_AppendicesAppendix A: Educational Research Design: Testing for Effectiveness
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Student & Class Characteristics | Group A-- Classes: #4, #6, #8 |
Group B-- Classes #1, #2, #5, #7 |
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Instruction | Treatment Group: Instruction in new comprehension strategy | Comparison Group: Reading instruction as usual |
Population | Adults enrolled in ABE; voluntary participants; 32% Hispanic/Latino (including 25% recent immigrants); 30% African American; 10% other non-native speakers of English; 28% White native speakers of English | Adults enrolled in ABE; voluntary participants; 30% Hispanic/Latino (including 22% recent immigrants); 34% African American; 12% other non-native speakers of English; 24% White native speakers of English |
Age: range & average | 18-42; average 23 | 20-39; average 26 |
Years of school completed: range & average | 4-11; average 8.5 | 5-11; average 9.5 |
Reading comprehension pre-test score (grade equivalent) | 3.5-10.9 GE; average 6.2 GE | 4.2-11.2 GE; average 6.7 GE |
Class instructional hours | 6 hours weekly (3 days x 2 hours) | 6 hours weekly (2 days x 3 hours) |
Average daily learner attendance | 72% | 67% |
*After applying the researcher's exclusion criteria, Classroom 3 was excluded from consideration for participation in the study because most of the students were recent immigrants.
Table A-2
When individual and classroom variables are "controlled" in this way, the researcher may draw tentative conclusions about the effectiveness of the method or approach being tested. Because the groups are similar in these important ways, if Group A shows significantly greater learning gains, the results will point to the instructional treatment as the cause of the difference. Again, a larger number of classrooms would lend even greater support to these conclusions.
Of course, no single study provides conclusive evidence of effectiveness. Other researchers may try out the intervention with different learner groups or in different program settings to see whether, or to what extent, the findings may be generalized. When several studies report similar findings, the research has been replicated, and results may be accepted with greater confidence.
This outline is based on the phonics content described in the sources listed below.
The most frequently encountered words are taught as sight words (the, in, of, etc.). (You can find a list of these words in The Reading Teacher's Book of Lists, Fry et al., 2000.) Knowing these high-utility words allows beginners to read simple materials independently and allows teachers and learners to compose sentences so they can practice decoding words in a context.
Many programs introduce onsets and rimes (also called word patterns and phonograms) early in the sequence, after one or two vowels and several consonants have been learned. This is a good approach for dealing with the vowel sounds because learners may have a hard time detecting a vowel sound in the middle of a word. They may find it easier to recognize a larger word part, like ap, or ot. So, for instance, after working with short a, they might learn the rimes ad, an, or ack and read words with different onsets, like bad, had, mad, and dad. (Of course, they can only decode words with letter sounds they already know, so this example works only if they know the sounds for b, h, m, and d.)
The long vowel sounds may be first introduced with spellings that exemplify the silent e rule, because this rule is fairly consistently applicable. (Examples: take, dime, fine, hope) Onsets and rimes are also useful in working with the long vowels. (Examples: ay, ail, eed, ight)
The consonant blends or clusters (br, cr, dr, bl, pl, sn, st, scr, etc.) are usually taught directly. Learners may attach these new onsets to the rimes they've already learned to create many new words.
The other common vowel combinations are usually introduced after the long and short sounds.
Examples:
Analyzing words by recognizing larger word parts is often included in phonics instruction. Simple examples are below.
For more detail on content, consult the following sources:
Fry, E.B.; Kress, J.E.; & Fountoukidis, D.L. (2000). The reading teacher's book of lists, (4th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. (See Suggested Phonics Teaching Order, Phonics, Example Words, and Phonograms," pages, 9-42)
Gunning, T.G. (2001). Building words: A resource manual for teaching word analysis and spelling strategies. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. (See "The Content of Phonics," pages 6-10)
Miller, W. H. (2002). Reading skills problem solver: Ready-to-use strategies and activity sheets for correcting all types of reading problems. Paramus, NJ: Center for Applied Research in Education. (See pages 72-82)
Skinner, L., Gillespie, P., & Balkam, L. (1998). Teaching adults who learn differently: An extensive guide for literacy teachers and tutors. San Diego, CA: Red Van Publishers. (See "General Scope and Sequence of Structured Literacy Program," pages 212-213)
Wilson, R. & Hall, M. (1997). Programmed word attack for teachers. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. (A self-study guide for teachers on word analysis terminology and concepts)
Beginners need a structured, carefully sequenced curriculum designed to develop decoding skills, so your program will need to learn about existing, proven programs. Examples of programs that have been used with adult learners are in Appendix B.
The Flesch-Kincaid readability formula is based on the number of words, syllables, and sentences in a passage. It yields a "reading ease" score and a grade level. It's easy to use with electronic text because it's one of the tools available in Microsoft Word and Word Perfect. In Microsoft Word, you can find it via the Tools menu, under Spelling and Grammar.
The Fry graph is also easy to use, and you can use it with material that you don't have in electronic form. You just select a 100-word passage from the text to be analyzed, count the number of sentences and the number of syllables, and plot those numbers on the graph to calculate the grade level of the material. The graph and directions may be found online at the Discovery School site school.discovery.com/schrockguide/fry/fry.html and in The Reading Teacher's Book of Lists, (Fry, Kress, & Fountikidis, 2000).
This formula is based on sentence length and the number of "hard words" (defined as those with more than two syllables). Directions like those below may be found at various sites online.
The example below is a procedure for summarizing a paragraph (McNeil & Donant, as cited in Duke & Pearson, 2002).
Rule 1: Delete unnecessary material.
Rule 2: Delete redundant [repetitive] material.
Rule 3: Compose a word to replace a list of items.
Rule 4: Compose a word to replace individual parts of an action.
Rule 5: Select a topic sentence.
Rule 6: Invent a topic sentence if one is not available.
Here's how it might work.
Paragraph to be summarized:
Today's employers are looking for workers with many skills. They want people who are flexible and can do many things well. Good reading and math skills are the minimum requirements for most jobs. Employees must also know how to learn. They must be able to read new information and learn new skills by reading. They need to be able to read technical manuals with charts and graphs and statistics. Many jobs also require computer skills. To use a computer, workers must at least be good readers, but jobs involving technology also demand analytical thinking and problem solving. Finally, employers want people who have good communication skills and who know how to work well with people. These are often called "soft skills," but for many jobs these skills may be the most important keys to success.
Today's employers are looking for workers with many skills. They want people who are flexible and can do many things well. Good reading and math skills are the minimum requirements for most jobs. Employees must also know how to learn. They must be able to read new information and learn new skills by reading. They need to be able to read technical manuals with charts and graphs and statistics. Many jobs also require computer skills. To use a computer, workers must at least be good readers, but jobs involving technology also demand analytical thinking and problem solving. Finally, employers want people who have good communication skills and who know how to work well with people. These are often called "soft skills," but for many jobs these skills may be the most important keys to success.
Today's employers are looking for workers with many skills. They want people who are flexible Good reading and math skills are the minimum requirements for most jobs. Employees must also know how to learn. [They must be able to read new information and learn new skills by reading. They need to be able to read technical manuals.] Many jobs also require computer skills. [To use a computer, workers must at least be good readers,] but jobs involving technology also demand analytical thinking and problem solving. Finally, employers want people who have good communication skills and who know how to work well with people. These are often called "soft skills," but for many jobs these skills may be the most important keys to success.
(Result)
Today's employers are looking for workers with many skills. They want people who are flexible. Good reading and math skills are the minimum requirements for most jobs. Employees must also know how to learn. Many jobs also require computer skills. Jobs involving technology also demand analytical thinking and problem solving. Finally, employers want people who have good communication skills and who know how to work well with people. These are often called "soft skills," but for many jobs these skills may be the most important keys to success.
Communication skills = soft skills, work well with people. Computer skills = technology. Problem solving = analytical thinking.
(Result)
Today's employers are looking for workers with many skills. They want people who are flexible. Good reading and math skills are the minimum requirements for most jobs. Employees must also know how to learn. Many jobs also require computer skills and demand problem solving. Finally, communication skills may be the most important keys to success.
Are looking = want, are minimum requirements, must, require, demand, may be most important.
(Result)
Today's employers are looking for workers with many skills: flexible, good reading and math skills, know how to learn, computer skills, problem solving, and communication skills.
This procedure may be most appropriate for fairly advanced readers. To know what is unnecessary the reader must already have at least a sense of the main idea of the paragraph. You might have learners create paragraph "maps" first, to identify the main idea and/or work with a partner to think through the decisions to delete material.