340 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW. Jay, 1903 tions here considered is greater in winter than in summer, and inversely the distances of the anticyclonic centers are smaller in winter than in summer. 20. In the land and the coast cycloneu the greatest angle of deviation occurs a t distances of 444-666 and 1110-1554 kilo- meters, respectively; the sinallest angle occurs in the imme- diate neighborhood of the center, and in land cyclones at a distance of 1110-1332 kilometers; in coast cyclones froin 1554- 1776 kilometers. 21. At medium altitudes, on the contrary, the zone of 444- 666 kilometers radius shows a principal minimum; thence, the angle increases as we go inward as well as outward and, at the distance of (iGG-88H kilometers, attains its principal maximum only to decrease again as i t approaches the periphery of the cyclone. 22. In cyclones near the coast and a t medium altitudes, the zone8 of the greateut sncl smallest angle ((A ) at a distance of from 444666 kilometers, form the 1)ounclary of a cyclincler of sir around which the outer air moves in spirals; on land, however, the orographic impediments disturb these very much. 23. In coast cyclones, in the exterior space, the greatest ascension of the air takes place on the south side, whereas the tangential forces hinder the ascent on the rear side. On the other hand, in land cyclones, in which the air flows inward spirally close up to the center, the location of the greatest ascension is transferred to the iimnecliate neighborhood of the center. In consequence of the orographic inequalities, the maximum of rainfall niay be shifted. 24. At medium altitudes in the inner zone the morements toward the center continue for the most part unchanged, but in the outer zones and in front there is an energetic outflow. 25. In regard to the individual seasons, in cyclones over the land, both a t the ground and a t meclium altitudes, the various zones of (a’s) show a shifting of location, whereas in coast cyclones the increase and decrease of the average ralue of the angle (u) occur in alinost the same manner in the summer ancl winter seasons. 26. The variation, from summer to winter, of the greatest outflow on the Schneekoppe, indicated in theorem 18, and the resulting change in the direction of propagation of the cyclones, occurs also for each individual distance from the center. Since (although preponderating in the outer zone) in the winter season the greatest outflow occurs with westerly gra- dients and in the summer season with southwesterly gradients. 27. The velocity of the wind increases both with increasing diutance from the periphery and from the center of the cyclone and attains two maxima, one of which is near the center and the other, according to the location of the cyclone, lies be- tween 900 and 1300 kilometers distant from the center. In summer the location of the first maximum of the force of tlie wind is shoved away from its usual location near the center. 28. In anticyclones, both on the coast and over the land, the smallest angle (a ) is close to the center; the largest angles are in the second zone ancl at the periphery. 29. On tmhe other hand, a t medium altitudes the largest (a ) angles occur at distances of 666 to 888 kilometers and a t 1998 to 2220 kilometeru; the smallest angles are close to the center. 30. In anticyclones on the land and in those on the coast in winter the air flows from the center toward all sides of the periphery in spiral curves; furthermore, during the summer season, in the anticyclones on tlie coast a tangential move- ment of the air is observable in the north and east quadrants. 31. A t medium altitudes the air on the front side flows rapidly outaarcl, whereas in the rear i t has a tendency to flow inward. 32. In anticyclones the velocity of the wind increases with increasing distance from the center and, according to the loca- tion of the area of high 1nwssure, i t attains two maxima, one vf which lies a t a distance of 666 to 888 kilometers; the other is in the neighborhood of the periphery. 33. The median altitude of the anticyclones is greater than that of the cyclones. 84. The coefticient of friction on the earth’s surface (the k. of Chltlber:: and lIIohn) decreases as the stations are located nearer to the coast and, also, as the elevation above the earth’s mrfnce increases. METEOROLOGY IN THE SUMMER SCHOOLS. The development of sunimer schools at various universities has become a very important factor iu our educational scheme. There are probably a dozen large institutions, such as Harvard, Cornell, Chicago, Columbian a t Washington, and the Univer- sity of Virginia at Charlottesville, that have taken up this work with great enthusiasm and very important results. These summer schools are not rivals of the various Chatauquan As- semblies, nor of the normal schools in the national educational assemblies. They fill different field; they are peculiarly aclaptecl to be the means of introducing new ideas to the teachers ancl officers of norinal schools. They bring the best teachers of graclecl schools ancl academies and smaller colleges where teaching is the main thought, into close contact with the most progressive spirit of eclucatioii, that which seeks out new lines of thought ancl new ways of looking at familiar sub- jects, thus leacling up to original thought and research on the part of the scholar. It must be acknowledged that the rapid progress of modern civilization, or man’s conquest of nature has clepencled on the development of the habits of in- dependent original, but logical, not erratic, research into the ~W A of nature. There are those who in such work wander of€ into attractive but delusive byways and fail to accomplish any- thing. Such were the L‘Paraclosers” of De Morgan. It is the province of modern education culminating in the modern university, to stimulate logical and sound, original and inde- pendent trains of thought and work. From this point of view the summer school is doing a fine work, ancl Weather Bureau men who are so situated as to be able to contribute six weeks of hard work to this educational campaign mill doubtless be rewarded 1)y finding their best ideas reappear in the normal schools ancl the graded schools of tlie country. THE WEATHER OF THE MONTH. Ry Mr. W. B. STocltnr iN, District Forecaster, iu cliargr tif Diviriqm of Metenrolngical Records. PRESSURE. The distribution of mean atmospheric pressure is grapliically shown on Chart IV ancl the average values a d departures from normal are shown in Tables I and VI. The mean barometric pressure was highest Over the imme- &ate coast of the North Pacific States, with readings of HO.10 inches. Another, ancl extensive, area of high but slightly lower mean pressure overlay the Ohio Valley aiid Tennessee and the east Gulf and South Atlantic States. sure was lowest over southwestern Arizona, with a minimum reac1infi of 39.75 inches at, ~WWL. The pressure was above the normal in the Pacific States, western Nevsda, the northern Plateau region, in the Gulf States, and tlie Ohio Valley generally, and Tennessee, and iu parts of the IIixsissippi Valley, the greatest (1epartureS on the northern coast of California; elsewhere the mean pressure was below the normal, with the maximum minus departures at northern New England stations, where they were about - . 10 The mean pres- inch. JULY, 1903. Accomo- lated departures ,,:Ey 1, .MONTHLY WEATHER -BEVIEW. Average des$y January 1. The mean pressure for July, 1903, increased over June, 1903, in the Gulf and South Atlantic States, the southern portions of the Middle Atlantic States, the western part of the lower Lake region, the southern part of the upper Lake region, the Ohio Valley and Tennessee, the central Mississippi Valley, the Pacific States, and the western portions of the Plateau regions; elsewhere the mean pressure decreased from that of June, 1903. In the southeastern quarter of the country the increase was quite marked. The decrease in pressure was greatest from the northwestern portions of Texas ancl the Indian Territory northwestward over eastern Montana and northeastward over Lake Superior. - Y. 2 -10.5 + 2.7 +10.3 t13.9 + 4.5 + 6.7 + 3.1 - 0. R -5 % TEMPERATURE OF THE AIR. The distribution of maximum, minimum, and average surface temperatures is graphically shown by the lines on Chart VI. The average temperatures for the several geographic districts and the departures from the normal values are shown in the following table : Average temperatures and departwrea from normal. - 1.2 - 1.5 + 0.4 + 1.5 + 2.0 + 0. 6 + 1.0 + u.4 - 0. 1 - 11 R NerEn land .... Middle Itlantii: 1: :: ............ huth Atlantic .................. Florida Peninsula* ............. East Gulf. ............. West Gulf.. ..................... Ohio Valley and Tennessee.. .... Lower Lake.. ................... Upper Lake ......... North Dakota *. ................. %per 1)Iississippi Valley. ....... 8soun Valley ................. Northern Slope.. ................ Middle Slo ................. Southern Plateau * .............. Middle Plateau * ................ Northern Plateau * .............. North Pacific. ................... Middle Pacific.. ................. Sooth Pacific .................... Southern Scpe *. ................ 8 12 10 8 9 7 11 8 10 8 11 11 7 6 6 13 .R 12 7 5 4 Average tempera- tures for the c u r r e n t month. 0 67.4 i4. X 79.6 hl. 5 60.5 77.2 70. 7 67.5 67. I) i4. S 74.8 6:. 8 77.5 81. s 76. i 6h. 4 &5. 5 h9. X w2. 0 6% 2 no. 4 )e artures &r the c u r r e n t month. 0 - 0. i + 0.2 + 0.5 f 0.1 - 0.4 - 1.4 + 0.3 - 0. 5 - 0. 2 - 1.0 - 0.4 - 0.4 - 1.1; + 1 .2 + 1.9 - 1.!I - 3.0 - 3. 6 - 2.1) - 2.5 - 2.4 + 8.h + 1.3 +lo. 2 1 + 1.5 + 3.0 + 0.4 + 4.5 + 0.6 .. -111. 6 -12. (I -211. 2 - 2.9 + 2.1 -. I 3 + 0.3 - 2.9 - 0.4 - 4.9 - 0.7 - 7.3 ~ - 1.0 *Regular Weather Bureau and selected voluntary stations. The temperature was above the normal in southern New England, the southeastern portions of New Pork and Penn- sylvania, New Jersey, from the Atlantic coast of Virginia, North Carolina, and northern South Carolina' westward to central Colorado and western New Mexico, in the upper Rio Grande Valley, about southern Lake Michigan, in eastern upper Michigan, and low-er Michigan, except the south-central part, but nowhere did the departure equal an arerage of + 8" per day; elsewhere the mean temperature was below the nor- mal, with decided departures, ranging from an average of 2" to 5.9" per day in Idaho, Nevada, Washington, Oregon, nortli- ern and central California, southwestern Montana, and the western portions of the Dakotas; and 2.5" to 3.5" in portions of southeastern Texas. By geographical districts the tempera- ture was above the normal in the Middle and South Atlantic States, Florida Peninsula, Ohio Valley and Tennessee, ancl the middle and southern slope regions, and below the normal in the remaining districts. The isotherms of 70" and 80" of mean temperature were located somewhat to the southward of their positions in July, 1902, and mean temperatures of less than 60" were reported from portions of the interior of southeastern Texas, and south- western Askansas. The area embraced by the isotherms of 100' and 110" of maximum temperature is much less than it was in July, 1902, and the isotherms lay to the southward. The isotherms of minimum temperature also lay to the southward of the posi- 46-5 tions they occupied in July, 1902, and this is markedly 80 with reference to the isotherm of 70°, and also of 60°, except in portions of the central Mississippi Valley. Freezing tempera- ture was reported from northwestern Wisconsin. In Cunuh-Prof. R. F. Stupart says: The temperature was below the average throughout Canada, except at a few isolated places in the Peninsula of Ontario where the average was either maintained or slightly exceeded. The negative depai-ture was as much as 40 in portions of southern Alberta and southern Assiniboia, and 3 O in many part< of British Columbia, but elsewhere from lo to 54" was the usual departure from the average. PREOIPITATION. The precipitation was above the normal in central and east- ern Texas, central and southwestern Arkansas, southern Lou- isiana, western and west-central Florida, southern New Jersey, extreme northern Maryland, District of Columbia, western Pennsylvania, extreme western New Pork, northern Ohio, Michigan, except the extreme western and south-central por- tions, Wisconsin, northern Illinois, Iowa, southern Minnesota, southern and western South Dakota, western North Dakota, central Nebraska, north-central Kansas, Moiitana, northern Idaho, Washington. except on the inixnecliate Pacific coast, and in portions of western Colorado, northern Arizona, and south- ern Illinois; elsewhere i t was below the normal. In south- eastern Texas the excess of precipitation was nearly 11.0 inches, and nearly 7.0 inches in southeastern New Jersey. By geographic districts the precipitation was normal in the middle ancl south Pacific districts, slightly above in the Mid- dle Atlantic States, upper Mississippi Valley and northern slope, and considerably above in the Lake region and west Gulf States; elsewhere it was below the normal, and except in the Ohio Valley and Tennessee, and the middle and southern slope districts the departures were slight. Rainfall ranging from 10.0 inches to 16.4 inches occurred in portions of south- eastern Texas, south-central Louisiana, southwestern Florida, and southern New Jersey. Practically no rainfall occurred in California and Nevada. The distribution of total monthly precipitation is shown on Chart 111. Average precipitation and departure from the normal. Districts. ............. Southern Plat.eau * ..................... Middle Plateau * ........ Northern Platenu * ...... North Pacific. .......................... Middle Pacific.. ......... South Pacific. ........... 8 12 10 8 9 7 11 8 10 8 11 11 7 6 6 13 8 12 7 6 4 Average. ~ Purrent month. ~ Iiiehea. 2. 91 1.58 3.63 5. 73 5. 09 6. 92 2. 65 4.08 4. 97 1.90 4.15 3. M 2.45 1.8s 1. 51 0.94 0.53 0.89 0. R6 0.01 0.00 __ Percent age of normal. H1 107 61 88 I1 22:) 6.4 1 32 1 S2 i 6 111 $14 14s 65 .w 71 I 84 75 90 100 100 Departure. ~ Current month. Inches. -0. 7 +o. 3 -2.3 -0.9 -0.5 +3.9 -1.5 +1.0 +l. 7 -0.6 +It. 4 -0.2 +o. s -1.0 -1.5 4 .4 -0. 1 -0.3 -0. 1 0.0 0.0 4ccoruu- l a t e d s i n c e Jan. 1. Inches. +O. 9 +o. 3 4 .2 +6.4 +n. 6 +". 9 -2.3 +l. 7 -0. 7 -3.6 -1.5 +o. 2 0.0 +o. 4 -2.0 +O. 3 0.0 -3.6 -6.7 -3.7 +o. 4 *Regular Weather Bureau and selected voluntary stations. 111 Cmindn.-Professor Stupart says: The rainfall generally waq above the averige. and in many localities to a marked extent, llut in certain *mall sections of the Dominion the fall was at the same time deficient. The sections, with the negative cleparture, were uoticea1,ly the western portiou of the Proviuce OI Que- liec, Prince Eilmarcl Island, and Cape Breton as well as a few scattered 342 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW. JULY, 1903 New Euiland . : :. ........... Middle tlantic ............ Sontlr Atlautic .............. Florida Peuiusula .......... points in Ontario, the Northwest Territories and on the coast line of British Columbia. Over the mainland of British Columbia the rainfall was much above the average, and between the 4th and 6th there was a snowfall of about 2 feet on the mountain ranges, extending to quite a low altitude lor the season of the year. Southern Alberta was remarka- ble for its large rainfall, so also was the Qu'Appelle Valley, hut the larg- est positive departures were in the Peninsula of Ontario, mainly no doubt attributable to heavy local thunderstorms. Port Dover was 5.9 inches above the average: Port Stauley, 4.1 inches above; Owen Sound, 3.3 inches above, and Toronto, 1.4 inches above. The positive departure was also niarlied in the Peninsula of Quebec. likewise in northern New Brunswick, and over the Island of Anticoati. HAIL. The following are the dates on which hail fell in the respective States : Alabama, 26. Colorado, 2 , 3, 7, 9, 10, 13, 14,16, 17, 16, 19, 2U, 22, 24, 26, 27, 29, 31. Connecticut, 1, 14, 15,20, 21, 26. Delaware, 22. Florida, 23, 24. Georgia, 7, 25. Idaho, 1, 6, 11, 16, 18, 22, 23. Illinois, 1, 11, 17, 21, 26, 29. Indiana, 3, 21, 22. Iowa, 8, 17, 20, 21, 26, 28, 29. Kansas, 1, 2, 3, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 29, 31. Iieiituckq-, 11, 23. Louisiana, 12. Maine, 8, 15. Maryland, 3 , 12, 20, 22, 29, 30. Massachusetts., 14. Michigan, 1, 2, 8, 11, 14,17, 18,19, 21,28. Minnefiota, 16, 27. Mississippi, 31. Missouri, 1, 20, 21, 23, 3 0 . Montana, 1. 3, 6, 7, 13, 17, 19, 93, 24, 25, 26, 27. Nebraska, 3 , 10, 11, 18, 13, 15, 20, 21, 23, 28, 29, 31. New Jersey, 3,14, 20, 22, 29. New Mexico, 19, 28. New York. 14, 15, 20, 21, 39. North Carolina, 5, 23, 28. Ohio, 2, 14, 21. Oklahoma, 4. Oregon, 1, 2, 20, 23. Pennsylvania, 3. 4. 5, 11, 14, 15, 20, 22, 30. South Carolina, 22. South Dakota, 1, 2, 6, 9, 10, 11, 15, 20, 21,25, 27, 28. Tennessee, 8, 9, 16, 19, 22, 26, 29. .Texas, 11, 24. Vermont. 15, 16. Virginia, 20. West Virginia, 3. Wisconsin, 1,9,26. Wyoming, 1, 2, 3, 17, 16,24, 29, 30. 31. Arizona, 6, 10, 22, 21. North Dakot,a, 9, 10. Utah, 6. 16, 24. Washington, 1, 6, 8, 9, 22, 23. SLEET. The following are the dates on which sleet fell in the Colorado, 3. Wyoming, 3. respective States : _____ HUMIDITY. The relative humidity was normal in the midclle slope clis- trict and Missouri Valley; below in the Atlantic States, Florida Peninsula, east Gulf States, and the southern slope, sonthern Plateau, and midclle Pacific districts, and above normal in the remaining districts. The averages by clistricts appear in the subjoined table : Average relative humidity and departure8 from the normal. 5.3 4.2 3 8 4. !I d M Districts. + 0.4 - 0.6 - 1.2 - 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.1 - 0 .2 + 0.1 + 0 .3 t 0.1 - 0.2 ____ Missouri Valley ............. 4.5 + 0.1 NorthernSlope .............. 4.3 + 0.6 MiddleSly ................ 3.7 - 0.3 Bout.lieru lope .............. s .7 - 0.1 Southeru Plateau ........... 2.4 - 0.8 Middle Plateau ............. 2.4 + 0.2 Northeru Plateau ........... 3.4 + 0.3 North Pacific ................ 5.6 + 1.2 Middle Pacitic .............. 3.2 + 0.3 South Paci6c ................ 1.9 + 0.8 Districts. Amarillo, 'rex ........... n, I11 ............. 0 . .............. r I u .. ............... htodena. 11t:ih. ........... l h l ................ Mount Tamalliairr,C'al.. .. 110. ............... 1 1 4 1 .. ............... 110.. ............... I)<). no.. ............... ............ Sew Yairlt, N. T.. ....... I r l J .. ............... (I +9 0 -1 -s -1- 2 +8 +2 -1 4- 3 2 11 SUNSHINE AND ULOUDINESS. The cloudiness was in exces8 in New England, the Gulf States, Lake region, Missouri Valley, North Dakota, northern slope district, and the northern and middle Plateau, and Pa- cific regions; elsewhere it was below the average. The distribution of sunshine is graphically shown on Chart n>:.. .............. 110 ................. Dn. ................ 110). ................ I,O.. .............. VII, and the numerical values of average daylight cloudiness, both for individual stations and by geographical districts,' appear in Table I. The averages for the various districts, with departures from the normal, are shown in the following table: Average c l o u d i ~e and departurea from tb normal. 6 6 12 13 18 Districts. D4D ................. Tatoush Iblaud \Vmh ... Taddo, Ohio..: ......... \Villistoo, N. risk ...... East Gulf .................... West (iulf. ................... Ohio Vallev aud Tennessee.. . Lower Lakk .................. ITpper Lake ................. North Dakota. ............... Upper Mississippi Valley.. ... 3 1 New En land ................ Niddle j t l a n t i c .. ........... South Atlantic ............... Florida Peninsula. ........... East G u l f . ................... West Gulf ................... Ohio Valley and Tenuessee.. . Lower Lake. ................. Upper Lake. ............... North Dakota.. .............. % i8 73 76 79 77 78 70 72 74 65 WIND. The maxinium wind velocity at each Weather Bureau station for a period of five minutes is given in Table I, which also 6' rives the altitude of Weather Bureau anemometers above ground. Following are t,he velocities of 50 miles and over per hour registered during the month: Maximum wind velocitm. Missouri Valley ............. Northern Slope.. ............ Middle Slope.. .............. Southern Slope.. ............ Southern Plateau ........... Middle Plat.eau.. ............ Northern Plateau ........... North Pacitic ............... Middle Paci6c.. ............. South Pacific. .............. ., $ 66 61 60 58 33 34 4!) 77 65 67 17 4 17 4 1 li 9 5 6 1 1 4 5 6 20 > ~ 60 70 56 515 5Y 50 60 55 65 li0 57 60 i l 62 50 sn U -. . nw. fie. 8. SW. UW. e. Ue. 0 w. RW. sw. UW. U. nW. IlW. u w. UW. ~ d Stat.ions. - r; 8 * .* - ; __ 73 M 74 58 57 SO 74 63 62 63 60 5s 50 62 63 so ~. ~ i a .- e m __ n W. n w. u w. nw. 11w. nw. nw. n w. uw. UW. 8. w. w. nw. nw. nw. __ ATMOSPHERIC ELEUTFLICITY. Numerical statistics relative to auroras and thunderstorms are given in Table rV, which shows the number of stations from which meteorological reports were received, ancl the number of such stations reporting thunderstorms (T) and auroras (A ) in each State and on each clay of the month, respectively. Th n,idrl.stoi.,iia.-Reports of Sl39 thunderstorms were re- ceived during the current month as against 6266 in 1902 and GO45 during the preceding month. The dates on which the number of reports of thunderstorms for the whole country was most numerous were: 29tmh, 537; Reports mere most numerous from : Missouri. 451 ; Nebrttskn, 439; New Tork, 393; Iowa, 35%. d wwas. -The evenings on which bright moonlight must, have interfered with observations of faint auroras are assumed to be the four preceding ancl following the date of full moon, viz: 5th to 15th. 1111 C'n~ndn: Thunderstorms were reported a t St. John, N. B., 10. 1'3, 17, 24. 26. Sidney, 2, 1H. Graiicl Manan, 2, 23. Yar- mouth, 10, 30. Cliarlottetown, 11, 12. 15, 18, 2-1, 26. Chat- haiii, 16. Father Point, 7, 12. Quebec, 1, 8, 10. 11, 1 3 . 14, 15, 16, 30. iUontrea1, 1, 7. Ottawa, 20, 21, 23. Kingfiton, 2, l l t l l , 468; 30th, 411; 10th and 22c1, 383. JULY, 1903. MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW. 343 21, 23, 23. Toronto, 3, 9.11,19. White River, 5,16, 30. Port Current. 10, 14, 19, 80, ‘36, 27. C’dgary, 26, 30. Banff, 12, 18, Stanley, 2, 3, 5, 11, 14, 19, 80, 21, 32, 2‘3. 30. Saugeen, 3, 89. 22, 23, 26. Prince Albert. 29. 24. Bst,tleford, 11, 23, 29, 30. Parry Sound, 5, 15,19,20, 30. Port Arthur, 1,19. Winnipeg. I