How a chemical enters a person's blood after the chemical has been swallowed,
has come into contact with the skin, or has been breathed in.
Acute Exposure:
Contact with a chemical that happens once or only for a limited period of
time. ATSDR defines acute exposures as those that might last up to 14 days.
Adverse Health Effect:
A change in body function or the structures of cells that can lead to disease
or health problems.
ATSDR:
The Agency for Toxic Substances
and Disease Registry. ATSDR is a federal
health agency in Atlanta, Georgia, that deals with hazardous substance and
waste site issues. ATSDR gives people information about harmful chemicals
in their environment and tells people how to protect themselves from coming
into contact with chemicals.
Background Level:
An average or expected amount of a chemical in a specific environment. Or,
amounts of chemicals that occur naturally in a specific environment.
Cancer Risk:
The potential for exposure to a contaminant to cause cancer in an individual
or population is evaluated by estimating the probability of an individual
developing cancer over a lifetime as the result of the exposure. This approach
is based on the assumption that there are no absolutely "safe" toxicity
values for carcinogens. USEPA has developed cancer slope factors for many
carcinogens. A slope factor is an estimate of a chemical's carcinogenic
potency, or potential, for causing cancer.
If adequate information about the level of exposure, frequency of exposure,
and length of exposure to a particular carcinogen is available, an estimate
of excess cancer risk associated with the exposure can be calculated using
the slope factor for that carcinogen. Specifically, to obtain risk estimates,
the estimated, chronic exposure dose (which is averaged over a lifetime
or 70 years) is multiplied by the slope factor for that carcinogen.
Cancer risk is the likelihood, or chance of getting cancer. We say "excess
cancer risk" because we have a "background risk" of about one-in-four chances
of getting cancer. In other words, in a million people, it is expected that
250,000 individuals would get cancer from a variety of causes. If we say
that there is a "one-in-a-million" excess cancer risk from a given exposure
to a contaminant, we mean that if one million people are exposed to a carcinogen
at a certain level over their lifetime, then one cancer above the background
chance, or the 250,000st cancer, may appear in those million persons from
that particular exposure. In order to take into account the uncertainties
in the science, the risk numbers used are plausible upper limits of the
actual risk based on conservative assumptions. In actuality, the risk is
probably somewhat lower than calculated, and, in fact, may be zero.
Cancer Risk Evaluation Guide (CREG):
Carcinogenic chemicals are selected for follow-up by comparing the concentrations
to the CREG (8). CREGs are derived from USEPA cancer slope factors. Cancer
slope factors give an indication of the relative carcinogenic potency of a
particular chemical. CREG values represent media concentrations which are
thought to be associated with an extra lifetime cancer risk of one-in-a-million.
CERCLA:
See Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act.
Chronic Exposure:
A contact with a substance or chemical that happens over a long period of
time. ATSDR considers exposures of more than one year to be chronic.
Completed Exposure Pathway:
See Exposure Pathway.
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
(CERCLA):
CERCLA was put into place in 1980. It is also known as
Superfund. This act concerns releases of hazardous substances into the environment,
and the cleanup of these substances and hazardous waste sites. ATSDR was created
by this act and is responsible for looking into the health issues related
to hazardous waste sites.
Concern:
A belief or worry that chemicals in the environment might cause harm to
people.
Concentration:
How much or the amount of a substance present in a certain amount of soil,
water, air, or food.
Contaminant:
See Environmental Contaminant.
Dermal Contact:
A chemical getting onto your skin. (seeRoute of Exposure).
Dose:
The amount of a substance to which a person may be exposed, usually on a
daily basis. Dose is often explained as "amount of substance(s) per body weight
per day".
Dose / Response:
The relationship between the amount of exposure (dose) and the change in
body function or health that result.
Duration:
The amount of time (days, months, years) that a person is exposed to a chemical.
Environmental Contaminant:
A substance (chemical) that gets into a system (person, animal, or the environment)
in amounts higher than that found in Background Level, or what would be expected.
Environmental Media:
Usually refers to the air, water, and soil in which chemicals of interest
are found. Sometimes refers to the plants and animals that are eaten by humans.
Environmental Media is the second part of an Exposure Pathway.
Environmental Media Evaluation Guide (EMEG):
EMEGs are media specific values developed by ATSDR to serve as an aid in
selecting environmental contaminants that need to be further evaluated for
potential health impacts (8). EMEGs are based on non-carcinogenic end-points
and do not consider carcinogenic effects. EMEGs are based on the MRLs.
Exposure:
Coming into contact with a chemical substance. (For the three ways people
can come in contact with substances, seeRoute of Exposure.)
Exposure Assessment:
The process of finding the ways people come in contact with chemicals, how
often and how long they come in contact with chemicals, and the amounts of
chemicals with which they come in contact.
Exposure Pathway:
A description of the way that a chemical moves from its source (where it
began) to where and how people can come into contact with (or get exposed
to) the chemical.
ATSDR defines an exposure pathway as having 5 parts:
Source of Contamination,
Environmental Media and Transport Mechanism,
Point of Exposure,
Route of Exposure, and
Receptor Population.
When all 5 parts of an exposure pathway are present, it is called a Completed
Exposure Pathway.
Frequency:
How often a person is exposed to a chemical over time; for example, every
day, once a week, twice a month.
Hazardous Waste:
Substances that have been released or thrown away into the environment and,
under certain conditions, could be harmful to people who come into contact
with them.
Health Effect:
ATSDR deals only with Adverse Health Effects (see definition in this Glossary).
Indeterminate Public Health Hazard:
The category is used in Public Health Assessment documents for sites where
important information is lacking (missing or has not yet been gathered) about
site-related chemical exposures.
Ingestion:
Swallowing something, as in eating or drinking. It is a way a chemical can
enter your body (See Route of Exposure).
Inhalation:
Breathing. It is a way a chemical can enter your body (See Route of Exposure).
LOAEL:
Lowest Observed Adverse
Effect Level. The lowest dose of a chemical
in a study, or group of studies, that has caused harmful health effects in
people or animals.
Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL):
The USEPA has issued drinking water standards, or MCLs for more than 80
contaminants in drinking water (24). The MCLs are set based on known or anticipated
adverse human health effects (which also account for sensitive subgroups,
such as, children, pregnant women, the elderly, etc.), the ability of various
technologies to remove the contaminant, their effectiveness, and cost of treatment
(24). For cancer risk, USEPA generally sets the MCLs at concentrations that
will limit an individual risk of cancer from a contaminant to between 1 in
10,000 (low increased excess risk) to 1 in 1,000,000 (no apparent increased
excess risk) over a lifetime (24). As for non-cancer effects, USEPA estimates
an exposure level below which no adverse health effects are expected to occur.
Non-Cancer Evaluation = ATSDR's Minimal Risk Level (MRL) and USEPA's
Reference Dose (RfD) and Reference Concentration (RfC):
The MRL, RfD and RfC are estimates of daily exposure to the human population
(including sensitive subgroups), below which non-cancer adverse health effects
are unlikely to occur. The MRL, RfD and RfC only consider non-cancer effects.
Because they are based only on information currently available, some uncertainty
is always associated with the MRL, RfD, and RfC. "Safety" factors are used
to account for the uncertainty in our knowledge about their danger. The greater
the uncertainty, the greater the "safety" factor and the lower the MRL, RfD,
or RfC.
When there is adequate information from animal or human studies, MRLs and
RfDs are developed for the ingestion exposure pathway, whereas, RfCs are
developed for the inhalation exposure pathway. A MRL, RfD or RfC is an estimate
of daily human exposure to a substance that is likely to be without an appreciable
risk of adverse (non-carcinogenic) health effects over a specified duration
of exposure. No toxicity values exist for exposure by skin contact. Separate
non-cancer toxicity values are also developed for different durations of
exposure. ATSDR develops MRLs for acute exposures (less than 14 days), intermediate
exposures (from 15 to 364 days), and for chronic exposures (greater than
one year). USEPA develops RfDs and RfCs for chronic exposures (greater than
seven years). Both the MRL and RfD for ingestion are expressed in units
of milligrams of contaminant per kilograms body weight per day (mg/kg/day).
The RfC for inhalation is expressed in units of mg/m3.
Non-Cancer and Cancer Evaluations = USEPA's Preliminary Remediation Goals
(PRGs):
PRGs are developed by the USEPA to estimate contaminant concentrations in
the environmental media (soil, air, and water), both in residential and industrial
settings, that are protective of humans, including sensitive groups, over
a lifetime (6). PRGs were developed for both industrial and residential settings
because of the different exposure parameters, such as, different exposure
time frames (e.g., industrial setting: workers are exposed for 8 hours/day
and 5 days/week vs. residential setting: families are exposed 24 hours/day
and 7 days/week; and different "human" exposure points (e.g., industrial setting:
healthy adult males vs. residential setting: males, females, young children,
and infants), etc. Media concentrations less than the PRGs are unlikely to
pose a health threat; whereas, concentrations exceeding a PRG do not automatically
determine that a health threat exists, but suggest that further evaluation
is necessary.
NPL:
The National Priorities List.
(Which is part of Superfund.) A list kept by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) of the most serious, uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste
sites in the country. An NPL site needs to be cleaned up or is being looked
at to see if people can be exposed to chemicals from the site.
NOAEL:
No Observed Adverse Effect
Level. The highest dose of a chemical in a study, or group
of studies, that did not cause harmful health effects in people or animals.
No Apparent Public Health Hazard:
The category is used in ATSDR's Public Health Assessment documents for sites
where exposure to site-related chemicals may have occurred in the past or
is still occurring but the exposures are not at concentrations expected to
cause adverse health effects.
No Public Health Hazard:
The category is used in ATSDR's Public Health Assessment documents for sites
where there is evidence of an absence of exposure to site-related chemicals.
Permissible Exposure Limits (PEL):
PELs are established by the California Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(CAL/OSHA) to ensure worker safety from exposure to potentially hazardous
chemicals in occupational and industrial settings. PELs are enforceable legal
limits that must not be exceed during any 8-hour work shift of a 40-hour work
week (8). The PELs were set to ensure worker safety (i.e., healthy males)
and may not be protective of sensitive groups, such as, pregnant women, children,
the elderly, etc.
PHA:
Public Health Assessment.
A report or document that looks at chemicals at a hazardous waste site and
tells if people could be harmed from coming into contact with those chemicals.
The PHA also tells if possible further public health actions are needed.
Plume:
A line or column of air or water containing chemicals moving from the source
to areas further away. A plume can be a column or clouds of smoke from a chimney
or contaminated underground water sources or contaminated surface water (such
as lakes, ponds and streams).
Point of Exposure:
The place where someone can come into contact with a contaminated environmental
medium (air, water, food or soil). For examples: the area of a playground
that has contaminated dirt, a contaminated spring used for drinking water,
the location where fruits or vegetables are grown in contaminated soil, or
the backyard area where someone might breathe contaminated air.
Population:
A group of people living in a certain area; or the number of people in a
certain area.
PRP:
Potentially Responsible Party.
A company, government or person that is responsible for causing the pollution
at a hazardous waste site. PRP's are expected to help pay for the clean up
of a site.
Public Health Assessment(s):
See PHA.
Public Health Hazard:
The category is used in PHAs for sites that have certain physical features
or evidence of chronic, site-related chemical exposure that could result in
adverse health effects.
Public Health Hazard Criteria:
PHA categories given to a site which tell whether people could be harmed
by conditions present at the site. Each are defined in the Glossary. The categories
are:
Urgent Public Health Hazard
Public Health Hazard
Indeterminate Public Health Hazard
No Apparent Public Health Hazard
No Public Health Hazard
Receptor Population:
People who live or work in the path of one or more chemicals, and who could
come into contact with them (See Exposure Pathway).
Reference Dose based Media Evaluation Guide (RMEG):
RMEGs are equivalent to EMEGs, but are derived from USEPA RfDs instead of
ATSDR's MRLs (8).
RfD:
An estimate of daily exposure of the human population to a potential hazard
that is likely to be without risk of deleterious effects during a lifetime.
The RfD is operationally derived from the NOAEL (from animal and human studies)
by a consistent application of uncertainty factors that reflects various types
of data used to estimate RfDs and an additional modifying factor, which is
based on a professional judgement of the entire data base on the chemical.
The RfDs are not applicable to non-threshold effects such as cancer.
Route of Exposure:
The way a chemical can get into a person's body. There are three exposure
routes:
- breathing (also called inhalation),
- eating or drinking (also called ingestion), and
- or getting something on the skin (also called dermal contact).
Safety Factor:
Also called Uncertainty Factor. When scientists don't have enough information
to decide if an exposure will cause harm to people, they use "safety factors"
and formulas in place of the information that is not known. These factors
and formulas can help determine the amount of a chemical that is not
likely to cause harm to people.
Source (of Contamination):
The place where a chemical comes from, such as a landfill, pond, creek,
incinerator, tank, or drum. Contaminant source is the first part of an Exposure
Pathway.
Special Populations:
People who may be more sensitive to chemical exposures because of certain
factors such as age, a disease they already have, occupation, sex, or certain
behaviors (like cigarette smoking). Children, pregnant women, and older people
are often considered special populations.
Superfund Site:
See NPL.
Toxic:
Harmful. Any substance or chemical can be toxic at a certain dose (amount).
The dose is what determines the potential harm of a chemical and whether it
would cause someone to get sick.
Toxicology:
The study of the harmful effects of chemicals on humans or animals.
Uncertainty Factor:
See Safety Factor.
Urgent Public Health Hazard:
This category is used in ATSDR's Public Health Assessment documents for
sites that have certain physical features or evidence of short-term (less
than 1 year), site-related chemical exposure that could result in adverse
health effects and require quick intervention to stop people from being exposed.
APPENDIX C: TABLES
Table 1: Summary of the Omega site Shallow Soil Gas Investigation
Soil Gas Location and Depth
Total Vapor Concentration (ppmv)
SG-1-6.0'
0
SG-1-12.0'
0
SG-2-6.0'
311
SG-2-12.0'
308
SG-3-6.0'
150
SG-3D-6.0
129
SG-3-12.0'
551
SG-4-6.0'
1,164
SG-4-12.0'
1,479
SG-4-16.7'
0
SG-5-6.0'
1,034
SG-5-12.0'
1,145
SG-6-6.0'
208
SG-6-12.0'
366
SG-7-6.0'
223
SG-7-12.0'
430
SG-8-6.0'
0
SG-8-12.0'
226
SG-9-6.0'
1,470
SG-9-12.0'
1,344
SG-9D-12.0'
1,470
SG-10R-6.0'
214,783
SG-10-6.0'
2,059
SG-11-6.0'
887
SG-11-12.0'
1,574
SG-11D-12.0'
1,463
SG-12-6.0'
3
SG-12-12.0'
270
SG-13-6.0'
1,162
SG-13-12.0'
529
SG-14-6.0'
9
SG-14-12.0'
1,106
SG-15-6.0'
0
SG-15-12.0'
0
SG-16-6.0'
1,464
SG-16-12.0'
1,202
SG-16-24.0'
94
SG-17-6.0'
1,266
SG-17-12.0'
1,110
SG-18-6.0'
1,462
SG-18-12.0'
465
SG-19-6.0'
925
SG-19-12.0'
2,158
SG-19-24.0'
46
SG-19-24.0'
46
SG-20-6.0'
602
SG-20-12.0'
3
SG-20D-12.0'
261
SG-21-6.0'
478
SG-21-12.0'
1,239
SG-22-6.0'
1,035
SG-22-12.0'
117
SG-23-6.0'
1,193
SG-23-12.0'
210
SG-24-6.0'
1,063
SG-24-12.0'
1,015
SG-25-6.0'
2
SG-25-12.0'
0
SG-26-6.0'
123
SG-26-12.0'
30
SG-26D-12.0'
28
SG-27-6.0'
6
SG-27-12.0'
19
SG-28-6.0'
233
SG-28-12.0'
44
SG-29-6.0'
115
SG-29-12.0'
99
SG-30-6.0'
334
SG-30-12.0'
2
SG-31-3.5'
0
SG-1-6.0' = Sample location number - Depth
of sample; ppmv = parts per million by volume
Total Vapor = Freon-12; trichlorofluoromethane; dichloromethane;
trans-1,2-DCE; 1,1-DCA; cis-1,2-DCE; chloroform; 1,1,1-TCA; 1,2-DCA; TCE;
PCE; 1,1-DCE; Freon-113; benzene; toluene; ethyl benzene; m,p-xylenes; and
o-xylene.
Table 2: Maximum Level of Contaminants Detected in the Subsurface
Soil
Contaminant
Maximum Level (mg/kg)
Health Comparison Value (mg/kg)/Source
Antimony
18
0.8 (ATSDR's RMEG for pica child)
Arsenic
9
0.6 (ATSDR's chronic EMEG for pica child)
Barium
230
100 (ATSDR's RMEG for pica child)
Chromium
210
6 (ATSDR's RMEG for pica child)
Nickel
55
40 (ATSDR's RMEG for pica child)
PCE
260
20 (ATSDR's RMEG for pica child)
Vanadium
67
6 (ATSDR's intermediate EMEG for pica child)
Table 3: Maximum Level of Contaminants Detected in the Groundwater
Contaminant
Maximum Level (mg/kg)
Health Comparison Value (mg/kg)/Source
Acetone
30
20 (ATSDR intermediate EMEG for child)
Benzene
0.075
0.001(ATSDR's CREG)
Chloroform
23
0.006 (ATSDR's CREG)
1,1-DCE
6.9
0.00006 (ATSDR's CREG)
1,2-DCA
10
0.0004 (ATSDR's CREG)
Methylene chloride
150
0.005 (ATSDR's CREG)
PCE
86
0.1(ATSDR RMEG for child)
Toluene
2.9
0.2 (ATSDR intermediate EMEG for child)
TCE
6.3
0.005 (USEPA's MCL)
1,1,1-TCA
14
0.2 (USEPA's Lifetime Health Advisory for
drinking water)
Trichlorofluoromethane
4.3
3 (ATSDR's RMEG for child)
Table 4: List of Metals Analytes
Antimony
Arsenic
Barium
Beryllium
Cadmium
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Iron
Lead
Mercury
Molybdenum
Nickel
Selenium
Thallium
Vanadium
Zinc
Table 5: List of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Analytes
On-site workers in the warehouse or the office building
located on the Omega site. And Off-site workers, recreational users of Skateland,
and residents in the vicinity of the Omega site
Inhalation
On-site and Off-site Workers, Recreational Users of Skateland,
and Residents
Current and future
Omega Site
Groundwater from the City of Santa Fe Springs municipal
groundwater well
Off-site workers and residents in the City of Santa Fe
Springs
Skin absorption, incidental ingestion, and inhalation
Off-site Workers and Residents
Future
Omega Site
Groundwater from private groundwater well
Off-site workers and residents in the City of Whittier.
Skin absorption, incidental ingestion, and inhalation
Off-site Workers and Residents
Past, current, and future
Table 9: Elements of Eliminated Exposure Pathways
Source
Environmental Medium
Point of Exposure
Route of Exposure
Route of Exposure
Time Frame
Groundwater
Groundwater
On-site workers in the
warehouse or the office
building located on the
Omega site and off-site
workers and residents
in the vicinity of the
Omega site served by
the City of Whittier
Municipal water system
Skin absorption,
incidental ingestion,
and inhalation
City of Whittier
Municipal water users
Past, current, and
future
Omega Site
Soil
On-site workers,
especially maintenance
workers, located on the
Omega site
Skin absorption,
incidental ingestion,
and inhalation
On-site and
Maintenance Workers
Future
APPENDIX D: TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILES FOR CHEMICALS
Volatile Organic Chemicals
Acetone
Acetone is a chemical that is found naturally in the environment and is also produced by industries.
Low concentrations of acetone are normally present in the body from the breakdown of
fat; the body can use it in normal processes that make sugar and fat. People and animals
breathe out acetone produced from the natural breakdown of body fat.
People may be exposed to small amounts of acetone by breathing air, drinking water, and
eating food with acetone. Several consumer products, including certain nail polish
removers, particle board, some paint removers, many liquid or paste waxes or polishes,
and certain detergents or cleansers, contain acetone. People who work in certain
industries that process and use acetone can be exposed to higher concentrations than the
general populace. These industries include certain paint, plastic, artificial fiber, and shoe factories.
In occupational settings, workers exposed to high concentrations, which are not normally
found in the environment, of acetone experienced headaches, lightheadedness, dizziness,
unsteadiness, and confusion depending on the length of time they were exposed.
EPA's chronic oral RfD is 0.1 mg/kg/day (critical endpoint: increased organ weights & nephrotoxicity in rats).
The Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) and the International Agency for
Research on Cancer (IARC) has not classified acetone for carcinogenic effects. The EPA
has determined that acetone is not classifiable as to its human carcinogenicity.
Benzene
Benzene is a colorless liquid with a sweet odor.
Benzene is commonly found in the environment. Industrial processes are the main
sources of benzene in the environment. Benzene concentrations in the air can increase
from emissions from burning coal and oil, benzene waste and storage operations, motor
vehicle exhaust, and evaporation from gasoline service stations. Since tobacco smoke
contains high concentrations of benzene, tobacco smoke is another source of benzene in
air.
Most people are exposed to a small amount of benzene on a daily basis. Exposure of the
general population to benzene is mainly through breathing air that contains benzene.
Individuals employed in industries that make or use benzene may be exposed to the
highest concentrations of benzene. These industries include benzene production
(petrochemicals, petroleum refining, and coke and coal chemical manufacturing), rubber
tire manufacturing, and storage or transport of benzene and petroleum products
containing benzene.
Workers in occupational settings are exposed to concentrations of benzene in air far
greater than the concentrations normally encountered by the general population. Very
high concentrations, which are not normally found in the environment, of benzene in air
can result in death. Lower concentrations can cause drowsiness, dizziness, rapid heart
rate, headaches, tremors, confusion, and unconsciousness. In most cases, people will stop
feeling these effects when they stop being exposed and begin to breathe fresh air.
The DHHS, IARC and EPA have determined that benzene is carcinogenic to humans.
Chloroform
Chloroform is a colorless liquid with a pleasant, nonirritating odor and a slightly sweet taste. Most of the chloroform found in the environment comes from industry.
Chloroform enters the environment from chemical companies and paper mills. It is also
found in waste water from sewage treatment plants and drinking water to which chlorine
has been added.
People may be exposed to small amounts of chloroform in drinking water and in
beverages (such as soft drinks) made using water that contains chloroform. You can also
get small amounts of chloroform in your body by eating food, by breathing air, and by
skin contact with water that contains it. People who work at or near chemical plants and
factories that make or use chloroform can be exposed to higher-than-normal amounts of
chloroform.
In humans, chloroform affects the central nervous system (brain), liver, and kidneys after
a person breathes air or drinks liquids that contain large amounts of chloroform.
Breathing high concentrations of chloroform for a short time causes fatigue, dizziness,
and headache. Long term exposure to high concentrations of chloroform may cause liver
and kidney damage.
ATSDR's chronic oral MRL is 0.01 mg/kg/day (critical endpoint: hepatotoxicity in
mice).
IARC has determined that chloroform is possibly carcinogenic to humans. EPA has
determine that chloroform is a probable human carcinogen.
Benzo(a)pyrene
Benzo(a)pyrene is one of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) compounds.
Because it is formed when gasoline, garbage, or any animal or plant material burns, it is
usually found in smoke and soot. This chemical combines with dust particles in the air
and is carried into water and soil and onto crops.
People may be exposed to benzo(a)pyrene from environmental sources such as air, water,
and soil and from cigarette smoke and cooked food. Workers who handle or are involved
in the manufacture of PAH-containing materials may also be exposed to benzo(a)pyrene.
Typically, exposure for workers and the general population is not to benzo(a)pyrene alone
but to a mixture of similar chemicals.
The most common way benzo(a)pyrene enters the body is through the lungs when a
person breathes in air or smoke containing it. It also enters the body through the digestive system when substances containing it are swallowed.
The DHHS has determined that benzo(a)pyrene may reasonably be anticipated to be a
carcinogen.
1,2-Dichloroethane
1,2-dichloroethane is a clear, manufactured liquid that is not found naturally in the
environment. It evaporates quickly at room temperature and has a pleasant smell and a
sweet taste.
The most common use of 1,2-dichloroethane is to make vinyl chloride, which is used to
make a variety of plastic and vinyl products including polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes and
other important construction materials, packaging materials, furniture and automobile
upholstery, wall coverings, housewares, and automobile parts.
1,2-dichloroethane can enter the environment when it is made, packaged, shipped, or
used.
People are exposed to 1,2-dichloroethane mainly by breathing air or drinking water that
contains 1,2-dichloroethane. Exposure usually happens where the chemical has been
improperly disposed of, or spilled onto the ground. People can be exposed to low
concentrations of 1,2-dichloroethane through the skin or air by contact with old products
made with 1,2-dichloroethane, such as cleaning agents, pesticides, and adhesives used to
glue wallpaper and carpets. Such exposure is probably not enough to cause harmful
health effects.
People who were accidently exposed to large amounts of 1,2-dichloroethane in the air or
who swallowed 1,2-dichloroethane by accident or on purpose often developed nervous
system disorders and liver and kidney disease.
The DHHS has determined that 1,2-dichloroethane may reasonably be expected to cause
cancer. The IARC has determined that 1,2-dichloroethane can possibly cause cancer in
human. And, EPA has determined that 1,2-dichloroethane is a probably human
carcinogen.
1,1-Dichloroethene
1,1-Dichloroethene is a chemical used to make certain plastics (such as packaging
materials, flexible films like SARAN) and flame-retardant coatings for fiber and carpet
backing. It is a colorless liquid that evaporated quickly at room temperature.
1,1-Dichloroethene can enter the environment when it is released to the air during its
production or released to surface water or soil as a result of waste disposal.
1,1-Dichloroethene is found at very low concentrations in indoor and outdoor air,
therefore, the potential for exposure in the environment is extremely low. The amounts
are somewhat higher near some factories that make or use 1,1-dichloroethene (those that
make food-packaging films, adhesives, flame-retardant coatings for fiber and carpet
backing, piping, and coating for steel pipes).
Information on the health effects in humans after breathing 1,1-dichloroethene is
insufficient. People who breathed high amounts in a closed space lost their breath and
fainted. Available information indicates that prolonged inhalation of 1,1-dichloroethene
can induce adverse neurological effects and is possibly associated with liver and kidney
damage in humans.
ATSDR's chronic oral MRL is 0.009 mg/kg/day (critical endpoint: hepatic effects in
rats).
The DHHS has not classified 1,1-dichloroethene with respect to carcinogenicity. The
IARC has determined that 1,1-dichloroethene is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity
in humans. The EPA has determined that 1,1-dichloroethene is a possible human
carcinogen.
FREON-11, Trichlorofluoromethane
Trichlorofluoromethane is a colorless, volatile liquid or a gas at 75F.
It is used as a refrigerant, solvent, in foam production and in making fire extinguishers.
Trichlorofluoromethane can irritate the skin and eyes. Repeated exposure can cause
dryness and cracking of the skin. Breathing trichlorofluoromethane can irritate the lungs
causing coughing and/or shortness of breath. Overexposure can make you feel
lightheaded and dizzy. High exposure can cause irregular heart beat, which can be fatal.
EPA's chronic oral RfD is 0.3 mg/kg/day.
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has not classified
trichlorofluoromethane for carcinogenic effects. The EPA has not made a determination
as to the carcinogenicity of trichlorofluoromethane.
FREON-12, Dichlorodifluoromethane
Dichlorodifluoromethane is a colorless, volatile liquid or a gas at 75F.
It is used as a refrigerant, solvent, and in making fire extinguishers.
Dichlorodifluoromethane can irritate the skin and eyes. Repeated exposure can cause dryness and cracking of the skin. Breathing Dichlorodifluoromethane can irritate the lungs causing coughing and/or shortness of breath. Overexposure can make you feel lightheaded and dizzy. High exposure can cause irregular heart beat, which can be fatal.
EPA's chronic oral RfD is 0.2 mg/kg/day.
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has not classified
dichlorodifluoromethane for carcinogenic effects. The EPA has not made a
determination as to the carcinogenicity of dichlorodifluoromethane.
FREON-113, 1,1,2-Trichlorotrifluoroethane
1,1,2-Trichlorotrifluoroethane is a colorless, volatile liquid or a gas at 75F.
It is used as a refrigerant, dry cleaning solvent, foam blowing agent and in making fire extinguishers.
1,1,2-Trichlorotrifluoroethane can irritate the skin and eyes. Repeated exposure can
cause dryness and cracking of the skin. Breathing 1,1,2-trichlorotrifluoroethane can
irritate the lungs causing coughing and/or shortness of breath. Overexposure can make
you feel lightheaded and dizzy. High exposure can cause irregular heart beat, which can
be fatal.
96-hour LC50 for fathead minnow = 1250 ppm.
EPA's chronic oral RfD is 30 mg/kg/day.
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has not classified 1,1,2-trichlorotrifluoroethane for carcinogenic effects. The EPA has not made a determination as to the carcinogenicity of 1,1,2-trichlorotrifluoroethane.
Methlyene Chloride
Methlyene chloride is a colorless liquid that has a mild sweet odor, evaporates easily, and
does not easily burn. It is widely used as an industrial solvent and as a paint stripper. It
can be found in certain aerosol and pesticide products and is used in the manufacture of
photographic film. The chemical may be found in some spray paints, automotive
cleaners, and other household products.
People may be exposed to methylene chloride in air, water, food, or from consumer
products. Because methylene chloride evaporates easily, the greatest potential for
exposure is when you breathe vapors of contaminated air. Contact with consumer
products such as paint strippers or aerosol cans that contain methylene chloride is another
frequent source of exposure. The highest and most frequent exposures to methylene
chloride usually occur in workplaces where the chemical is used.
Breathing high concentrations of methylene chloride for long periods cause dizziness,
nausea, tingling or numbness of the fingers and toes, and drunkenness. In most cases,
effects disappear shortly after exposure ends.
ATSDR's chronic oral MRL is 0.2 mg/kg/day (critical endpoint: hepatotoxicity in rats).
The DHHS has determined that methylene chloride may reasonably be anticipated to be a
carcinogen. The IARC has determined that methylene chloride is possibly carcinogenic
to humans. The EPA has determined that methylene chloride is a probable human
carcinogen
Tetrachloroethylene (10-13)
Synthetic chemical used as a dry cleaning fluid, a degreaser, and as a starting material for other products
Evaporates quickly, but breaks down very slowly
Can travel easily through soils to reach groundwater
Inhalation most common way to enter body, also ingestion if drinking water is
contaminated
Adverse health effects due to chronic inhalation exposure possibly include reproductive effects in women
Higher concentrations of exposure in animals may cause liver, kidney damage
EPA's chronic oral RfD is 0.01 mg/kg/day (critical endpoints: hepatotoxicity in mice and weight gain in rats).
The IARC has determined that tetrachloroethylene is probably carcinogenic to human.
1,1,1-Trichloroethane
1,1,1-Trichloroethaneis a synthetic chemical that does not occur naturally in the
environment.It is used in commercial products, mostly to dissolve other chemicals, such
as glues and paints. In industry, it is widely used to remove oil or grease from
manufactured metal parts. In home, it may be an ingredient of products such as spot
cleaners, glues, and aerosol sprays.
Because 1,1,1-trichloroethane is used so frequently in home and office products, much
more is usually found in the air inside buildings. Also, common consumer products that
contain 1,1,1-trichloroethane include glues, household cleaners, and aerosol sprays.
Thus, people are likely to be exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane vapor at higher
concentrations indoors than outdoors or near hazardous waste sites. In the workplace,
workers may be exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane while using some metal degreasing
agents, paints, glues, and cleaning products.
Breathing high concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane for a short time may cause
dizziness and lightheadedness, and the lost of coordination. Breathing very high
concentrations of 1,1,1-trichloroethane , either intentionally or accidentally, may result in unconsciousness, decrease in blood pressure and the stoppage of the heart.
The IARC has determined that 1,1,1-trichloroethane is not classifiable as to its
carcinogenicity in humans. The EPA has also determined that 1,1,1-trichloroethane is not
classifiable as to its human carcinogenicity.
Trichloroethylene
Trichloroethylene is a nonflammable, colorless liquid at room temperature with a
somewhat sweet odor and a sweet, burning taste. This manmade chemical does not occur
naturally in the environment.
Trichloroethylene is mainly used as a solvent to remove grease from metal parts. It can
be found in some household products, including typewriter correction fluid, paint
removers, adhesives, and spot removers.
People may be exposed to trichloroethylene by its evaporation from paints, glues, and
other products or by release from factories where it is made. People living near
hazardous waste sites may be exposed to it in the air or in their drinking water used for
bathing or cooking.
People who are exposed to large amounts of trichloroethylene can become dizzy or sleepy
and may become unconscious when exposed to very high concentrations. Death may
occur from inhalation of large amounts.
ATSDR's acute oral MRL is 0.2 mg/kg/day (critical endpoint: behavior changes in mice).
The IARC has determined that trichloroethylene is probably carcinogenic to humans.
Metals
Antimony
A silvery-white metal that is found in the earth's crust. Antimony ores are mined and
then mixed with other metals to form antimony alloys or combined with oxygen to form
antimony oxide.
Antimony is released to the environment from natural sources and from industry.
In the air, antimony is attached to very small particles that may stay in the air for many days. Most ends up in soil, where it attaches strongly to particles that contain iron, manganese, or aluminum.
Because antimony is found naturally in the environment, the general population is
exposed to low concentrations of it every day, primarily in food, drinking water, and air. Workers in industries that process it or use antimony ore may be exposed to higher
concentrations.
Exposure to antimony at high concentrations can result in a variety of adverse health
effects; breathing high concentrations for a long time can irritate your eyes and lungs and can cause heart and lung problems, stomach pains, diarrhea, vomiting, and stomach
ulcers.
EPA's chronic oral RfD = 0.0004 mg/kg/day (critical endpoints: longevity, changes in
blood glucose and cholesterol concentrations in rats).
The DHHS, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and the United
States Environmental Protection Agency(USEPA) have not classified antimony as to its
human carcinogenicity.
Arsenic
Arsenic is found in nature at low concentrations.
It's mostly in compounds with oxygen, chlorine, and sulfur; these are called inorganic
arsenic compounds.
Arsenic in plants and animals combines with carbon and hydrogen; this is called organic arsenic. Organic arsenic is usually less harmful than inorganic arsenic.
In the environment, arsenic does not evaporate. Most arsenic compounds can dissolve in
water. It can get into air when contaminated materials are burned, however, it settles
from the air to the ground. In the ground, it does not break down, but it can change from
one form to another. Fish and shellfish build up organic arsenic in their tissues, but most
of the arsenic in fish is not toxic.
You can be exposed to arsenic by breathing sawdust or burning smoke from wood
containing arsenic; breathing workplace air; ingesting contaminated water, soil, or air at
waste sites containing arsenic; or ingesting contaminated water, soil, or air near areas
naturally high in arsenic.
Lower concentrations of exposure to inorganic arsenic may cause: nausea, vomiting, and
diarrhea; decreased production of red and white blood cells; abnormal heart rhythm;
blood vessel damage; and/or a "pins and needles" sensation in hands and feet.
High concentrations of inorganic arsenic in food or water can be fatal. A high level is 60
parts of arsenic per million parts of food or water (60 ppm). Arsenic damages many
tissues including nerves, stomach and intestines, and skin. Breathing high concentrations
can give you a sore throat and irritated lungs.
Long term exposure to inorganic arsenic may lead to a darkening of the skin and the
appearance of small "corns" or "warts" on the palms, soles, and torso.
ATSDR's chronic oral MRL = 0.0003 mg/kg/day (critical endpoints: hyperpigmentation,
keratosis & possible vascular complications in humans).
The DHHS has determined that arsenic is a known carcinogen. Breathing inorganic
arsenic increases the risk of lung cancer. Ingesting inorganic arsenic increases the risk of skin cancer and tumors of the bladder, kidney, liver, and lung.
Barium
Barium is a silvery-white metal that occurs in nature in many different forms called
compounds. Two forms of barium, barium sulfate and barium carbonate, are often found
in nature as underground ore deposits. Barium is sometimes found naturally in drinking
water and food. Other forms of barium compounds such as barium chloride, barium
hydroxide, and barium nitrate are manufactured from barium sulfate.
People may be exposed to barium when barium waste is released to air, land, and water
during industrial operations. Also, exposure near hazardous waste sites may occur by
breathing dust, eating soil or plants, or drinking water that is polluted with barium.
The health effects of the different barium compounds depend on how well the specific
barium compound dissolves in water. For example, barium sulfate does not dissolve well
in water and has few adverse health effects. On the other hand, barium compounds, such
as barium acetate, barium carbonate, and barium chloride, that dissolve in water can
cause adverse health effects. Eating and drinking large amounts of barium compounds
that dissolve in water may cause paralysis or death in a few individuals. Some people
who eat or drink somewhat smaller amounts of barium for a short period may potentially
have difficulties in breathing, increased blood pressure, changes in heart rhythm, stomach
irritation, minor changes in blood, muscle weakness, changes in nerve reflexes, swelling
of the brain, and damage to the liver, kidney, heart, and spleen.
EPA's chronic oral RfD = 0.07 mg/kg/day (critical endpoint: no adverse effect in
humans).
The DHHS, IARC, and USEPA has not classified barium as to its carcinogenicity.
Chromium
Chromium is a naturally occurring element found in rocks, soil, plants, animals, and in volcanic dust and gases.
Chromium has three main forms: chromium (0), chromium (III), and chromium (VI).
Chromium (III) compounds are stable and occur naturally in the environment. Chromium
(0) does not occur naturally and chromium (VI) occurs only rarely. Chromium
compounds have no taste or odor.
Chromium (III) is an essential nutrient in our diet, but we need only a very small amount. Other forms of chromium are not needed by our bodies.
Chromium can enter the environment by the manufacturing, disposal of products or
chemical containing chromium, or burning of fossil fuels release chromium to the air,
soil, and water. Chromium particles settle from air in less than 10 days. Chromium
sticks strongly to soil particles. Most chromium in water sticks to dirt particles that fall to the bottom; only a small amount dissolves. Small amounts move from soil to
groundwater. Fish do not take up or store chromium in their bodies.
You may be exposed to chromium by breathing contaminated workplace air (e.g.,
stainless steel welding, chromate or chrome pigment production, chrome plating, leather
tanning, etc.). Handling or breathing sawdust from chromium treated wood. Breathing
contaminate air, or ingesting water, or food from soil near waste sites or industries that
use chromium. Very small amounts of chromium (III) are in everyday foods.
All forms of chromium can be toxic at high concentrations, but chromium (VI) is more
toxic than chromium (III). Breathing very high concentrations of chromium (VI) in air
can damage and irritate your nose, lungs, stomach and intestines. People who are allergic
to chromium may also have asthma attacks after breathing high concentrations of either
chromium (VI) or (III).
Long term exposures to high or moderate concentrations of chromium (VI) cause damage
to the nose (bleeding, itching, sores) and lungs, and can increase your risk of non-cancer
lung diseases. Ingesting very large amounts of chromium can cause stomach upsets and
ulcers, convulsions, kidney and liver damage, and even death. Skin contact with liquids
or solids containing chromium (VI) may lead to skin ulcers. Some people have allergic
reactions including severe redness and swelling.
EPA's chronic oral RfD = 0.005 mg/kg/day (critical endpoint: no adverse effects reported in rats).
The DHHS has determine that certain chromium (VI) compounds are known carcinogens.
Nickel
Pure nickel is a hard, silvery-white metal, which has properties that make it very desirable
for combining with other metals to form mixtures called alloys. Nickel combined with
other elements occurs naturally in the earth's crust. It is found in all soil and is also
emitted from volcanos.
Nickel may be released to the environment from the stacks of large furnaces used to make
alloys or form power plants and trash incinerators. The nickel that comes out of the
stacks of power plants is attached to small particles of dust that settle to the ground or are taken out of the air in rain.
People may be exposed to nickel by breathing air, drinking water, eating food, or smoking
tobacco containing nickel. Skin contact with soil, water, or metals containing nickel as
well as with nickel plated with nickel can also result in exposure.
The most common adverse health effect of nickel in humans is an allergic reaction to
nickel. People can become sensitive to nickel when jewelry or other things containing
nickel are in direct contact with the skin. Once a person is sensitized to nickel, further
contact with the metal will produce a reaction. The most common reaction is a skin rash
at the site of contact. People who are not sensitive to nickel must eat very large amounts of nickel to suffer adverse health effects.
The most serious effects of nickel, such as cancer of the lung and nasal sinus, have
occurred in people who have breathed dust containing nickel compounds while working
in nickel refineries or in nickel processing plants. Other lung effects including chronic
bronchitis and reduced lung function have been observed in workers breathing nickel.
Current concentrations of nickel in workplace air are much lower than in the past, and
few workers have symptoms from nickel exposure.
EPA's chronic oral RfD = 0.02 mg/kg/day (critical endpoint: decreased body and organ
weights in rats).
The DHHS has determined that nickel and certain nickel compounds may reasonably be
anticipated to be carcinogens. The IARC has determined that some nickel compounds are
carcinogenic to humans and that metallic nickel may possibly be carcinogenic to humans.
The USEPA has determined that nickel refinery dust and nickel sulfide are human
carcinogens.
Vanadium
Vanadium is a natural element in the earth. It is a white to gray metal, often found as crystals. It has no particular odor. Vanadium occurs naturally in fuel oils and coal. In the environment it is usually combined with other elements such as oxygen, sodium, sulfur, or chloride.
Most people are exposed daily to very low concentrations of vanadium in food, drinking
water, and air. Most of your intake is from food. The vanadium in these sources is at
least partially due to naturally occurring vanadium in rocks and soil.
People are exposed to vanadium by breathing it into your lungs and eating or drinking
small amounts in food and water.
ATSDR's intermediate oral MRL = 0.003 mg/kg/day (critical endpoints: mild histological
changes in kidneys, lungs, and the spleen in rats).
If you breathe large amounts of vanadium dusts for short or long periods, you will have lung irritation that can make you cough, and you can also develop a sore throat and red irritated eyes. No studies designed to look for cancer in laboratory animals exposed to vanadium were found.
APPENDIX E: ASSUMPTIONS USED IN KARIMI AIR MODEL
The Karimi Model is a diffusion-based air screening model used to approximate the migration of
vapors from soil or groundwater into buildings above contamination sources. While the Karimi
Model is rather simplistic, it is useful because it provides a rapid evaluation of a number of
elements that affect the concentration of soil gas contaminants. In addition, the elements
considered by the Karimi Model can be estimated or chosen with the intention of producing an
estimate of a "worst case" exposure scenario.
The following assumptions were made pertaining to the Omega Chemical Site Karimi Model:
1. The distance between gas vapors and model buildings is 6 feet or 1.83 meters.
2. Assume that 100% of vapors that reach building foundations will enter the building.
3. The air exchange rate used for the Administration Building was 0.5/hour based on Mueller,
et.al., 1988. Due to the ventilated condition of the warehouse, the air exchange rate used for
calculations of the gases in the warehouse was 1.0/hour.
4. Air filled porosity was assumed to be 0.30 (maximum).
5. Total porosity was assumed to be 0.47, per Weiss Assoc., 1988.
6. The area of the warehouse crawl space was estimated to be 2.4 square meters.
7. The area of the Administration Building was estimated to be 0.85 square meters.
8. The volume of air in the warehouse was estimated to be 20400 cubic meters.
9. The volume of air in the Administration Building was estimated to be 612 cubic meters.
10. The universal gas constant utilized for this model was 0.000082 M3 atm mol-1 K-1
Additionally, it should be noted that a number of additional values are chemical specific values,
such as Henry's Law Constant and the vapor phase diffuse coefficient in air.
