Section 7 - Environmental Tobacco Smoke

(Clicking on the Report number downloads a PDF file of that report)

Report number: Year: 2007

Title: Simple Exposure Indicators for ETS Particles Published in:

Authors: Gundel, L.A., Apte, M.G. Type: Report

Report number: LBNL-63480 Year: 2007

Title: Evidence of acid-base interactions between amines and model indoor surfaces by ATR-FTIR spectroscopy Published in: Atmospheric Environment, Volume 41, Pages 3177-3181.

Authors: Destaillats, H., Singer, B.C., Gundel, L A. Type: Journal Article

Report number: LBNL-59985 Year: 2007

Title: Secondhand tobacco smoke traces measured in smoking and non-smoking areas within a cafe in Buenos Aires, Argentina Published in:

Authors: Destaillats, H., Sebrie, E., Hotchi, T., Glantz, S.A., Gundel, L A. Type: Report

Abstract: A new law mandating separation of smoking and non-smoking areas in bars and restaurants was approved by the legislature of the city of Buenos Aires in 2005 and will take effect on October 2006. Such separations have not proven effective at controlling secondhand smoke (SHS) in other countries, but the question remains as to whether differences in building practices, climate and smoking patterns might lead to a different result in Argentina. In this study, we developed a novel sampling and analytical approach for the quantitative assessment of nonsmokers' exposure to SHS that relies on sequentially measuring concentrations of gas-phase tracers in smoking and non-smoking areas. We collected air samples in a typical Buenos Aires café using a portable handheld pump and Tenax-TA sorbent tubes. Tobacco amines and other nitrogenated organic tracers present in the samples were analyzed by thermal desorption-gas chromatography with nitrogen and phosphorus detection (TD/GC/NPD). Concentrations of ten SHS tracers in non-smoking areas were not significantly different from those measured in smoking areas. For nicotine, gas phase concentrations were between 2.8 and 5.3 g m-3, and the nonsmoking/smoking (NS/S) concentration ratios ranged between 0.68 and 1.29. For most other tracers, NS/S concentration ratios were in the range 0.7 - 1.2. The methodology proposed in this study provides good quantitative evaluation of the efficacy of partial smoking restrictions, and allows for its deployment in larger field studies. Our results indicate that, in the studied café, exposure to toxic SHS constituents in the non-smoking area was not mitigated by its separation from the smoking area.

Report number: LBNL-57505 Year: 2006

Title: Effect of ozone on nicotine desorption from model surfaces: evidence for heterogeneous chemistry Published in: Environmental Science and Technology, Volume 40, Pages 1799-1805.

Authors: Destaillats, H., Singer, B.C., Lee, S.K., Gundel, L A. Type: Journal Article

Abstract: The interaction of ozone with nicotine sorbed to Teflon or cotton surfaces was investigated in an environmental chamber by monitoring nicotine desorption over a week following equilibration in dry or humid air (65-70 % RH). The Teflon and cotton surfaces had N2-BET surface areas of 0.19 and 1.17 m2 g-1, and water mass uptakes (at 70 % RH) of 0 and 7.1 % respectively. In dry air, gas phase nicotine concentrations decreased with respect to baseline (no O3) levels by 2 orders of magnitude for Teflon after 50 h at 20-45 ppb O3, and by a factor of 10 for cotton after 100 h with 13-15 ppb O3. The ratios of pseudo first-order rate constants for surface reaction (r) to long-term desorption (k) were r/k = 3.5 and 2.0 for Teflon and cotton surfaces, respectively. Formaldehyde, N-methylformamide, nicotinaldehyde and cotinine were identified as oxidation products, indicating that the pyrrolidinic N was the site of electrophilic attack by O3. The presence of water vapor had no effect on the nicotine-O3 reaction on Teflon surfaces. By contrast, nicotine desorption profiles from cotton in humid air were identical in the presence or absence of ozone. The latter phenomenon is ascribed to complete inhibition of ozone-nicotine surface reactions by co-sorbed water through decomposition of ozone in the aqueous surface film and/or interactions of nicotine with water that reduced its reactivity towards ozone. Oxidative losses of sorbed nicotine and reduction in its re-emission could attenuate possible biases in use of nicotine as a tracer for environmental tobacco smoke.

Report number: LBNL-57505 Year: 2006

Title: Secondary pollutants from ozone reaction with nicotine on surfaces Published in: Proceedings of Healthy Buildings 2006 Conference, Pages A-451.

Authors: Destaillats, H., Singer, B.C., Gundel, L A., E. de Oliveira Fernandes, M. Gameiro da Silva, J. Rosado Pinto Type: Conference Proceedings

Report number: LBNL-51010 Year: 2004

Title: Environmental tobacco smoke leakage from smoking rooms Published in: Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, Volume 1, Pages 110-118.

Authors: Wagner, J., Sullivan, D.P., Faulkner, D., Fisk, W.J., Alevantis, L.E., Dod, R.L., Gundel, L.A., Waldman, J.M. Type: Journal Article

Abstract: Twenty-seven laboratory experiments were conducted in a simulated smoking room to quantify rates of environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) leakage to a non-smoking area as a function of the physical and operational characteristics of the smoking room. Data are presented for the various types of leakage flows, the effect of these leaks on smoking room performance and non-smoker exposure, and the relative importance of each leakage mechanism. The results indicate that the first priority for an effective smoking room is to maintain it depressurized with respect to adjoining non-smoking areas. The amount of ETS pumped out by the smoking room door when it is opened and closed can be reduced significantly by substituting a sliding door for the standard swing-type door. An "open doorway" configuration used twice the ventilation flow as those with smoking room doors, but yielded less reduction in non-smoker exposure. Measured results correlated well with results modeled with mass-balance equations (R2 = 0.82-0.99). Most of these results are based on sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) tracer gas leakage. Because five measured ETS tracers showed good correlation with SF6, these conclusions should apply to ETS leakage as well. Field tests of a designated smoking room in an office building qualitatively agreed with model predictions.

Report number: LBNL-52471 Year: 2004

Title: Inhalation of Hazardous Air Pollutants from Environmental Tobacco Smoke in US Residences Published in: Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, Volume 14, Pages S71-77.

Authors: Nazaroff, W., Singer, B.C. Type: Journal Article

Abstract: In the United States, 48 million adults smoke 3.5-5 × 1011 cigarettes per year. Many cigarettes are smoked in private residences causing regular environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) exposure to roughly 31million nonsmokers (11% of the US population), including 16 million juveniles. (Upper bound estimates are 53 million exposed nonsmokers including 28 million juveniles.) ETS contains many chemical species whose industrial emissions are regulated by the US federal government as hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). In this paper, average daily residential exposures to and intakes of 16 HAPs in ETS are estimated for US nonsmokers who live with smokers. The evaluation is based on material-balance modeling; utilizes published data on smoking habits, demographics, and housing; and incorporates newly reported exposure-relevant emission factors. The ratio of estimated average exposure concentrations to reference concentrations is close to or greater than one for acrolein, acetaldehyde, 1,3-butadiene and formaldehyde, indicating potential for concern regarding noncancer health effects from chronic exposures. In addition, lifetime cancer risks from residential ETS exposure are estimated to be substantial (~ 2-500 per million) for each of five known or probable human carcinogens: acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, benzene, acrylonitrile, and 1,3-butadiene. Cumulative population intakes from residential ETS are compared for six key compounds against ambient sources of exposure. ETS is found to be a dominant source of environmental inhalation intake for acrylonitrile and 1,3-butadiene. It is an important cause of intake for acetaldehyde, acrolein, and formaldehyde, and a significant contributor to intake for benzene.

Report number: LBNL-47446 Year: 2003

Title: Responding to Sudden Pollutant Releases in Office Buildings: 1. Framework and Analysis Tools Published in: Indoor Air, Volume 13, Pages 267-276.

Authors: Sohn, M.D., Sextro, R.G., Gadgil, A.J., Daisey, J.M. Type: Journal Article

Abstract: We describe a framework for developing response recommendations to unexpected toxic pollutant releases in commercial buildings. It may be applied in conditions where limited building- and event-specific information is available. The framework is based on a screening-level methodology to develop insights, or rules-of-thumb, into the behavior of airflow and pollutant transport. A three-stage framework is presented: (1) develop a building taxonomy to identify generic, orprototypical, building configurations, (2) characterize uncertainty and conduct simulation modeling to predict typical airflow and pollutant transport behavior, and (3) rank uncertainty contributions to determine how information obtained at a site might reduce uncertainties in the model predictions. The approach is applied to study a hypothetical pollutant release on the first floor of a five-story office building. Key features that affect pollutant transport are identified and described by value-ranges in the building stock. Simulation modeling provides predictions and uncertainty estimates of time-dependent pollutant concentrations, following a release, for a range of indoor and outdoor conditions. In this exercise, we predict concentrations on the fifth floor to be an order of magnitude less than on the first, coefficients of variation greater than 2, and information about the HVAC operation and window position most reducing uncertainty in predicted peak concentrations.

Report number: LBNL-52202 Year: 2003

Title: Gas-phase organics in environmental tobacco smoke: 2. Exposure-relevant emission factors and indiret exposures from habitual smoking Published in: Atmospheric Environment, Volume 37, Pages 5551-5561.

Authors: Singer, B.C., Hodgson, A., Nazaroff, W. Type: Journal Article

Report number: LBNL-51049 Year: 2003

Title: Determining size-specific emission factors for environmental tobacco smoke particles Published in: Aerosol Science & Technology, Volume 37, Pages 780-790.

Authors: Klepeis, N.E., Apte, M.G., Gundel, L.A., Sextro, R.G., Nazaroff, W.W. Type: Journal Article

Abstract: Because size is a major controlling factor for indoor airborne particle behavior, human particle exposure assessments will benefit from improved knowledge of size-specific particle emissions. We report a method of inferring size-specific mass emission factors for indoor sources that makes use of an indoor aerosol dynamics model, measured particle concentration time series data, and an optimization routine. This approach provides -- in addition to estimates of the emissions size distribution and integrated emission factors -- estimates of deposition rate, an enhanced understanding of particle dynamics, and information about model performance. We applied the method to size-specific environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) particle concentrations measured every minute with an 8-channel optical particle counter (PMS-LASAIR; 0.1-2+ micrometer diameters) and every 10 or 30 min with a 34-channel differential mobility particle sizer (TSI-DMPS; 0.01-1+ micrometer diameters) after a single cigarette or cigar was machine-smoked inside a low air-exchange rate 20m^3 chamber. The aerosol dynamics model provided good fits to observed concentrations when using optimized values of mass emission rate and deposition rate for each particle size range as input. Small discrepancies observed in the first 1-2 hours after smoking are likely due to the effect of particle evaporation, a process neglected by the model. Size-specific ETS particle emission factors were fit with log-normal distributions, yielding an average mass median diameter of 0.2 micrometers and an average geometric standard deviation of 2.3 with no systematic differences between cigars and cigarettes. The equivalent total particle emission rate, obtained by integrating each size distribution, was 0.2-0.7 mg/min for cigars and 0.7-0.9 mg/min for cigarettes.

Report number: LBNL-50879 Year: 2002

Title: Effect of gaseous ammonia on nicotine sorption Published in: Proceedings of the Indoor Air 2002 Conference, Monterey, CA, Volume 3, Pages 512-517.

Authors: Webb, A.M., Nazaroff, W.W., B.C. Singer Type: Conference Proceedings

Abstract: Nicotine is a major constituent of environmental tobacco smoke. Sorptive interactions of nicotine with indoor surfaces can substantially alter indoor concentrations. The phenomenon is poorly understood, including whether sorption is fully reversible or partially irreversible. We hypothesize that acid-base chemistry on indoor surfaces might contribute to the apparent irreversibility of nicotine sorption under some circumstances. Specifically, we suggest that nicotine may become protonated on surfaces, markedly reducing its vapor pressure. If so, subsequent exposure of the surface to gaseous ammonia, a common base, could raise the surface pH, causing deprotonation and desorption of nicotine from surfaces. A series of experiments was conducted to explore the effect of ammonia on nicotine sorption to and reemission from surfaces. Our results indicate that, under some conditions, exposure to gaseous ammonia can substantially increase the rate of desorption of previously sorbed nicotine from common indoor surface materials.

Report number: LBNL-49785 Year: 2002

Title: Measurements And Modeling Of Environmental Tobacco Smoke Leakage From A Simulated Smoking Room Published in: Proceedings of the Indoor Air 2002 Conference, Monterey, CA, Volume 2, Pages 121-126.

Authors: Wagner, J., Sullivan, D.P. , Faulkner, D. , Gundel, L.A. , Fisk, W.J. , Alevantis, L.E. , Waldman, J.M. Type: Conference Proceedings

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to quantify the effect of various design and operating parameters on smoking room performance. Twenty-eight experiments were conducted in a simulated smoking room with a smoking machine and an automatic door opener. Measurements were made of air flows, pressures, temperatures, two particle-phase ETS tracers, two gas-phase ETS tracers, and sulfur hexafluoride. Quantification of leakage flows, the effect of these leaks on smoking room performance and non-smoker exposure, and the relative importance of each leakage mechanism are presented. The results indicate that the first priority for an effective smoking room is to depressurize it with respect to adjoining non-smoking areas. Another important ETS leakage mechanism is the pumping action of the smoking room door. Substituting a sliding door for a standard swing-type door reduced this source of ETS leakage significantly. Measured results correlated well with model predictions (R2 = 0.82-0.99).

Report number: LBNL-49576 Year: 2002

Title: Effect of sorption on exposures to organic gases from environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) Published in: Proceedings of the Indoor Air 2002 Conference, Monterey, CA, Volume 2, Pages 138-143.

Authors: Singer, B.C., Hodgson, A.T., Nazaroff, W.W. Type: Conference Proceedings

Abstract: The effects of sorption processes on dynamic ETS organic gas concentrations and potential exposures were studied in a carpeted and furnished 50-m3 room ventilated at 0.6 h-1. Ten cigarettes were machine-smoked on six of every seven days over four weeks. Concentrations of ETS-specific tracers and regulated toxic compounds were quantified during daily smoking, post-smoking and background periods. Potential exposures were calculated by period and day. Large sorption effects were observed for the widely used tracers 3-ethenylpyridine and nicotine, and for several toxic compounds including naphthalene and cresol isomers. Short-term adsorption to indoor surfaces reduced concentrations and potential exposures during smoking, while later reemission increased concentrations and exposures hours after smoking ended. Concentrations during nonsmoking periods rose from day to day over the first few weeks, presumably from increased reemission associated with increased sorbed mass concentrations. For sorbing compounds, more than half of daily potential exposures occurred during nonsmoking periods.

Report number: LBNL-47857 Year: 2002

Title: Gas-phase organics in environmental tobacco smoke: 1. Effects of smoking rate, ventilation, and furnishing level on emission factors Published in: Environmental Science & Technology, Volume 36, Pages 846-853.

Authors: Singer, B.C., Hodgson, A., Guevarra, K.S., Hawley, E.L., Nazaroff, W. Type: Journal Article

Report number: LBNL-50878 Year: 2002

Title: Inhalation of hazardous air pollutants from environmental tobacco smoke in US residences Published in: Indoor Air 2002 Conference, Volume 2, Pages 477-482.

Authors: Nazaroff, W.W., B.C. Singer Type: Conference Proceedings

Abstract: In the United States, 48 million adults smoke 5 x 10^11 cigarettes per year. Many cigarettes are smoked in private residences causing regular environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) exposure to at least 31 million nonsmokers (11% of the US population), including 16 million juveniles. ETS contains many chemical species whose industrial emissions are regulated by the US federal government as hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). In this paper, average daily residential exposures to 15 HAPs in ETS are estimated for US nonsmokers who live with smokers. The evaluation is based on material-balance modeling, and utilizes published data on smoking habits, demographics, and housing. Newly measured exposure-relevant emission factors are incorporated. Comparison of exposure concentration estimates with health-based guidelines for chronic exposure suggests that aldehydes -- specifically acrolein, acetaldehyde, and formaldehyde -- should be of particular concern in ETS. Cumulative population intake results are compared for these compounds against other sources of exposure.

Report number: LBNL-49585 Year: 2002

Title: A pilot study of the behavior of gas- and particle-phase ETS tracers in residences Published in: Proceedings of the Indoor Air 2002 Conference, Monterey, CA, Volume 2, Pages 500-505.

Authors: Apte, M.G., Gundel, L.A., Dod, R., Chang, G.M., Sextro, R. G. Type: Conference Proceedings

Abstract: Our previous study of environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) in a three-room environmental chamber showed that smoking history significantly influenced inter-room ETS transport , particularly of gas-phase nicotine. We conducted a three-home pilot study where smoking was limited to one room. Single-smoker residences were monitored during five one-week periods while the smoker participated in a smoking cessation program. Nicotine traced ETS particles were detected reliably in the smoking rooms (SRs) and unreliably in the non-smoking rooms (NSRs). On average, the ventilation- and volume-normalized smoking rate, 0.1 Cigarette-h-1m-3, added about 17 and 4 ?g m-3of ETS particles into the SR and NSR, while average nicotine concentration increases were 2 and 0.06 ?g m-3, respectively. Thus, nicotine tracers may underestimate ETS particle exposure in a NSR (e.g., a child's bedroom) by a factor of 2 to 8. In other words, ETS exposure predicted from nicotine concentrations could be almost an order of magnitude lower than actual exposure.

Report number: LBNL-43840 Year: 1999

Title: Characterizing ETS Emissions from Cigars: Chamber Measurements of Nicotine, Particle Mass, and Particle Size Published in: Proceedings of the Indoor Air '99 Conference, Edinburgh, Scotland, Volume 2, Pages 903-908.

Authors: Klepeis, N.E., Apte, M G., Gundel, L A., Nazaroff, W.W., Sextro. R G. Type: Conference Proceedings

Report number: LBNL-43841 Year: 1999

Title: Indoor Transport of ETS Particles And Tracers Published in: Proceedings of the Indoor Air '99 Conference, Edinburgh, Scotland, Volume 2, Pages 965-970.

Authors: Apte, M.G., Gundel, L.A., Singer, B.C., Sullivan, D.P., Sextro, R.G. Type: Conference Proceedings

Report number: LBNL-42363 Year: 1998

Title: Nicotine as a Marker for Environmental Tobacco Smoke: Implications of Sorption on Indoor Surface Materials Published in: Journal of Air and Waste Management Association, Volume 48, Pages 959-968.

Authors: Van Loy, M. D., Nazaroff, W. W., Daisey, J. M. Type: Journal Article

Report number: Year: 1997

Title: Sorptive interactions of gas-phase environmental tobacco smoke components with carpet, Paper No. 97-MP3.05 Published in: Proceedings of the Air & Waste Management Association's 90th Annual Meeting & Exhibition, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

Authors: Van Loy, M. D., Nazaroff, W. W., Daisey, J. M. Type: Conference Proceedings

Report number: LBNL-42674 Year: 1997

Title: Dynamic behavior of semi-volatile organic compounds in indoor air: 1. Nicotine in a stainless steel chamber Published in: Environmental Science and Technology, Volume 31, Pages 2554-2561.

Authors: Van Loy, M. D., Lee, V. C., Gundel, L. A., Daisey, J. M., Sextro, R. G., Nazaroff, W. W. Type: Journal Article

Report number: Year: 1997

Title: Real-time measurement of environmental tobacco smoke by ultraviolet absorption Published in: Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual Conference of the American Association for Aerosol Research, October 13-17, 1997, Denver, CO, Pages 419.

Authors: Gundel, L.A., Hansen, A.D.A. Type: Conference Proceedings

Report number: Year: 1997

Title: Implications of nicotine sorption on indoor surfaces on its use as a marker for environmental tobacco smoke Published in: Proceedings of the A&WMA/EPA Symposium: Engineering Solutions to IAQ Problems, Research Triangle Park, NC.

Authors: Daisey, J. M., Nazaroff, W. W. Type: Conference Proceedings

Report number: Year: 1997

Title: Toxic volatile organic compounds in simulated environmental tobacco smoke: Emission factors for exposure assessment Published in: Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, Volume 8, Pages 313-334.

Authors: Daisey, J. M., Mahanama, K. R. R., Hodgson, A. T. Type: Journal Article

Report number: Year: 1996

Title: Investigation of the fate of nicotine in a stainless-steel chamber Published in: Proceedings of the 89th Annual Meeting of the Air and Waste Management Association, Nashville, TN.

Authors: Van Loy, M. D., Nazaroff, W. W., Lee, V. C., Gundel, L. A., Sextro, R. G., Daisey, J. M. Type: Conference Proceedings

Report number: Year: 1996

Title: Volatile N-nitrosamines in Environmental Tobacco Smoke: Sampling, Analysis, Emission Factors and Indoor Air Exposures Published in: Environmental Science and Technology, Volume 30, Pages 1477-1484.

Authors: Mahanama, K. R. R., Daisey, J. M. Type: Journal Article

Report number: LBL-37376 Year: 1996

Title: Use of Volatile Tracers to Determine the Contribution of Environmental Tobacco Smoke to Concentrations of Volatile Organic Compounds in Smoking Environments Published in: Environmental International, Volume 22, Pages 295-307.

Authors: Hodgson, A.T., Daisey, J.M., Alevantis, L.E., Mahanama, K.R.R., Ten Brinke, J. Type: Journal Article

Report number: LBNL-39492 Year: 1995

Title: Effectiveness of Smokeless Ashtrays Published in: Journal of Air and Waste Management Association, Volume 45, Pages 494-500.

Authors: Wampler, D. A., Miller-Leiden, S., Nazaroff, W. W., Litvak, A., Mahanama, K. R. R., Nematollahi, A., Gadgil, A. J. Type: Journal Article

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Report number:	Year: 2007
Title: Simple Exposure Indicators for ETS Particles	Published in:
Authors: Gundel, L.A., Apte, M.G.	Type: Report

Report number: LBNL-63480	Year: 2007
Title: Evidence of acid-base interactions between amines and model indoor surfaces by ATR-FTIR spectroscopy	Published in: Atmospheric Environment, Volume 41, Pages 3177-3181.
Authors: Destaillats, H., Singer, B.C., Gundel, L A.	Type: Journal Article

Report number: LBNL-59985	Year: 2007
Title: Secondhand tobacco smoke traces measured in smoking and non-smoking areas within a cafe in Buenos Aires, Argentina	Published in:
Authors: Destaillats, H., Sebrie, E., Hotchi, T., Glantz, S.A., Gundel, L A.	Type: Report
Abstract: A new law mandating separation of smoking and non-smoking areas in bars and restaurants was approved by the legislature of the city of Buenos Aires in 2005 and will take effect on October 2006. Such separations have not proven effective at controlling secondhand smoke (SHS) in other countries, but the question remains as to whether differences in building practices, climate and smoking patterns might lead to a different result in Argentina. In this study, we developed a novel sampling and analytical approach for the quantitative assessment of nonsmokers' exposure to SHS that relies on sequentially measuring concentrations of gas-phase tracers in smoking and non-smoking areas. We collected air samples in a typical Buenos Aires café using a portable handheld pump and Tenax-TA sorbent tubes. Tobacco amines and other nitrogenated organic tracers present in the samples were analyzed by thermal desorption-gas chromatography with nitrogen and phosphorus detection (TD/GC/NPD). Concentrations of ten SHS tracers in non-smoking areas were not significantly different from those measured in smoking areas. For nicotine, gas phase concentrations were between 2.8 and 5.3 g m-3, and the nonsmoking/smoking (NS/S) concentration ratios ranged between 0.68 and 1.29. For most other tracers, NS/S concentration ratios were in the range 0.7 - 1.2. The methodology proposed in this study provides good quantitative evaluation of the efficacy of partial smoking restrictions, and allows for its deployment in larger field studies. Our results indicate that, in the studied café, exposure to toxic SHS constituents in the non-smoking area was not mitigated by its separation from the smoking area.

Report number: LBNL-57505	Year: 2006
Title: Effect of ozone on nicotine desorption from model surfaces: evidence for heterogeneous chemistry	Published in: Environmental Science and Technology, Volume 40, Pages 1799-1805.
Authors: Destaillats, H., Singer, B.C., Lee, S.K., Gundel, L A.	Type: Journal Article
Abstract: The interaction of ozone with nicotine sorbed to Teflon or cotton surfaces was investigated in an environmental chamber by monitoring nicotine desorption over a week following equilibration in dry or humid air (65-70 % RH). The Teflon and cotton surfaces had N2-BET surface areas of 0.19 and 1.17 m2 g-1, and water mass uptakes (at 70 % RH) of 0 and 7.1 % respectively. In dry air, gas phase nicotine concentrations decreased with respect to baseline (no O3) levels by 2 orders of magnitude for Teflon after 50 h at 20-45 ppb O3, and by a factor of 10 for cotton after 100 h with 13-15 ppb O3. The ratios of pseudo first-order rate constants for surface reaction (r) to long-term desorption (k) were r/k = 3.5 and 2.0 for Teflon and cotton surfaces, respectively. Formaldehyde, N-methylformamide, nicotinaldehyde and cotinine were identified as oxidation products, indicating that the pyrrolidinic N was the site of electrophilic attack by O3. The presence of water vapor had no effect on the nicotine-O3 reaction on Teflon surfaces. By contrast, nicotine desorption profiles from cotton in humid air were identical in the presence or absence of ozone. The latter phenomenon is ascribed to complete inhibition of ozone-nicotine surface reactions by co-sorbed water through decomposition of ozone in the aqueous surface film and/or interactions of nicotine with water that reduced its reactivity towards ozone. Oxidative losses of sorbed nicotine and reduction in its re-emission could attenuate possible biases in use of nicotine as a tracer for environmental tobacco smoke.

Report number: LBNL-57505	Year: 2006
Title: Secondary pollutants from ozone reaction with nicotine on surfaces	Published in: Proceedings of Healthy Buildings 2006 Conference, Pages A-451.
Authors: Destaillats, H., Singer, B.C., Gundel, L A., E. de Oliveira Fernandes, M. Gameiro da Silva, J. Rosado Pinto	Type: Conference Proceedings

Report number: LBNL-51010	Year: 2004
Title: Environmental tobacco smoke leakage from smoking rooms	Published in: Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene, Volume 1, Pages 110-118.
Authors: Wagner, J., Sullivan, D.P., Faulkner, D., Fisk, W.J., Alevantis, L.E., Dod, R.L., Gundel, L.A., Waldman, J.M.	Type: Journal Article
Abstract: Twenty-seven laboratory experiments were conducted in a simulated smoking room to quantify rates of environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) leakage to a non-smoking area as a function of the physical and operational characteristics of the smoking room. Data are presented for the various types of leakage flows, the effect of these leaks on smoking room performance and non-smoker exposure, and the relative importance of each leakage mechanism. The results indicate that the first priority for an effective smoking room is to maintain it depressurized with respect to adjoining non-smoking areas. The amount of ETS pumped out by the smoking room door when it is opened and closed can be reduced significantly by substituting a sliding door for the standard swing-type door. An "open doorway" configuration used twice the ventilation flow as those with smoking room doors, but yielded less reduction in non-smoker exposure. Measured results correlated well with results modeled with mass-balance equations (R2 = 0.82-0.99). Most of these results are based on sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) tracer gas leakage. Because five measured ETS tracers showed good correlation with SF6, these conclusions should apply to ETS leakage as well. Field tests of a designated smoking room in an office building qualitatively agreed with model predictions.

Report number: LBNL-52471	Year: 2004
Title: Inhalation of Hazardous Air Pollutants from Environmental Tobacco Smoke in US Residences	Published in: Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, Volume 14, Pages S71-77.
Authors: Nazaroff, W., Singer, B.C.	Type: Journal Article
Abstract: In the United States, 48 million adults smoke 3.5-5 × 1011 cigarettes per year. Many cigarettes are smoked in private residences causing regular environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) exposure to roughly 31million nonsmokers (11% of the US population), including 16 million juveniles. (Upper bound estimates are 53 million exposed nonsmokers including 28 million juveniles.) ETS contains many chemical species whose industrial emissions are regulated by the US federal government as hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). In this paper, average daily residential exposures to and intakes of 16 HAPs in ETS are estimated for US nonsmokers who live with smokers. The evaluation is based on material-balance modeling; utilizes published data on smoking habits, demographics, and housing; and incorporates newly reported exposure-relevant emission factors. The ratio of estimated average exposure concentrations to reference concentrations is close to or greater than one for acrolein, acetaldehyde, 1,3-butadiene and formaldehyde, indicating potential for concern regarding noncancer health effects from chronic exposures. In addition, lifetime cancer risks from residential ETS exposure are estimated to be substantial (~ 2-500 per million) for each of five known or probable human carcinogens: acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, benzene, acrylonitrile, and 1,3-butadiene. Cumulative population intakes from residential ETS are compared for six key compounds against ambient sources of exposure. ETS is found to be a dominant source of environmental inhalation intake for acrylonitrile and 1,3-butadiene. It is an important cause of intake for acetaldehyde, acrolein, and formaldehyde, and a significant contributor to intake for benzene.

Report number: LBNL-47446	Year: 2003
Title: Responding to Sudden Pollutant Releases in Office Buildings: 1. Framework and Analysis Tools	Published in: Indoor Air, Volume 13, Pages 267-276.
Authors: Sohn, M.D., Sextro, R.G., Gadgil, A.J., Daisey, J.M.	Type: Journal Article
Abstract: We describe a framework for developing response recommendations to unexpected toxic pollutant releases in commercial buildings. It may be applied in conditions where limited building- and event-specific information is available. The framework is based on a screening-level methodology to develop insights, or rules-of-thumb, into the behavior of airflow and pollutant transport. A three-stage framework is presented: (1) develop a building taxonomy to identify generic, orprototypical, building configurations, (2) characterize uncertainty and conduct simulation modeling to predict typical airflow and pollutant transport behavior, and (3) rank uncertainty contributions to determine how information obtained at a site might reduce uncertainties in the model predictions. The approach is applied to study a hypothetical pollutant release on the first floor of a five-story office building. Key features that affect pollutant transport are identified and described by value-ranges in the building stock. Simulation modeling provides predictions and uncertainty estimates of time-dependent pollutant concentrations, following a release, for a range of indoor and outdoor conditions. In this exercise, we predict concentrations on the fifth floor to be an order of magnitude less than on the first, coefficients of variation greater than 2, and information about the HVAC operation and window position most reducing uncertainty in predicted peak concentrations.

Report number: LBNL-52202	Year: 2003
Title: Gas-phase organics in environmental tobacco smoke: 2. Exposure-relevant emission factors and indiret exposures from habitual smoking	Published in: Atmospheric Environment, Volume 37, Pages 5551-5561.
Authors: Singer, B.C., Hodgson, A., Nazaroff, W.	Type: Journal Article

Report number: LBNL-51049	Year: 2003
Title: Determining size-specific emission factors for environmental tobacco smoke particles	Published in: Aerosol Science & Technology, Volume 37, Pages 780-790.
Authors: Klepeis, N.E., Apte, M.G., Gundel, L.A., Sextro, R.G., Nazaroff, W.W.	Type: Journal Article
Abstract: Because size is a major controlling factor for indoor airborne particle behavior, human particle exposure assessments will benefit from improved knowledge of size-specific particle emissions. We report a method of inferring size-specific mass emission factors for indoor sources that makes use of an indoor aerosol dynamics model, measured particle concentration time series data, and an optimization routine. This approach provides -- in addition to estimates of the emissions size distribution and integrated emission factors -- estimates of deposition rate, an enhanced understanding of particle dynamics, and information about model performance. We applied the method to size-specific environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) particle concentrations measured every minute with an 8-channel optical particle counter (PMS-LASAIR; 0.1-2+ micrometer diameters) and every 10 or 30 min with a 34-channel differential mobility particle sizer (TSI-DMPS; 0.01-1+ micrometer diameters) after a single cigarette or cigar was machine-smoked inside a low air-exchange rate 20m^3 chamber. The aerosol dynamics model provided good fits to observed concentrations when using optimized values of mass emission rate and deposition rate for each particle size range as input. Small discrepancies observed in the first 1-2 hours after smoking are likely due to the effect of particle evaporation, a process neglected by the model. Size-specific ETS particle emission factors were fit with log-normal distributions, yielding an average mass median diameter of 0.2 micrometers and an average geometric standard deviation of 2.3 with no systematic differences between cigars and cigarettes. The equivalent total particle emission rate, obtained by integrating each size distribution, was 0.2-0.7 mg/min for cigars and 0.7-0.9 mg/min for cigarettes.

Report number: LBNL-50879	Year: 2002
Title: Effect of gaseous ammonia on nicotine sorption	Published in: Proceedings of the Indoor Air 2002 Conference, Monterey, CA, Volume 3, Pages 512-517.
Authors: Webb, A.M., Nazaroff, W.W., B.C. Singer	Type: Conference Proceedings
Abstract: Nicotine is a major constituent of environmental tobacco smoke. Sorptive interactions of nicotine with indoor surfaces can substantially alter indoor concentrations. The phenomenon is poorly understood, including whether sorption is fully reversible or partially irreversible. We hypothesize that acid-base chemistry on indoor surfaces might contribute to the apparent irreversibility of nicotine sorption under some circumstances. Specifically, we suggest that nicotine may become protonated on surfaces, markedly reducing its vapor pressure. If so, subsequent exposure of the surface to gaseous ammonia, a common base, could raise the surface pH, causing deprotonation and desorption of nicotine from surfaces. A series of experiments was conducted to explore the effect of ammonia on nicotine sorption to and reemission from surfaces. Our results indicate that, under some conditions, exposure to gaseous ammonia can substantially increase the rate of desorption of previously sorbed nicotine from common indoor surface materials.

Report number: LBNL-49785	Year: 2002
Title: Measurements And Modeling Of Environmental Tobacco Smoke Leakage From A Simulated Smoking Room	Published in: Proceedings of the Indoor Air 2002 Conference, Monterey, CA, Volume 2, Pages 121-126.
Authors: Wagner, J., Sullivan, D.P. , Faulkner, D. , Gundel, L.A. , Fisk, W.J. , Alevantis, L.E. , Waldman, J.M.	Type: Conference Proceedings
Abstract: The purpose of this study is to quantify the effect of various design and operating parameters on smoking room performance. Twenty-eight experiments were conducted in a simulated smoking room with a smoking machine and an automatic door opener. Measurements were made of air flows, pressures, temperatures, two particle-phase ETS tracers, two gas-phase ETS tracers, and sulfur hexafluoride. Quantification of leakage flows, the effect of these leaks on smoking room performance and non-smoker exposure, and the relative importance of each leakage mechanism are presented. The results indicate that the first priority for an effective smoking room is to depressurize it with respect to adjoining non-smoking areas. Another important ETS leakage mechanism is the pumping action of the smoking room door. Substituting a sliding door for a standard swing-type door reduced this source of ETS leakage significantly. Measured results correlated well with model predictions (R2 = 0.82-0.99).

Report number: LBNL-49576	Year: 2002
Title: Effect of sorption on exposures to organic gases from environmental tobacco smoke (ETS)	Published in: Proceedings of the Indoor Air 2002 Conference, Monterey, CA, Volume 2, Pages 138-143.
Authors: Singer, B.C., Hodgson, A.T., Nazaroff, W.W.	Type: Conference Proceedings
Abstract: The effects of sorption processes on dynamic ETS organic gas concentrations and potential exposures were studied in a carpeted and furnished 50-m3 room ventilated at 0.6 h-1. Ten cigarettes were machine-smoked on six of every seven days over four weeks. Concentrations of ETS-specific tracers and regulated toxic compounds were quantified during daily smoking, post-smoking and background periods. Potential exposures were calculated by period and day. Large sorption effects were observed for the widely used tracers 3-ethenylpyridine and nicotine, and for several toxic compounds including naphthalene and cresol isomers. Short-term adsorption to indoor surfaces reduced concentrations and potential exposures during smoking, while later reemission increased concentrations and exposures hours after smoking ended. Concentrations during nonsmoking periods rose from day to day over the first few weeks, presumably from increased reemission associated with increased sorbed mass concentrations. For sorbing compounds, more than half of daily potential exposures occurred during nonsmoking periods.

Report number: LBNL-47857	Year: 2002
Title: Gas-phase organics in environmental tobacco smoke: 1. Effects of smoking rate, ventilation, and furnishing level on emission factors	Published in: Environmental Science & Technology, Volume 36, Pages 846-853.
Authors: Singer, B.C., Hodgson, A., Guevarra, K.S., Hawley, E.L., Nazaroff, W.	Type: Journal Article

Report number: LBNL-50878	Year: 2002
Title: Inhalation of hazardous air pollutants from environmental tobacco smoke in US residences	Published in: Indoor Air 2002 Conference, Volume 2, Pages 477-482.
Authors: Nazaroff, W.W., B.C. Singer	Type: Conference Proceedings
Abstract: In the United States, 48 million adults smoke 5 x 10^11 cigarettes per year. Many cigarettes are smoked in private residences causing regular environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) exposure to at least 31 million nonsmokers (11% of the US population), including 16 million juveniles. ETS contains many chemical species whose industrial emissions are regulated by the US federal government as hazardous air pollutants (HAPs). In this paper, average daily residential exposures to 15 HAPs in ETS are estimated for US nonsmokers who live with smokers. The evaluation is based on material-balance modeling, and utilizes published data on smoking habits, demographics, and housing. Newly measured exposure-relevant emission factors are incorporated. Comparison of exposure concentration estimates with health-based guidelines for chronic exposure suggests that aldehydes -- specifically acrolein, acetaldehyde, and formaldehyde -- should be of particular concern in ETS. Cumulative population intake results are compared for these compounds against other sources of exposure.

Report number: LBNL-49585	Year: 2002
Title: A pilot study of the behavior of gas- and particle-phase ETS tracers in residences	Published in: Proceedings of the Indoor Air 2002 Conference, Monterey, CA, Volume 2, Pages 500-505.
Authors: Apte, M.G., Gundel, L.A., Dod, R., Chang, G.M., Sextro, R. G.	Type: Conference Proceedings
Abstract: Our previous study of environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) in a three-room environmental chamber showed that smoking history significantly influenced inter-room ETS transport , particularly of gas-phase nicotine. We conducted a three-home pilot study where smoking was limited to one room. Single-smoker residences were monitored during five one-week periods while the smoker participated in a smoking cessation program. Nicotine traced ETS particles were detected reliably in the smoking rooms (SRs) and unreliably in the non-smoking rooms (NSRs). On average, the ventilation- and volume-normalized smoking rate, 0.1 Cigarette-h-1m-3, added about 17 and 4 ?g m-3of ETS particles into the SR and NSR, while average nicotine concentration increases were 2 and 0.06 ?g m-3, respectively. Thus, nicotine tracers may underestimate ETS particle exposure in a NSR (e.g., a child's bedroom) by a factor of 2 to 8. In other words, ETS exposure predicted from nicotine concentrations could be almost an order of magnitude lower than actual exposure.

Report number: LBNL-43840	Year: 1999
Title: Characterizing ETS Emissions from Cigars: Chamber Measurements of Nicotine, Particle Mass, and Particle Size	Published in: Proceedings of the Indoor Air '99 Conference, Edinburgh, Scotland, Volume 2, Pages 903-908.
Authors: Klepeis, N.E., Apte, M G., Gundel, L A., Nazaroff, W.W., Sextro. R G.	Type: Conference Proceedings

Report number: LBNL-43841	Year: 1999
Title: Indoor Transport of ETS Particles And Tracers	Published in: Proceedings of the Indoor Air '99 Conference, Edinburgh, Scotland, Volume 2, Pages 965-970.
Authors: Apte, M.G., Gundel, L.A., Singer, B.C., Sullivan, D.P., Sextro, R.G.	Type: Conference Proceedings

Report number: LBNL-42363	Year: 1998
Title: Nicotine as a Marker for Environmental Tobacco Smoke: Implications of Sorption on Indoor Surface Materials	Published in: Journal of Air and Waste Management Association, Volume 48, Pages 959-968.
Authors: Van Loy, M. D., Nazaroff, W. W., Daisey, J. M.	Type: Journal Article

Report number:	Year: 1997
Title: Sorptive interactions of gas-phase environmental tobacco smoke components with carpet, Paper No. 97-MP3.05	Published in: Proceedings of the Air & Waste Management Association's 90th Annual Meeting & Exhibition, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Authors: Van Loy, M. D., Nazaroff, W. W., Daisey, J. M.	Type: Conference Proceedings

Report number: LBNL-42674	Year: 1997
Title: Dynamic behavior of semi-volatile organic compounds in indoor air: 1. Nicotine in a stainless steel chamber	Published in: Environmental Science and Technology, Volume 31, Pages 2554-2561.
Authors: Van Loy, M. D., Lee, V. C., Gundel, L. A., Daisey, J. M., Sextro, R. G., Nazaroff, W. W.	Type: Journal Article

Report number:	Year: 1997
Title: Real-time measurement of environmental tobacco smoke by ultraviolet absorption	Published in: Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual Conference of the American Association for Aerosol Research, October 13-17, 1997, Denver, CO, Pages 419.
Authors: Gundel, L.A., Hansen, A.D.A.	Type: Conference Proceedings

Report number:	Year: 1997
Title: Implications of nicotine sorption on indoor surfaces on its use as a marker for environmental tobacco smoke	Published in: Proceedings of the A&WMA/EPA Symposium: Engineering Solutions to IAQ Problems, Research Triangle Park, NC.
Authors: Daisey, J. M., Nazaroff, W. W.	Type: Conference Proceedings

Report number:	Year: 1997
Title: Toxic volatile organic compounds in simulated environmental tobacco smoke: Emission factors for exposure assessment	Published in: Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, Volume 8, Pages 313-334.
Authors: Daisey, J. M., Mahanama, K. R. R., Hodgson, A. T.	Type: Journal Article

Report number:	Year: 1996
Title: Investigation of the fate of nicotine in a stainless-steel chamber	Published in: Proceedings of the 89th Annual Meeting of the Air and Waste Management Association, Nashville, TN.
Authors: Van Loy, M. D., Nazaroff, W. W., Lee, V. C., Gundel, L. A., Sextro, R. G., Daisey, J. M.	Type: Conference Proceedings

Report number:	Year: 1996
Title: Volatile N-nitrosamines in Environmental Tobacco Smoke: Sampling, Analysis, Emission Factors and Indoor Air Exposures	Published in: Environmental Science and Technology, Volume 30, Pages 1477-1484.
Authors: Mahanama, K. R. R., Daisey, J. M.	Type: Journal Article

Report number: LBL-37376	Year: 1996
Title: Use of Volatile Tracers to Determine the Contribution of Environmental Tobacco Smoke to Concentrations of Volatile Organic Compounds in Smoking Environments	Published in: Environmental International, Volume 22, Pages 295-307.
Authors: Hodgson, A.T., Daisey, J.M., Alevantis, L.E., Mahanama, K.R.R., Ten Brinke, J.	Type: Journal Article

Report number: LBNL-39492	Year: 1995
Title: Effectiveness of Smokeless Ashtrays	Published in: Journal of Air and Waste Management Association, Volume 45, Pages 494-500.
Authors: Wampler, D. A., Miller-Leiden, S., Nazaroff, W. W., Litvak, A., Mahanama, K. R. R., Nematollahi, A., Gadgil, A. J.	Type: Journal Article