 Habitat: Largely restricted to mature forests with tall coniferous trees throughout its breeding range (A.O.U. 1983). Most abundant in large undisturbed tracts of contiguous forest, but will also use forests in late successional stages (Mannan and Meslow 1984, Kessler and Kogut 1985, Wetmore et al. 1985, Hejl et al. 1995, Wright et al. 1998). In the Tanana Valley of interior Alaska, this species is largely restricted to mature white spruce forests where breeding density is positively related to the density and dominance of white spruce (Spindler and Kessel 1980). Near Anchorage in southcentral Alaska, territories are selected in areas with relatively high densities of large white spruce, steep-sided slopes, and relatively low densities of alders (Matsuoka et al. 1997b). In southeastern Alaska, found in coniferous forests and muskegs; post-breeding flocks occur in riparian red alders (B.A. Andres, pers. commun.). Selection of breeding habitats appears to be more closely associated with the selection of nest sites than selection of foraging sites (Matsuoka et al. 1997b). 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: No significant population trend detected from data collected by the Breeding Bird Survey, but the species may not be monitored with sufficient intensity to detect a trend in the population (Peterjohn et al. 1995). Current lack of information on population trends in Canada and Alaska (Wright et al. 1998). Populations of breeding birds maybe susceptible to traditional timber harvest methods of clear-cutting and even-aged management (Wright et al. 1998). These methods typically result in the loss of habitat features Townsend's Warblers have been found to select (Spindler and Kessel 1980, Mannan and Meslow 1984, Kessler and Kogut 1985, Matsuoka et al. 1997a, b). In addition to direct losses of habitat, timber harvest may also reduce breeding densities in small remnant patches of old-growth with highly fragmented landscapes (Wetmore et al. 1985, Freemark et al. 1995), presumably by increasing exposure to edge related predators and parasites as reported in other species of migrant passerines (Robinson 1992, Hoover et al. 1995). The effects of natural agents of forest disturbance on populations of this species are largely unknown. Townsend's Warblers have been found to occur in relatively low densities in early post-fire forests, but response to changes in forest structure and function resulting from insect epidemics, forest diseases, and large scale wind storms remain unassessed. Populations of this species may be particularly susceptible to winter habitat loss (Wright et al. 1998). The Townsend's Warbler has been identified as one of the long-distance migratory landbirds most likely to be negatively affected by alterations of tropical forest habitat (Petit et al. 1995) because of their predominant use of mature coniferous and pine-oak forests habitats in Mexico and Central America (Rappole et al. 1983, Hutto 1992, Vidal-Rodriguez 1992). These preferred montane habitats are undergoing rapid conversion to pasture land, corn and coffee plantations, and residential developments (Rappole et al. 1983, Terborgh 1989). Such land use practices may eliminate Townsend's Warblers from traditional wintering areas. 

 Literature cited:

American Ornithologists’ Union. 1983. Check-list of North American birds. 6th Edition. American Ornithologist’s Union, Washington, D.C. 877 pp.

Freemark, K. E., J. B. Dunning, S. J. Hejl, and J. R. Probst. 1995. A landscape ecology perspective for research, conservation, and management, p. 381-427. In T. E. Martin and D. M. Finch [eds.], Ecology and management of Neotropical migratory birds: a synthesis and review of critical issues. Oxford Univ. Press, New York.

Gabrielson, I. N., and F. C. Lincoln.  1959.  The birds of Alaska.  Stackkpole Co., Pennsylvania, and the Wildlife Management Instit., Washington DC. 922pp.

Hoover, J. P., M. C. Brittingham, and L. J. Goodrich. 1995. Effects of forest patch size on nesting success of Wood Thrushes. Auk 112:146-155.

Hejl, S. J., R. L. Hutto, C. R. Preston, and D. M. Finch. 1995. Effects of silvicultural treatments in the Rocky Mountains, p. 220-244. In T. E. Martin and D. M. Finch [eds.], Ecology and management of Neotropical migratory birds: a synthesis and review of critical issues. Oxford Univ. Press, New York.

Hutto, R. L. 1992. Habitat distribution of migratory landbird species in western Mexico, p. 221- 230. In J. M. Hagan III and D. W. Johnston [eds.], Ecology and conservation of Neotropical migratory landbirds. Smithson. Institution Press, Washington, DC.

Isleib, M. E. and B. Kessel 1973. Birds of the North Gulf Coast-Prince William Sound region, Alaska. Biological Papers of the University of Alaska, No. 14. University of Alaska, Fairbanks. 149pp.

Kessel, B., and H. K. Springer. 1966. Recent data on the status of some interior Alaska birds. Condor 68:185-195.

Kessel, B. and D. D. Gibson. 1978. Status and distribution of Alaska birds. Studies in Avian Biology, No. 1. Cooper Ornithological Society (Allen Press), Lawrence, Kansas. 100pp.

Kessler, W. B., and T. E. Kogut. 1985. Habitat orientations of forest birds in southeastern Alaska. Northwest Science 59:58-65.

Mannan, R. W., and E. C. Meslow. 1984. Bird populations and vegetation characteristics in managed and old-growth forests, northeastern Oregon. J. Wildl. Manage. 48:1219-1238.

Mannan, R. W., B. S. Hale, and M. L. Morrison. 1983. Observations of nesting Townsend's Warblers in northeastern Oregon. Murrelet 64:23-25.

Matsuoka, S. M., C. M. Handel, and D. D. Roby. 1997a. Nesting ecology of Townsend's Warblers in relation to habitat characteristics in a mature boreal forest. Condor 99:271-281.

Matsuoka, S. M., C. M. Handel, D. D. Roby, and D. L. Thomas. 1997b. The relative importance of nest sites and foraging sites on the selection of breeding territories by Townsend's Warblers in south-central Alaska.  Auk 114:657-667.

Peterjohn, B. G., J. R. Sauer, and C. S. Robbins. 1995. Populations trends from the North American breeding bird survey, p. 3-39. In T. E. Martin and D. M. Finch [eds.], Ecology and management of Neotropical migratory birds: a synthesis and review of critical issues. Oxford Univ. Press, New York.

Petit, D. R., J. F. Lynch, R. L. Hutto, J. G. Blake, and R. B. Wade. 1995. Habitat use and conservation in the Neotropics, p. 145-197. In T. E. Martin and D. M. Finch [eds.], Ecology and management of Neotropical migratory birds: a synthesis and review of critical issues. Oxford Univ. Press, New York.

Rappole, J. H., E. S. Morton, T. E. Lovejoy, III, and J. L. Ruos. 1983. Nearctic avian migrant in the Neotropics. U. S. Dept. of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC.

Robinson, S. K. 1992. Population dynamics of breeding Neotropical migrants in a fragmented Illinois landscape, p. 408-418. In J. M. Hagan III and D. W. Johnston [eds.], Ecology and conservation of Neotropical migratory landbirds. Smithson. Institution Press, Washington, DC.

Root, T. 1988. Atlas of wintering North American birds: an analysis of Christmas Bird Count data. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Spindler, M. A., and B. Kessel. 1980. Avian populations and habitat use in interior Alaska taiga. Syesis 13:61-104.

Terborgh, J. 1989. Where have all the birds gone? Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.

Vidal-Rodriguez, R. M. 1992. Abundance and seasonal distribution of Neotropical migrants during autumn in a Mexican cloud forest, p 370-376. In J. M. Hagan III and D. W. Johnston [eds.], Ecology and conservation of Neotropical migratory landbirds. Smithson. Institution Press, Washington, DC.

Wetmore, S. P., R. A. Keller, and G. E. J. Smith. 1985. Effects of logging on bird populations in British Columbia as determined by a modified point-count method. Can. Field-Nat. 99:224-233.

Wright, A, P. Hayward, S. M. Matsuoka, and G. D. Hayward. 1998. Townsend's Warbler (Dendroica townsendi) . In The Birds of North America, (A. Poole and F. Gill, Eds.), No. 333.  Philadelphia: the Academy of Natural Sciences; Washington, D. C.: The American Ornithologists' Union. 

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BLACKPOLL WARBLER (Dendroica striata) 

 Distribution: Breeds from northern and western Alaska, throughout Yukon and southern Northwest Territories, east and south to central plains provinces to northern Ontario, central Quebec, throughout Labrador and Newfoundland; south to New York, Maine and Massachusetts. Winters in Ecuador, Columbia, Venezuela, Peru, Chile and Peru (Terres 1980). In Alaska, blackpolls breed in western Alaska as far north as Selawik and the Kobuk and lower Noatak drainages, south to Katmai, common east to central Interior, less common breeder in eastern Interior and Kenai Peninsula. Rare migrant in Southeastern Alaska (Kessel and Gibson 1978). 

  Biology\Natural History: One of the latest arriving migrants in Alaska. Eats aphids and other tree-infesting insects, flies, beetles, gnats, mosquitoes, wasps, ants and spiders. Often gleans in higher branches and, occasionally, hawks for flying insects (Kaufman 1996). Nests low (0.5 - 4 m) in conifers; occasionally on ground. Female builds bulky nest of twigs, bark, grasses, weeds, moss, lichens and often lined with rootlets, hair and feathers. Lays 3-5 white/pale green eggs speckled with brown. Incubation 11-12 days and chicks fledge about 12 days after hatching. Both parents feed young (Kaufman 1996, Terres 1980, Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959). 

 Habitat: Habitat preference variable, but usually found in tall shrubs (riparian woodland) or in coniferous or deciduous forest or woodland (McCaffery 1996, Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959). On Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge, blackpolls were most abundant in mixed spruce/birch forests and very common in riparian woodlands. Considered uncommon to rare in alpine shrub and medium shrub communities (McCaffery 1996). Elsewhere in western Alaska it is found in taiga/coastal tundra transition zones (Kessel and Gibson 1978). Found in and near broadleaf evergreen forest throughout wintering range. In Costa Rica, prefers second growth and edges (DeGraaf and Rappole 1995). 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: Considered “highly vulnerable” to tropical forest deforestation by Petit, et al. (1995). BBS data indicate a downward population trend (-2.4% per year) of blackpoll warblers between 1966-1996 (Sauer et al. 1997). 

 Literature Cited:

DeGraaf, R. M. and J. H. Rappole. 1995. Neotropical migratory birds. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca, N.Y. 676pp.

Gabrielson, I. N., and F. C. Lincoln.  1959.  The birds of Alaska.  Stackkpole Co., Pennsylvania, and the Wildlife Management Instit., Washington DC. 922pp.

Kaufman, K 1996. Lives of North American Birds. Houghton Mifflin, New York. 675 pp.

Kessel, B. and D. D. Gibson. 1978. Status and distribution of Alaska birds. Studies in Avian Biology, No. 1. Cooper Ornithological Society (Allen Press), Lawrence, Kansas. 100pp.

McCaffery, B. J. 1996. Distribution and relative abundance of gray-cheeked thrush (Catharus minimus) and blackpoll warbler (Dendroica striata) on Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge, Alaska. Report for the Alaska Natural Heritage Program.

Petit, D. R., J. F. Lynch, R. L. Hutto, J. G. Blake, and R. B. Wade. 1995. Habitat use and conservation in the Neotropics, p. 145-197. In T. E. Martin and D. M. Finch [eds.], Ecology and management of Neotropical migratory birds: a synthesis and review of critical issues. Oxford Univ. Press, New York.

Sauer, J. R., J. E. Hines, G. Gough, I. Thomas, and B. G. Peterjohn. 1997. The North American breeding bird survey results and analysis. Version 96.4. Patuxent Wildlife research Center, Laurel, MD.

Terres, J. K.  1980.  The Audubon Society encyclopedia of North American birds.  Random House, New York.  1109pp. 

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MACGILLIVRAY’S WARBLER (Oporornis tolmiei) 

 Distribution: Breeds from southeastern Alaska, southwestern Yukon south through most of British Columbia to western Alberta, western Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and northwestern New Mexico, and west through Utah, northern Nevada, northern California, most of Oregon, Washington and Idaho. Winters from southern Baja and central Mexico to western Baja (DeGraaf and Rappole 1995). In Alaska, restricted to Southeast, especially on the mainland. Ventures onto islands near mainland and islands near mouths of larger mainland rivers, such as Mitkof and Revilagigedo Islands (Gibson 1976, Gibson and MacDonald 1975). 

Biology/Natural History: Arrives in Southeastern Alaska in late May (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959). Feeds mostly on insects which it gleans from leaves and picks from ground. Also known to take sap from sapsucker borings. Male sings throughout breeding season, presumably to defend nesting territory. Nest site is usually near ground (rarely more than 2 m above ground) in dense shrubs and thickets, almost always on an upright fork of a branch. Both sexes are thought to help build nest which is a loose cup of weeds, bark, grass lined with grass, hair and rootlets. Eggs (3-6) are white with brown spots. Female incubates about 11-13 days. Both parents care for and feed young which fledge at 8-9 days. A difficult species to view as it skulks in and near low vegetation, rarely holding a pose for more than a moment before retreating to dense cover. 

 Habitat: In thickets and dense shrubs. In southeastern Alaska, it is found in shrubs along hemlock/spruce edges, deciduous woodlands with shrubs, clearcuts, and riparian shrubs (Pogson et al. 1999). Near Skagway, found in subalpine shrubs. 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: Poorly monitored in Alaska. BBS does not adequately cover habitat where this warbler is found. Off-road point counts may help in monitoring. More information on status and distribution is needed. The species’ restricted range in Alaska makes gathering useful information difficult. 

 Literature Cited:

DeGraaf, R. M. and J. H. Rappole. 1995. Neotropical migratory birds. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca, N.Y. 676pp.

Gabrielson, I. N., and F. C. Lincoln.  1959.  The birds of Alaska.  Stackkpole Co., Pennsylvania, and the Wildlife Management Instit., Washington DC. 922pp.

Gibson, D. D. 1976. Bird species and habitat inventory: Alexander Archipelago, Alaska, summer 1975. University of Alaska Museum Contract Report No. 01-283. U.S. For. Serv. 66pp.

Gibson D. D. and S.O. MacDonald. 1975. Bird species and habitat inventory mainland southeast Alaska, summer 1974. University of Alaska Museum Contract report No. 01-248. USFS. 72pp.

Pogson, T.H., S.E. Quinlan and B. Lehnhausen. 1999. A manual of selected Neotropical migrant birds of Alaska National Forests. U.S. For. Serv., Juneau, Alaska.  

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GOLDEN-CROWNED SPARROW (Zonotrichia atricapilla) 

 Distribution: Breeds in northwestern North America, west of the Rockies, from northern Washington to northwestern Alaska. Winters along the west coast of North America, west of the Rockies, from southwest British Columbia to northern Baja California. In Alaska, it is found breeding from the Kobuk and Noatak River drainages in the northwest, north and west on Seward Peninsula to Ear Mountain, south along the coast where sufficient shrub habitat exists, to Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska Peninsula and west to Unimak Island (Kessel and Gibson 1978). Common to abundant in some areas of the Kilbuck Mountains (B. J. McCaffery, pers. commun.) Rare to probable breeder east throughout major mountain systems, common to abundant local breeder in southcoastal, including Kenai Peninsula and Kodiak Island. Uncommon to rare breeder in Southeast and most of Interior Alaska (Kessel and Gibson 1978). 

 Biology/Natural History: Surprisingly little is known about this species. Begins arriving on breeding grounds in early May (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959). Near Anchorage, singing rate of male is highest between 0100 - 0400 h, before dropping to a lower, more consistent rate until approximately 2100 h. Singing is rare between 2200 h and 0030 h (Holmes and Dirks 1978). Variants of three note song are known and as many as eight songs have been reported from 1 male (B. J. McCaffery, pers. com.). Food is primarily seeds, berries and fruits. Pre-fledged young in Alaska were fed Lepidoptera larvae, and adult butterflies, craneflies and stoneflies. Nesting sites range from open dwarf shrub to dense low-mid shrub thickets. The nest, built of small twigs, moss and grass, is usually on ground, but occasionally found low in shrubs or young conifers. Clutches are 3-5 pale green-white and brown eggs. Males may cease singing once clutch is completed. Limited data suggest only females incubate and brood, but both parents fed nestlings and remove fecal sacs. Often feed on open dwarf shrub tundra when collecting food for young. Parents of successful early nest may attempt to raise second brood; female builds second nest and lays eggs while male feeds fledglings. At Cold Bay and Cape Romanzof, incubation was determined to be 12-12.5 days and nestling period 9.5-10.5 days (Hendricks 1987; B. J. McCaffery, pers. com.). 

 Habitat: Prefers low to tall alder and willow scrub on hillsides and near tundra. Commonly found in proximity to lakes, streams and bogs. In winter, prefers interrupted brushland, streamside thickets, and chaparral (Davies 1973). 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: Due to remote breeding areas, threats on breeding grounds are probably minimal. Continued urbanization of wintering areas may reduce habitat. Need more details on habitat requirements and distribution in Alaska. 

 Literature Cited:

Byers, C., J. Curson and U. Olsson. 1995. Sparrows and buntings; A guide to the sparrows and buntings of North America and the world. Houghton Mifflin, New York, NY. 334 pp.

Davis, J. 1973. Habitat preferences and competition of wintering Juncos and Golden-crowned Sparrows. Ecology 53(1):174-180.

Gabrielson, I. N., and F. C. Lincoln.  1959.  The birds of Alaska.  Stackkpole Co., Pennsylvania, and the Wildlife Management Instit., Washington DC. 922pp.

Hendricks, P. 1987. Breeding biology and nestling development of Golden-crowned Sparrows in Alaska. Wilson Bulletin 99(4) 693-696.

Holmes, W. G. and S. J. Dirks. 1978. Daily song patterns in Golden-crowned Sparrows at 62 ^o N latitude. Condor 80:92-94

Kessel, B. and D. D. Gibson. 1978. Status and distribution of Alaska birds. Studies in Avian Biology, No. 1. Cooper Ornithological Society (Allen Press), Lawrence, Kansas. 100pp. 

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SMITH’S LONGSPUR (Calcarius pictus) 

 Distribution: Breeds in northern Alaska, northern Yukon Territory and Mackenzie District, southwestern Keewatin, northern Manitoba and Ontario. Isolated breeding population in northwestern British Columbia, southwestern Yukon and eastcentral Alaska. Extent of breeding range is unknown. In winter, found from central Iowa, south to Missouri, Arkansas, southwestern Illinois, west Tennessee, northwestern Mississippi, northern Louisiana to east Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas (Briskie 1993). Found in two areas in Alaska: Brooks Range and northern foothills and uplands of southeastern central Alaska. In the Brooks Range they are found as far west as the Noatak headwaters (Kessel and Gibson 1978), and north to the confluence of the Colville and Kogosukruk rivers (Johnson and Herter 1989). Confirmed or probable breeder in the Kongakut, Sheenjek, Hulahula, Canning, Atigun, Sagavanirktok, and Ribdon river valleys. Breeder or probable breeder in Wrangell Mountains, along Denali highway, Mt. Fairplay area, Tanana-Yukon highlands and White Mountains (Kessel and Gibson 1978). 

 Biology/Natural History: Diet is mostly seeds of grasses, sedges, weeds, wheat, clover, crabgrass, ragweed, bulrush and other plants before switching to invertebrates (larval and adult forms of terrestrial and flying insects) by the time chicks hatch. Considered polygynandrous (both males and females mate with multiple mates); a female mates with 2 or 3 males sequentially to complete her clutch of 5-6 eggs. A study near Churchill, Manitoba showed that 76.2% of females in a small color-banded population mated with 2 males, 9.5% with 3 males, and 14.3 with one male. Sequential males are known as alpha, beta, and gamma; the alpha male has been shown to be the father of 67% of a female’s offspring. Males show intense mate guarding prior to egg laying. Frequent copulations usually solicited by female (averaging 350 copulations/week). Such intense activity is probably an adaptation to sperm competition and may function to displace or dilute rival sperm. Very few extra-pair copulations observed. Female builds sunken nest on open tundra (often on or near flat hummocks) with grasses and sedges, often lined with caribou hair and ptarmigan feathers. Eggs are clay colored or pale green with purplish spots and blotches. Incubation by female lasts 11.5-12 days. Males and females feed nestlings; often multiple males will feed chicks. Young leave nest within 7-9 days and can fly short distances within 12 days of hatching (Briskie 1993). 

 Habitat: In northern Alaska, prefers moist tussock meadows in wide valleys, often near water. In central Alaska prefers dry ridgetop tundra (Kessel and Gibson 1978). Elsewhere found at treeline. May be found in low areas of tundra interspersed with spruce. In winter, found near airports, pastures and lakes (Briskie 1993). 

 Conservation Issues/Special Concerns: Isolated breeding areas protect them from most human disturbance. Will use man-made structures on or near breeding grounds and on wintering grounds. May be susceptible to land-use changes on wintering grounds. Concern mostly due to low breeding densities and the inability to monitor population changes with existing methods. Total population may be as few as 75,000 birds (Briskie 1993). considered by Ehrlich et al. (1988) to be one of the least known birds in North America. 

 Literature Cited:

Briskie, J. V. 1993. Smith’s Longspur. In The Birds of North America, No. 34 (A. Poole, P. Stettenheim, and F. Gill, Eds.). Philadelphia: the Academy of Natural Sciences; Washington, DC: The American Ornithologists’ Union.

Ehrlich, P. R., D. S. Dobkin, and D. Wheye.  1988. The birder’s handbook:  A field guide to the natural history of North American birds.  Simon and Schuster Inc., New York.  785pp.

Johnson, S. R. and D. R. Herter. 1989. The Birds of the Beaufort Sea. BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc. Anchorage, AK. 372pp.

Kessel, B. and D. D. Gibson. 1978. Status and distribution of Alaska birds. Studies in Avian Biology, No. 1. Cooper Ornithological Society (Allen Press), Lawrence, Kansas. 100pp.  

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MCKAY’S BUNTING (Plectrophenax hyperboreus) 

 Distribution: Alaska’s sole endemic passerine. Winter and summer range limited to western Alaska. Breeds on Hall and St. Matthew islands regularly, and possibly on St. Lawrence and St. Paul Islands (Sealy 1967). In winter it is found along the Bering Sea coast of Alaska from St. Michael, south to Nushagak, Nunivak Island and along the Alaska Peninsula to Cold Bay. regular visitor in winter at Bethel. It is a rare visitant in winter to the Pacific coast of Alaska Peninsula, southcoastal Alaska, and Aleutian Islands. Accidental in British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon (Lyon and Montgomerie 1995). 

 Biology/ Natural History: Leaves breeding grounds in early October for west coast of Alaska. May join flocks of Snow Buntings. Arrives in Bethel in late November-mid-December. During breeding season males display by singing while flying in broad circles. Nest is a shallow, grass cup lined with fine grass, set in a hollow drift log or rock crevice on shingle beaches (Kaufman 1996). The occurrence of eggs and fledged young at the same time and the varying age of juveniles observed in early July suggest they may be double brooded. Eggs (mean = 23.2 mm x 17.3 mm) are light green with pale brown dots and probably laid in June. One male collected on St. Lawrence Island exhibited an incubation patch, suggesting males may help incubate. If similar to Snow Bunting, young leave nest 10-17 days post-hatch (Lyon and Montgomerie 1995). May hybridize with Snow Bunting on St. Lawrence Island (Sealy 1969). 

 Habitat: Similar to Snow Bunting. Breeds on vegetated and rocky tundra, especially on coastal lowlands. Winters on beaches, open tundra, fields or anywhere exposed vegetation is present. regular visitor to feeders in Bethel (B. J. McCaffery, pers. com.). 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: No imminent threats. Small population (estimated at no greater than 6000 birds) and restricted range increase its vulnerability to introduction of pest animals (e. g. rats) to breeding islands. Need detailed information on basic biology, breeding chronology, systematics, habitat-use patterns, and population size. 

 Literature Cited:

Lyon, B. and R. Montgomerie. 1995. Snow Bunting and McKay’s bunting (Plectrophenax nivalis and Plectrophenax hyperboreus). In The Birds of North America, No. 198-199 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and the American Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, D.C. 

Sealy, S. G. 1967. The occurrence and possible breeding of McKay’s Bunting on St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Condor 69:531-532.

Sealy, S. G. 1969. Apparent hybridization between Snow Bunting and McKay’s Bunting on St. Lawrence Island, Alaska. Auk 86:350-351. 

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RUSTY BLACKBIRD (Euphagus carolinus) 

 Distribution: Breeding range extends from the west coast of Alaska to the east coast of Canada (Avery 1995). The northern extent is delineated by Kotzebue Sound and the Brooks Range in Alaska, Mackenzie Delta, Great Bear Lake, Great Slave Lake, and Nueltin Lake in Northwest Territories, the coast of Hudson Bay from Churchill, Manitoba to northern Quebec, and across Quebec to the coast of central Labrador. The southern edge of the breeding range extends from southern Alaska, through central Canada from the interior of British Columbia to the northern shores of Lake Superior and Lake Huron, through southeastern Ontario to Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine. Also breeds on the upper peninsula of Michigan, in the Adirondack Mountains of New York, and in western Massachusetts. Winter range is primarily in the eastern half of the United States from eastern Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas to the Atlantic coast between southern Massachusetts and central Florida, and from southern Wisconsin and Michigan to the Gulf of Mexico (Avery 1995). Also winters very locally across the northernmost part of the U.S. and the southern edge of Canada from Maine to the coast of British Columbia and into southeast Alaska. A few winter in eastern Colorado; otherwise very rare visitor to western and southwestern United States and south Florida. Found throughout most of mainland Alaska south of the Brooks Range (Kessel and Gibson 1978). Fairly common spring migrant and breeder, locally common fall migrant, and very rare winter visitor in central Alaska. Fairly common to rare migrant and breeder in western and southwestern Alaska (Brann and Andres 1997). Rare spring migrant and possible breeder in the Brooks Range. Very rare to casual spring migrant and summer and fall visitor to the coasts of the Beaufort and Chukchi seas, the Bering Sea islands, and the coast of Bristol Bay. Uncommon spring migrant and fairly common fall migrant, rare breeder, and rare winter visitor in southcoastal Alaska. Uncommon migrant and rare to uncommon local breeder (mainland), and rare winter visitor in southeast Alaska. 

 Biology/Natural History: Usually arrive in the interior of Alaska during late April (general observations). Eat a variety of plant and animal matter including aquatic insects, grasshoppers, ants, beetles, caterpillars, spiders, crustaceans, snails, small fish, salamanders, acorns, corn, wheat, oats, pine seeds, berries, and weed seeds. Usually feed on the ground, especially along the edges of ponds, streams, and other wetlands, but will wade into shallow water or forage at the water's surface from logs or debris. Also feed in open pasture, agricultural fields, and feedlots. Glean prey from moss and litter and will excavate rotten wood to obtain insect larvae; sometimes hawk mosquitoes or emerging caddisflies. Occasionally attack and eat other birds during harsh weather (Avery 1995). Breeds in open habitats near water including spruce, fir, tamarack, birch, willow, and alder. Nests are placed 1-7 m above the ground or over water in living or dead shrubs or small trees and are often surrounded by dense vegetation. Sometimes nests are placed on stumps or on ground at the base of a shrub. The bulky nest of twigs, grass, moss, and lichens is packed with rotting vegetation or mud and lined with grass and plant fibers. From 3-6 eggs (usually 5) are incubated for 14 days, and chicks remain in the nest for 11-14 days. Males bring food to incubating females, which leave the nest to join the male for feeding. Both sexes sing on the breeding grounds; the female sings while on the nest incubating. Nests are rarely parasitized by cowbirds since they generally nest north of cowbird range in habitat that is not often visited by cowbirds (Avery 1995).  Gregarious and are sometimes loosely colonial during the breeding season. Begin to form post-breeding flocks during mid-July. The peak of fall migration in central Alaska occurs in late August and early September. During winter, often form large flocks mixed with other blackbirds, cowbirds, and starlings (Avery 1995). 

 Habitat: Breeds in wet coniferous and mixed forest from the edge of tundra south to the beginning of deciduous forest and grasslands. Frequently found in fens, alder-willow thickets and bogs, muskeg, beaver ponds, tall riparian shrub, swampy shores of lakes and streams, and other forest openings such as those created by logging, fire, windthrow, and beaver activity. Likes large numbers of conifer saplings and dense foliage 2-4 m above ground. During spring and fall migration will forage in stubble, pasture, plowed fields, and edges of swamps. Usually roost in wooded areas, but will occasionally roost on the ground in open fields. Wintering habitats include swamps, wet woodlands, pond edges, stream borders, cypress lagoons, marsh edges, and fields adjacent to wet areas (Avery 1995). 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: Population densities tend to be relatively low during the summer and sporadically clumped during the winter, so not well represented in most surveys (Avery 1995). Breeding Bird Surveys do not adequately monitor this species and slight declines are detected in the Christmas Bird Count data. This species is not frequently encountered on the existing Alaskan BBS routes or off-road point counts and is captured only in small numbers during statewide banding activities. Reduction of wet woodland habitat, particularly in their breeding range, would adversely affect Rusty Blackbird populations. Possibly could be affected by placer mining or fire management practices in Alaska. On wintering grounds where they join large, mixed species aggregations, they may be affected by roost control programs in areas where the large aggregations are a nuisance and health risk and cause crop damage (Avery 1995). 

 Literature Cited:

Avery, M. L. 1995. Rusty Blackbird (Euphagus carolinus). In The Birds of North America, No. 200 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and The American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D. C.

Brann, D. L. and B. A. Andres. 1997. Inventory of breeding birds on Alaska Army National Guard training areas in Southeastern, Southcoastal, and Southwestern Alaska. 1997 prog. rep. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Anchorage, AK.

Kessel, B. and D. D. Gibson. 1978. Status and distribution of Alaska birds. Studies in Avian Biology, No. 1. Cooper Ornithological Society (Allen Press), Lawrence, Kansas. 100pp. 

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WHITE-WINGED CROSSBILL (Loxia leucoptera) 

 Distribution: Breeds throughout boreal forest from northwestern Alaska, east and south to Yukon and Northwest Territories to coniferous forests of western North America as far south as Oregon, Utah, Wyoming, and southern Colorado; east across boreal forests of Canada and northern U.S. to Maine and Newfoundland. Winter range is similar to breeding range, but are occasionally observed in California, Texas, Nevada and Florida (Benkman 1992). In Alaska, in coniferous forests from Kobuk River valley and southeastern Seward Peninsula, east to southern foothills of Brooks Range, south throughout Interior to Bristol Bay, Cook Inlet, Kenai Peninsula, Prince William Sound and along Southeastern coast to Dixon Entrance (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959, Isleib and Kessel 1973). 

 Biology/Natural History: Diet is predominately conifer seeds; especially white spruce, black spruce, red spruce, Engelmann spruce and tamarack, occasionally fir in the eastern U.S. Occasionally eat buds and seeds of non-coniferous plants including alder, birch, cottonwood, and sedge; also will forage on insects, especially spruce budworm, spruce coneworm, ants and spiders (Benkman 1992). In contiguous U.S. it is known to breed in all months of the year, but rarely in November and December. Breeding throughout the year has not been documented in Alaska. Nesting appears most dependant on abundance of conifer cones. Female builds well hidden nest on a limb (usually spruce) at varying distances from trunk. Nest is approximately 10 cm in diameter and 6.5 cm in depth and is made of conifer twigs, grasses, forbs, lichen, bark and lined with roots, moss, lichen, hair, and cocoons. Eggs (2-5) are bluish/green-white with brown or lavender splotches on large end (Benkman 1992). Incubation is thought to be 12-14 days (Terres 1980). Crossbills do not strictly adhere to typical seasonal songbird breeding patterns. Apparently, cone abundance, not seasonality, is the major determinant for breeding in this species (Benkman 1992). True to their nomadic nature, crossbills may be present in large numbers one year and absent the next in any locality, a phenomenon dictated by the local abundance of conifer seeds. 

 Habitat: Breeding distribution reflects their reliance on conifer seeds as their primary food; they nest across boreal North America, preferably in forests of white spruce, but also in black spruce and tamarack. Breeding densities are lower south of this region in forests of red spruce (eastern NA), Engelmann spruce (southwest NA) and, occasionally, Sitka spruce (northwestern, coastal NA). Seem to prefer closed canopy forests, but are also commonly observed in open spruce (Benkman 1992). 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: Do not appear to be in imminent danger. Logging of mature forests may limit food supply and nesting habitat. Beetle infestations may have similar effects. This species is difficult to monitor due to its nomadic nature. 

 Literature Cited:

Benkman, C. W. 1992. White-winged Crossbill (Loxia leucoptera). In The Birds of North America, No. 27 (A. Poole, P. Stettenheim, F. Gill, Eds.). The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, PA and The American Ornithologists’ Union, Washington, D.C. 20pp.

Gabrielson, I. N., and F. C. Lincoln.  1959.  The birds of Alaska.  Stackkpole Co., Pennsylvania, and the Wildlife Management Instit., Washington DC. 922pp.

Isleib, M. E. and B. Kessel 1973. Birds of the North Gulf Coast-Prince William Sound region, Alaska. Biological Papers of the University of Alaska, No. 14. University of Alaska, Fairbanks. 149pp.

Terres, J. K.  1980.  The Audubon Society encyclopedia of North American birds.  Random House, New York.  1109pp. 

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HOARY REDPOLL (Carduelis hornmanni) 

 Distribution: Circumpolar distribution. In North America, found breeding from western and northern Alaska east to northern Yukon and Northwest Territories, southern Victoria Island, northeastern Manitoba, Southampton Island, and northern Quebec, Ellesmere, Bylot, and northern Baffin islands. Winters throughout much of breeding range except for extreme north; southern extent of wintering range varies with year, sometimes reaching northern tier states of contiguous U.S (A.O.U. 1998). In Alaska, breeds in tundra, shrub, and shrub riparian areas in the north and west including the Brooks Range, North Slope and the western coast. In winter, found throughout the Interior and western Alaska (Gabrielson and Lincoln 1959). 

 Biology/Natural History: Eats mostly seeds, especially from willows, alders, and birches, but also from conifers, weeds, grasses; also insects in summer. Forages in flocks, except during nesting season. Pouch in throat enables survival of long, cold winter nights by allowing the storage of foodstuffs which can be digested when bird is unable to forage. Semi-colonial nesting is not uncommon; little territoriality during nesting. Courting male feeds female; female may exhibit bowing and wing-flutter behaviors (P. Cotter, pers. obs.). Female builds small nest in shrub or on ground; nest is constructed of rootlets, grass, twigs and lined with ptarmigan feathers, plant down and animal hair. Eggs (3-6, usually 4-5) are light green to blue-green with reddish brown spots on larger end. Female incubates 9-14 days; male feeds her on nest. Both parents are thought to feed nestlings. Young fledge at 9-14 days (Kaufman 1996). 

 Habitat: During breeding season found on open tundra; often in willow, alder, and dwarf birch thickets; also in tundra riparian zones, and sometimes, along forest edges. In winter, found along woodland edges and weedy fields (Kaufman 1996). Often occurs in mixed flocks with common redpolls. 

 Management Issues/Special Concerns: No imminent threats to population. Human-induced population declines are unlikely due to remoteness of breeding and wintering areas. 

 Literature Cited:

American Ornithologists’ Union. 1998. Check-list of North American birds. 7th Edition. American Ornithologist’s Union, (Allen Press) Lawrence, Kansas. 829pp.

Gabrielson, I. N., and F. C. Lincoln.  1959.  The birds of Alaska.  Stackkpole Co., Pennsylvania, and the Wildlife Management Instit., Washington DC. 922pp.

Kaufman, K. 1996. Lives of North American Birds. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, MA. 675pp.  

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Alaska Science Center - Biological Science Office