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Table of Contents Foreword xxiii Preface xxv Acknowledgments xxvii Chapter One. An Orientation to Judicial Writing1 Part I. Judicial Writing, Generally 3 Orientation 3 Communicating 3 Thinking 4 The Hearing 6 Opening the Hearing 6 Limiting the Scope of the Hearing 7 Stipulations 9 Exhibits and Agreements 10 Evidentiary Rulings 10 Prewriting 11 Writing 11 Postwriting 13 Use of Forms 13 Summary 14 Figure 1. Hearing Sheet 15 Figure 2. Exhibit Sheet 16 Figure 3. Steps to Judicial Writing 17 Part II. Judicial Writings, Generally 19 The Art of Judicial Writing 20 Purposes of Judicial Writing 21 Tools and Time 23 Formal Versus Memorandum 23 Rules for Writing 24 Citations 25 Communicative Versus Enforcement Writings27 Communicative Writing Judicial Intent 27 Enforcement Writing Judicial Act 29 Figure 4. Types of Judicial Writings 30 Figure 5. Comparison of the Formal Elements of a Decision and an Opinion 31 Part III. Judgments 33 Judgment Defined 33 Distinctions 34 Judgment 34 Decree 34 Order 34 Minimum Requirements 36 Separate Writing 37 Signed by the Judge 38 Filing 38 Form of Judgment 39 Standardization 39 Language 40 Identifying Parties 41 Amount 41 Figure 6. Judgment Form 44 Part IV. Ethics 45 Code of Judicial Conduct 45 Judge's Duties 49 Impartiality 49 Due Process 50 Maintaining Professional Competence 50 Order and Decorum 52 Courtesy, Dignity, and Respect 53 Opportunity to be Heard 54 Ex Parte Communications 56 Delay 57 Public Comment 57 Pending or Impending Proceedings 58 Public Statements 59 Commending or Criticizing Jurors 61 Nonpublic Information 61 Televising or Broadcasting Proceedings 61 Administration of the Court 62 Court Staff 63 Court Appointments 63 Disciplinary Responsibilities 63 Disqualification 66 Removal of Disqualification 67 Ethical Issues 67 Summary 68 Part V. Preliminary Process 69 Three Steps in Decision Making 69 Oral Versus Written Decisions 70 Purpose of a Written Decision 71 Why Write? 71 When to Write 72 The Five Ws 73 Audience 73 Original Audience (Writing Judge(s)) 75 Solitary Audience 75 Collegial Audience 76 Ultimate Audience 76 Judicial Audiences 76 Public Audiences 77 Suppositions 77 Ruling on Motions, Objections, and Other Matters83 Judicial Audiences 84 Chapter Two. The Trial Judge 87 Part I. Trial Judge Writing, Generally 89 Structure of a Decision (Trial Judge) 89 Nature of the Action 90 The Facts 90 The Issues 94 The Law and Reasoning 101 The Disposition 103 The Syllabus 104 Complete Upon Its Face 107 Figure 7. Formal Elements of a Decision 108 Figure 8. The Body of Law 109 Figure 9. Decision Structure Form 110 Figure 10. Decision Outline Form 111 Part II. Findings and Conclusions, Generally113 Rules and Generalizations 114 Facts Classified and Defined 115 Limiting Facts 117 Being Accurate 117 Being Selective 118 Eliminating Facts 118 Identifying Facts 118 Sequence of Facts 118 Findings of Fact 119 Conclusions of Law 120 Related Matters 120 Issues 120 Preliminary Decision 121 The Elements of Findings and Conclusions122 A Working Outline 122 Drafting 123 Citations 124 Final Revision 124 Proposed Findings 124 Making Assumptions 125 Figure 11. Proofreader's Marks 126 Figure 12. Judge's Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law Instruction Sheet 127 Figure 13. Findings and Conclusions Worksheet129 Figure 14. Alternate Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law Worksheet 130 Figure 15. Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law Form131 Part III. Fact-Finding Process 133 Factual Findings, Generally 133 Fact Finding 134 Fact-Finding Process 134 Sources of Evidence 136 Agreed Evidence 136 Disputed Evidence 136 The Fact-Finding Formula 137 Essential and Non-Essential 139 The Field of Facts 139 Classifying Process 139 Steps for Classification of Facts 140 Guidelines for Findings of Fact 143 When 143 How 144 What 144 Part IV. Execution of the Fact-Finding Process145 Preparation for Fact-Finding 145 Preparatory Steps to Executing the Fact-Finding Process145 Process 146 Execution of the Process 147 Fact-Finding Process 151 Listing Method 152 Expository Method 153 Appellate Court's Acceptance 154 Part V. Conclusions of Law 155 Defined 155 Deciding What to Decide 156 Necessary Factual Elements 158 Form of Conclusions of Law 159 Drawing Legal Conclusions 162 Legal Reasoning Process 162 General Versus Specific Conclusions of Law163 Findings and Conclusions Confused 163 Summary 164 Figure 16. Four Case Possibilities 165 Figure 17. Limiting the Issues 166 Figure 18. Defining the Issues 167 Part VI. Use of Referees 169 Historical Use 169 Today's Use 170 Authorizing Document 171 Proper Reference 172 Referred Issue 172 Effect of Reference 172 Powers 173 Elements of an Order of Reference 174 Making an Order of Reference 175 Supervision 177 Instruction 178 Reviewing the Report 179 Figure 19. Referee's Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law Instruction Sheet 181 Figure 20. Specific Order of Reference 183 Figure 21. General Order of Reference 184 Part VII. Credibility Judgments and Inference Drawing185 Credibility 185 Weight Given 186 Noted 186 Due Deference 187 Presumption Distinguished from Inference188 Need and Sufficiency of Facts 189 Inference Drawing 189 Process 191 Chapter Three. The Appellate Judge 195 Part I. Appellate Judge Writing, Generally197 Appellate Court, Generally 197 What and When to Write 200 Office of an Opinion 201 Collegiality 202 Responsibilities of Collegiality 202 The Writing Judge 204 Per Curiam Opinions 204 Appellate Opinion Process 205 Figure 22. Appellate Opinion Process Chart206 Part II. Structure of an Opinion (Appellate Judge)207 Preliminary Appellate Process 207 Decision Making 208 Internal Operating Procedures 209 Scope of Review 209 Structure of an Opinion 211 Nature of the Case 211 General Statement of Issues 212 Facts 213 Errors 215 Disposition 220 Record Keeping 224 Summary 224 Opinion Components 225 Figure 23. Structure of an Opinion 226 Figure 24. Formal Elements of an Opinion227 Figure 25. Panel Assignment Sheet 228 Figure 26. Record of Opinion Assignments229 Figure 27. Case Assignment Sheet 230 Figure 28. Opinion Vote Form 231 Figure 29. Record of Concurring and Dissenting Opinions232 Part III. Opinions Classified 233 Generally 233 Majority Opinions 234 Full Opinions 234 Per Curiam Opinions 235 Memorandum Opinions 237 Minority Opinions 238 Concurring Opinions 238 Dissenting Opinions 240 Special Opinions 242 One-Judge Opinions 242 Advisory Opinions 242 Dictum in Opinions 243 Summary 244 Figure 30. Opinion Explanation Form 245 Figure 31. Opinion Structure Form 246 Figure 32. Opinion Outline Form 247 Figure 33. Journal Entry and Memorandum Opinion Form249 Part IV. Oral Argument 251 Purpose of Oral Argument 251 The Written Brief 252 Eliminating Oral Argument 253 Scheduling Oral Argument 255 Continuing Oral Argument 256 Waiving Oral Argument 256 When Oral Argument is Needed 256 Preparing for Oral Argument 257 Controlling Oral Argument 258 Judge's Role During Oral Argument 258 Why Argument is Needed 259 What Must Be Argued 259 Figure 34. Oral Argument Notesheet 260 Part V. Reading, Interpreting, and Applying Cases261 Introduction 261 Judicial Discretion 262 Reading 262 Briefing a Case 267 Form of Briefing 268 Interpreting Cases 268 Limitations 268 Real Controversies 271 Mootness 271 Other Factors 271 Application 274 Published Reports 275 Subordination 276 Conversions 277 Working Collegially 277 Summary 278 Chapter Four. Writing Effectively 279 Part I. Writing Techniques, Generally 281 Writing Techniques 281 Shorter Writings 281 Techniques 282 Idea Development 282 Method 282 Objective Development 284 Effective Repetition 285 Clarity and Brevity 285 Punctuation 286 Abbreviations 286 Shortening Words and Names 286 Sentence Structure 287 Self-Consistency 288 Words and Terms 288 Decision Making 288 Identifiers 289 Sensitivity 290 Planning 291 Paragraphs 291 General to Specific 292 Methods of Emphasis 293 Style 294 Person 294 Pronouns 295 Effective Writing 296 Active Versus Passive Voice 296 Active Voice 296 The Form of the Verb 297 Sentence Word Order 297 Passive Voice 300 Nominalizations 300 Tense 302 Facts and Law Together 303 Law (Present Tense) 303 Facts (Past Tense) 305 Enumeration of Items 306 Numbers 306 Working Outline 307 Part II. Word Usage 309 Writer's Tools 309 Word Placement 309 Short Words 310 Word Selection 313 Common Words 314 Vague Words and Phrases 315 Word Sets 316 Clich¿s 316 Euphemism 317 Positive 318 Avoid Slang Words 319 Latin 319 Gender Words 321 Use of Double Pronouns 324 Use Plurals 324 Use "One" or "Person" 324 Use of "You" 325 Eliminate Personal Pronouns 325 Transitions 326 Prepositions 327 Faulty Expressions 328 Part III. Style 331 Self-Discipline 332 Writing Demeanor 333 Humor In General 333 "Poetic Justice" 335 Ridicule 337 Fish Lore 341 Gratuitous Comment 342 Anger and Provocation 344 Pun 345 Brevity 347 Spoof Opinion 347 Complex Versus Simple 351 Personalization 353 "I" 354 The Court Versus "I" 356 "We" 356 Being Objective 357 Summary 357 Part IV. Use of Supplemental Material 359 Tables, Illustrations, and Photographs 359 Figure 35. Photo from Barker v. City of Los Angeles361 Figure 36. Image from People v. Golden 363 Figure 37. O'Day v. Webb Graphic 364 Figure 38. People v. Walker Diagram 365 Figure 39. McIntosh v. Chincoteague Volunteer Fire Co.366 Figure 40. American States Insurance Co. v. Hanna Const. Co.367 Figure 41. Mr. Gasket Co. v. Travis Illustration368 Figure 42. Pate v. El Paso County, Texas370 Figure 43. Stamme v. Stamme 371 Footnotes 372 Figure 44. Marchetti v. United States 373 Figure 45. Ted Spangenberg Co. v. Peoples Natural Gas374 Appendices 375 Figure 46. Osburn v. Supreme Exp. & Transfer Co.376 Figure 47. Appendix: City of New Orleans v. New Orleans Canal377 Headings 378 Miscellaneous Items 379 Figure 48. Barr v. Crisp 380 Figure 49. Ex Parte Felton 381 Figure 50. Chiles v. Aetna 382 Figure 51. Dunn v. Sutton 384 Conclusion 385 Part V. Judges' Views 387 The Judge's Reason for Writing 387 Institutional Reasons (Legitimate) 387 Personal Reasons (Illegitimate) 388 Action of the Court 389 Judicious Writing 389 The Impact of Time 390 Listening to Opinions 391 Who Is the Audience? 391 Judges and Legal Scholars 391 Bureaucratic Gobbledygook 393 Colleagues 393 Summary 399 Chapter Five. Publication, Research, and Decisional Factors401 Part I. Publication, Generally 403 Historical Perspective 403 The First Published Reports 404 Limiting Publication 405 No-Citation Rule 406 Proliferation Problems 407 Use of Published Reports 408 Attorneys 408 Judges 408 Legal Scholars 409 Law Students 409 Public 409 Legislators 410 Demand Factor 410 Development of the Law 410 Precedent Tied to Case Reports 411 Steps to Precedent Development 411 Summary 412 Figure 52. Typical Case Disposition Population of Trial and Appellate Courts 412 Figure 53. Decided Cases Users and Use 413 Part II. The Decision to Publish 415 Purpose of Writing 415 For the Parties 415 Thinking Process 416 To Establish Legal Parameters 416 Time 416 Alternative Writings 417 Procedures for Publication Selection 418 Who Decides to Publish or Not Publish418 Determining Whether to Publish 419 Producing the Decision/Opinion for Publication422 Page Limitations 423 Uniform Standards for Determining Publication423 Partial Publication 425 For the Parties 425 Summary Disposition 426 Indiscriminate Publication 426 Unpublished Decisions/Opinions 427 Figure 54. Certification for Publication429 Figure 55. Record of Decision/Opinion Submitted for Publication430 Part III. The Law Clerk 431 Expectations 432 Confidentiality, Loyalty, Respect 432 Duties of the Law Clerk 433 Responsibilities of the Judge 435 Law Clerk Handbooks 436 Style Manuals 437 Summary of Law Clerk Duties 437 Figure 56. Preliminary Reasoning Process439 Figure 57. Legal Research Checklist 440 Figure 58. Writing Checklist 441 Part IV. Computers and Legal Research 443 Word Processors and Research Computers 443 Office Needs Assessment 443 Word-Processing Functions 444 Computer Functions 446 Computer Drawbacks 446 Word Processors Versus Personal Computers447 Networks and Modems 448 Training 449 Computer-Assisted Legal Research (CALR) 449 Compact Disks 450 Researcher's Needs 450 Factors to be Considered 451 Risks and Benefits 451 Conclusion 452 Part V. Motivational Factors 453 Overview 455 Training and Experience 457 Defining Outside Factors 457 Relations Religious, Political, Racial, Gender458 Religious Relations 458 Political Relations 459 Racial Relations 460 Gender Relations 462 Acting, Writing, and Deciding 463 Acting 463 Writing 463 Deciding 464 The Law 465 Factors 465 Legislating 466 Special or Personal Interest 467 Media and Public Clamor 468 The End Justifies the Means 468 Habit, Custom, and Tradition 469 Disqualification and Recusal 470 Proper Motivation 470 Summary 471 Chapter Six. Criticizing Judges and Their Opinions473 Part I. Legitimate Versus Illegitimate Criticism475 Today's Environment 476 Criticism, Generally 479 Political Debate 480 Judicial Independence 483 Media Responsibility 485 Contemporary Cases 489 Whitewater Case 489 O. J. Simpson Case 490 Menendez Brothers Case 491 Oklahoma City Bombing Case 491 Mad Cow Disease Case 492 Part II. Legitimate Criticism 493 Criticism by Other Judges 493 Criticism by Scholars, Commentators, and the Legal Community497 Part III. Illegitimate Criticism 499 Judicial Examples 500 Justice Penny White 500 Judge Rosemary Barkett 500 Judge Harold Baer 501 Court Example 503 New York Court of Appeals 503 Part IV. Judge Bashing 505 Public Criticism 506 Judge H. Lee Sarokin 507 Public Officials 508 Part V. Usurpation of Power 511 Part VI. Support for Judges 515 Citizens for Independent Courts 516 American Bar Association 517 American Judicature Society 518 Local Bar Associations 519 National Judicial College 520 Conclusion 520 Chapter Seven. Exercises and Bibliography 523 Part I. Exercises 525 Exercise 1. Dissecting a Judicial Writing525 Judicial Writing 1 528 Figure 59. Decision/Opinion Rating Form 533 Figure 60. Analyzation Sheet Judicial Writing 1536 Judicial Writing 2 537 Figure 61. Decision/Opinion Rating Form 540 Figure 62. Analyzation Sheet Judicial Writing 2543 Judicial Writing 3 545 Figure 63. Decision/Opinion Rating Form 549 Figure 64. Analyzation Sheet Judicial Writing 3552 Judicial Writing 4 553 Figure 65. Decision/Opinion Rating Form 557 Figure 66. Analyzation Sheet Judicial Writing 4560 Exercise 2. Drafting a Judicial Writing 562 Case 1. Criminal 562 Figure 67. Decision Outline Form 565 Figure 68. Opinion Outline Form 566 Case 2. Civil 569 Figure 69. Decision Outline Form 570 Figure 70. Opinion Outline Form 571 Exercise 3. Drafting Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law574 Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law Exercise574 Figure 71. Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law Outline Form577 Findings of Fact 578 Conclusion of Law 578 Exercise 4. Evaluating Your Work 578 Pre-Text Evaluation 579 Post-Text Evaluation 579 Measure of Improvement 579 Figure 72. Decision/Opinion Rating Form 580 Part II. Bibliography 583 Reading List 583 By Topic 586 Judges, Generally 586 Judicial Process and Behavior 586 Logic 586 Ethics 586 Reference Books, Dictionaries, etc. 587 Opinion Writing 587 Legal Writing 588 Legal Research 589 The Oral Decision 589 Publication 589 Style 590 Miscellaneous 590 Index 591
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Legal composition.
Judicial opinions -- United States.