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Contents Tables of Treaties and Decisions xviii INTRODUCTION 1 Part I—The Concept and Identification of Peremptory Norms 1. PEREMPTORY NORMS AS INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC ORDER 1. Peremptory Norms as an Aspect of the Hierarchy of Norms 2. Public Order in National Legal Systems 2.1. The concept and essence of public order 2.2. Ordre public interne and ordre public international 2.3. Doctrines of relativity of public order 2.4. Effects of public order 2.5. Interim conclusions 3. The Proper International Public Order 3.1. The relevance of national public policy in international law 3.2. The necessity of international public order 4. Objections to International Public Order 4.1. Objections to the concept of peremptory law 4.2. Objections to the relevance and character of peremptory norms 2. THE IDENTIFICATION OF PEREMPTORY NORMS 1. General Issues 2. General, Regional and Bilateral Norms 3. Elements of Definition of Jus Cogens 4. Structural (Systemic) Norms and Substantive Norms 5. The Basis for the Peremptory Character of Norms 6. Specific Norms of International Public Order 6.1. The prohibition of the use of force 6.2. The principle of self-determination and its incidences 6.3. Fundamental human rights 6.4. Humanitarian law 6.5. Environmental law 7. Evaluation 3. DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF PEREMPTORY NORMS 1. The Unconditional Character of Peremptory Norms 2. The Concept of Derogation from Jus Cogens 3. The Effect-oriented Character of Peremptory Norms 4. CONCEPTS COGNATE TO JUS COGENS 1. Treaty Obligations Sharing the Character of Jus Cogens 1.1. Objective treaty obligations 1.2. Interdependent or `integral' treaty obligations 1.3. So-called `objective' regimes 1.4. Evaluation 2. The Object and Purpose of a Treaty 5. SOURCES AND MODIFICATION OF PEREMPTORY NORMS 1. Sources of Peremptory Norms 1.1. General questions 1.2. Jus cogens as an autonomous source of law 1.3. Treaties as sources of jus cogens 1.4. Custom as a source of jus cogens 1.5. General principles of law as a source of jus cogens 1.6. Conclusions on sources of jus cogens 2. The Modification of Peremptory Norms Part II—The Effect of Peremptory Norms in General International Law 6. THE EFFECT OF JUS COGENS IN THE LAW OF TREATIES 1. Conflict of a Treaty with Jus Cogens 1.1. Article 53 of the Vienna Convention and objective illegality 1.2. Necessary distinctions 1.3. The scope of Article 53 1.4. The concept of normative conflict under Article 53 1.5. Consequences of voidness 1.5.1. Procedural aspects of voidness 1.5.2. Substantive aspects of voidness 2. Termination of Treaties under Article 64 of the Vienna Convention 2.1. Substantive questions 2.2. Legal consequences of treaty termination under Article 64 of the Vienna Convention 3. State Practice 4. Jus Cogens and Interpretation of Treaties 5. Implicit Safeguards against Derogation from Jus Cogens under the Vienna Convention 5.1. Jus cogens and reservations to treaties 5.1.1. Substantive questions 5.1.2. Legal consequences of reservations offending against jus cogens 5.2. Jus Cogens and application of successive treaties 5.3. Impact of jus cogens on modification of treaties 5.4. Impact of jus cogens on the law of treaty termination 6. Conclusion 7. PEREMPTORY NORMS AND THE VALIDITY OF THE ACTIONS OF STATES 1. General Questions 2. Types of Acts and Actions of States Subject to Jus Cogens 2.1. Illegal territorial acquisitions 2.2. Amnesties for international crimes 2.3. Illegal imposition or deprivation of nationality 8. REMEDIES FOR BREACHES OF PEREMPTORY NORMS 1. Reparation for Breaches of Peremptory Norms 1.1. General questions 1.2. The general impact of peremptory norms on the law of reparation 1.3. The impact of jus cogens on the regime of specific remedies 1.3.1. Restitution as a primary remedy (a) The general primacy of restitution (b) Specific legal contexts reinforcing the primacy of restitution 1.3.2. Compensation 1.3.3. Satisfaction (a) General impact of jus cogens on satisfaction (b) Acknowledgment of a breach (c) Material compensation for moral injury (d) The question of punitive damages (e) Individual criminal responsibility 1.4. Jus cogens limitations on the duty to provide reparation 1.5. Evaluation 2. The Invocation of Breaches of Peremptory Norms 2.1 Third-party countermeasures 3. The Aggravated Regimes of Responsibility 3.1. Criminal responsibility of states 3.2. The ILC's specific consequences for serious breaches of peremptory norms 19. PEREMPTORY NORMS AND THE ALLOCATION OF JURISDICTION TO STATES 1. Universal Criminal Jurisdiction and the Duty to Prosecute Jus Cogens Crimes 2. Universal Civil Jurisdiction and the Duty to Remedy Breaches of Jus Cogens 3. Specific Context of Human Rights Treaties 10. PEREMPTORY NORMS AND STATE IMMUNITY 1. General Questions 2. The Functional Perspective: The Scope of State Immunity in International Law 2.1. The immunity of States 2.2. The immunity of State officials 3. The Normative Perspective: State Immunity and the Sources of International Law 3.1. The immunity of States 3.2. The immunity of State officials 4. The Hierarchical Perspective: The Impact of Peremptory Norms 4.1. Conceptual aspects 4.2. Peremptory norms and the immunity of States 4.3. Peremptory norms and the immunity of State officials 4.4. Immunity from execution 5. Conclusion 11. PROBLEMS OF SUBSEQUENT VALIDATION OF BREACHES OF JUS COGENS 1. General Aspects 1.1. The concept of subsequent validation and its applicability to jus cogens 1.2. Conceptual basis 1.3. Overlapping relevance of specific validation devices 1.4. The concept of estoppel 2. The Impact of Jus Cogens on Specific Validation Devices 2.1. Recognition 2.1.1. The impact of peremptory norms on the validity of recognition 2.1.2. Peremptory norms and the types of recognition outlawed 2.1.3. Peremptory norms and the implications of the duty of non-recognition 2.2. Waiver 2.3. Acquiescence 2.4. Prescription 3. Conclusion Part III—Peremptory Norms and the Powers of International Organizations 12. THE NATURE AND SCOPE OF JUS COGENS LIMITATIONS ON THE SECURITY COUNCIL'S POWERS 1. Substantive Content of Jus Cogens Limitations 2. The Interaction of Substantive Jus Cogens Limitations with the Powers of the Security Council 2.1. The purposes and principles of the UN 2.2. The law of treaties 2.3. Direct and autonomous effect of jus cogens with regard to the security council resolutions 13. THE NORMATIVE CONFLICT BETWEEN A SECURITY COUNCIL RESOLUTION AND JUS COGENS: THE PRACTICE OF THE SECURITY COUNCIL 1. The Concept of Normative Conflict 2. Specific Types of Normative Conflict of the Security Council Resolution with Jus Cogens 2.1. The Council's implicit support for the breach of a peremptory norm 2.2. The relevance of the Council's failure to act in face of the breach of jus cogens 2.3. The claims of subsequent validation of the breaches of jus cogens 2.4. Resolutions explicitly approving breaches of jus cogens 2.5. Resolutions generating the breaches of jus cogens 3. Some General Observations 14. LEGAL CONSEQUENCES OF THE CONFLICT OF A SECURITY COUNCIL RESOLUTION WITH PEREMPTORY NORMS 1. Jus Cogens and the Intention of the Security Council 2. Invalidity of Resolutions Offending against Jus Cogens 3. The Question of Severability of Impugned Clauses 4. The Means of Challenging Resolutions Offending against Jus Cogens 4.1. Protest 4.2. Refusal to carry out 4.3. Judicial review 5. Concluding remarks Part IV—Peremptory Norms and the Powers of International Tribunals 15. PEREMPTORY NORMS AND INTERNATIONAL JUDICIAL JURISDICTION 1. The Relationship between Peremptory Norms and Judicial Settlement of Disputes 2. The Consensual Principle and Judicial Cognizance of Peremptory Norms 3. Peremptory Norms and Judicial Action Proprio Motu 4. Jus Cogens and the Interpretation of Jurisdictional Clauses 5. Jus Cogens and Jurisdiction of the International Court under `Treaties or Conventions in Force' (Article 36(1) of the Statute) 5.1. Reservations to Article IX of the Genocide Convention 5.2. Jurisdiction with regard to the conflict of treaties with jus cogens under Article 66 of the 1969 Vienna Convention 5.2.1. The nature and scope of judicial jurisdiction under the Vienna Convention 5.2.2. Reservations to Article 66 16. JUS COGENS AND THE STANDING TO BRING JUDICIAL CLAIMS 17. THE IMPACT OF JUS COGENS ON FRIENDLY SETTLEMENT AND DISCONTINUANCE OF CASES Part V—The Effect of Peremptory Norms in National Legal Systems 18. TECHNIQUES OF INTERACTION OF INTERNATIONAL JUS COGENS WITH NATIONAL LAW 1. General Questions 2. Direct Effect of International Law 3. Jus Cogens and the Primacy of Domestic Statutes 4. The Reasoning Analogous to the Nature of Jus Cogens 19. PEREMPTORY NORMS AND ACTS OF FOREIGN STATES IN PRIVATE INTERNATIONAL LAW 1. Concepts and Categories 2. The Direct and Independent Relevance of International Law 3. International Law as an Element of National Public Policy 4. Public Policy, International Law and the Act of State Doctrine 5. Evaluation CONCLUSION Appendix 579 Bibliography 591
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Customary law, International.
Jus cogens (International law).
International obligations.