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TABLE OF CONTENTS To the Instructor ix To the Studentx ix About the Authors 1 1 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? 3 The Science of Psychology 4 Psychology, Pseudoscience, and Common Sense 4 The Birth of Modern Psychology 5 Psychology¿s Present 6 What Psychologists Do 9 Psychological Research 9 Psychological Practice 10 Psychology in the Community 12 Critical and Scientific Thinking in Psychology 12 Descriptive Studies: Establishing the Facts 17 Case Studies18Observational Studies 18 Tests 19 Surveys 20 Correlational Studies: Looking for Relationships 22 Measuring Correlations 22 Cautions About Correlations 23 The Experiment: Hunting for Causes 24 Experimental Variables 24 Experimental and Control Conditions 26 Experimenter Effects 27 Advantages and Limitations of Experiments 27 Evaluating the Findings 29 Why Psychologists Use Statistics 29 From the Laboratory to the Real World 31 TAKING PSYCHOLOGY WITH YOUWhat Psychology Can Do for You¿and What It Can¿t 33 2 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 39 Psychodynamic Theories of Personality 40 Freud and Psychoanalysis 41 Other Psychodynamic Approaches 44 Evaluating Psychodynamic Theories 46 The Modern Study of Personality 47 The Genetic Contribution 51 Heredity and Temperament 51 Heredity and Traits 52 Evaluating Genetic Theories 54 Environmental Influences on Personality 55 Situations and Social Learning 55 The Power of Parents 56 The Power of Peers 58 Cultural Influences on Personality 59 Culture, Values, and Traits 59 Evaluating Cultural Approaches 62 The Inner Experience 63 Humanist Approaches 63 Evaluating Humanist Theories 64 TAKING PSYCHOLOGY WITH YOUHow to Avoid the ¿Barnum Effect¿ 66 3 DEVELOPMENT OVER THE LIFESPAN 71 From Conception Through the First Year 72 Prenatal Development 72 The Infant¿s World 74 Attachment 75 Cognitive Development 77 Language 77 Thinking 80 Moral Development 85 Moral Reasoning 85 Moral Behavior 86 Gender Development 88 Influences on Gender Development 89 Gender over the Life Span 91 Adolescence 92 The Physiology of Adolescence 92 The Psychology of Adolescence 94 Adulthood 95 Stages and Ages 96 The Transitions of Life 97 Old Age 99 Are Adults Prisoners of Childhood? 101 TAKING PSYCHOLOGY WITH YOU Bringing Up Baby 103 4 NEURONS, HORMONES, AND THE BRAIN 109 The Nervous System: A Basic Blueprint 110 The Central Nervous System 110 The Peripheral Nervous System 111 Communication in the Nervous System 113 The Structure of the Neuron 114 Neurons in the News 115 How Neurons Communicate 116 Chemical Messengers in the Nervous System 118 Mapping the Brain 121 A Tour Through the Brain 123 The Brain Stem 123 The Cerebellum 124 The Thalamus 124 The Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland 124 The Amygdala 125 The Hippocampus 125 The Cerebrum 126 The Two Hemispheres of the Brain 129 Split Brains: A House Divided 129 The Two Hemispheres: Allies or Opposites? 131 Two Stubborn Issues in Brain Research 132 Where is the Self? 132 Are There ¿His¿ and ¿Hers¿ Brains? 133 TAKING PSYCHOLOGY WITH YOU Food for Thought: Diet and Neurotransmitters 137 5 CONSCIOUSNESS: BODY RHYTHMS AND MENTAL STATES 143 Biological Rhythms: The Tides of Experience 144 Circadian Rhythms 144 Moods and Long-term Rhythms 146 The Rhythms of Sleep 150 Why We Sleep 150 The Realms of Sleep 152 Exploring the Dream World 154 Dreams as Unconscious Wishes 154 Dreams as Reflections of Current Concerns 155 Dreams as a By-product of Mental Housekeeping 155 Dreams as Interpreted Brain Activity 156 Evaluating Dream Theories 157 The Riddle of Hypnosis 158 The Nature of Hypnosis 159 Theories of Hypnosis 160 Consciousness-Altering Drugs 162 Classifying Drugs 163 The Physiology of Drug Effects 166 The Psychology of Drug Effects 166 TAKING PSYCHOLOGY WITH YOU How to Get a Good Night¿s Sleep 170 6 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 175 Our Sensational Senses 176 The Riddle of Separate Sensations 176 Measuring the Senses 177 Sensory Adaptation 179 Sensory Overload 180 Vision 181 What We See 181 An Eye on the World 182 Why the Visual System is Not a Camera 184 How We See Colors 186 Constructing the Visual World 187 Hearing 193 What We Hear 193 An Ear on the World 193 Constructing the Auditory World 195 Other Senses 196 Taste: Savory Sensations 196 Smell: The Sense of Scents 197 Senses of the Skin 199 The Mystery of Pain 199 The Environment Within 200 Perceptual Powers: Origins and Influences 201 Inborn Abilities 201 Critical Periods 202 Psychological and Cultural Influences 203 Puzzles of Perception 205 Subliminal Perception 205 Extrasensory Perception: Reality or Illusion? 206 TAKING PSYCHOLOGY WITH YOU Living with Pain 208 7 THINKING AND INTELLIGENCE 213 Thought: Using What We Know 214 The Elements of Cognition 214 How Conscious is Thought? 215 Reasoning Rationally 217 Formal Reasoning: Algorithms and Logic 217 Informal Reasoning: Heuristics and Dialectical Thinking 218 Reflective Judgment 219 Barriers to Reasoning Rationally 222 Exaggerating the Improbable 222 Avoiding Loss 222 Biases Due to Mental Sets 223 The Hindsight Bias 224 The Confirmation Bias 224 The Need for Cognitive Consistency 225 Overcoming our Cognitive Biases 227 Intelligence 228 Measuring Intelligence: The Psychometric Approach 228 Dissecting Intelligence: The Cognitive Approach 232 The Origins of Intelligence 234 Genes and Intelligence 234 The Environment and Intelligence 236 Motivation and Intellectual Success 238 Animal Minds 239 Animal Intelligence 240 Animals and Language 241 Thinking about the Thinking of Animals 243 TAKING PSYCHOLOGY WITH YOU Becoming More Creative 244 8 MEMORY 251 Reconstructing the Past 252 The Manufacture of Memory 252 The Fading Flashbulb 253 The Conditions of Confabulation 254 Memory and the Power of Suggestion 255 The Eyewitness on Trial 255 Children¿s Testimony 256 In Pursuit of Memory 258 Measuring Memory 259 Models of Memory 260 The Three-Box Model of Memory 262 The Sensory Register: Fleeting Impressions 262 Short-term Memory: Memory¿s Scratch Pad 262 Long-term Memory: Final Destination 264 How We Remember 268 Effective Encoding 268 Rehearsal 268 Mnemonics 269 Why We Forget 270 Decay 272 Replacement 272 Interference 273 Cue-dependent Forgetting 274 The Repression Controversy 274 Autobiographical Memories 276 Childhood Amnesia: The Missing Years 276 Memory and Narrative: The Stories of Our Lives 278 TAKING PSYCHOLOGY WITH YOU How to Remember What You Study 280 9 LEARNING 285 Classical Conditioning 286 New Reflexes from Old 286 Principles of Classical Conditioning 286 What is Actually Learned in Classical Conditioning? 289 Classical Conditioning in Real Life 290 Learning to Like 290 Learning to Fear 291 Accounting for Taste 292 Reacting to Medical Treatments 292 Operant Conditioning 294 The Birth of Radical Behaviorism 294 The Consequences of Behavior 295 Principles of Operant Conditioning 297 Skinner: The Man and the Myth 300 Operant Conditioning in Real Life 301 The Pros and Cons of Punishment 302 The Problems with Reward 304 Learning and the Mind 307 Latent Learning 307 Social-Cognitive Learning Theories 308 TAKING PSYCHOLOGY WITH YOU Shape Up!311 10 BEHAVIOR IN SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT 317 Roles and Rules 318 The Obedience Study 318 The Prison Study 321 Why People Obey 321 Social Influences on Beliefs 324 Attributions 324 Attitudes 326 Individuals in Groups 330 Conformity 330 Groupthink 331 The Anonymous Crowd 332 Disobedience and Dissent 334 Us Versus Them: Group Identity 335 Ethnic Identity 336 Ethnocentrism 337 Stereotypes 337 Group Conflict and Prejudice 339 The Origins of Prejudice 339 Defining and Measuring Prejudice 341 Reducing Conflict and Prejudice 344 TAKING PSYCHOLOGY WITH YOU Travels Across the Cultural Divide 347 11 PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 353 Defining and Diagnosing Disorder 354 Dilemmas of Definition 354 Dilemmas of Diagnosis 355 Dilemmas of Measurement 358 Anxiety Disorders 360 Anxiety and Panic 360 Fears and Phobias 362 Obsessions and Compulsions 363 Mood Disorders 364 Depression 364 Bipolar Disorder 365 Theories of Depression 365 Personality Disorders 368 Problem Personalities 368 Antisocial Personality Disorder 368 Drug Abuse and Addiction 371 Biology and Addiction 371 Learning, Culture, and Addiction 373 Debating the Causes of Addiction 374 Dissociative Identity Disorder 376 Schizophrenia 378 Symptoms of Schizophrenia 378 Theories of Schizophrenia 380 TAKING PSYCHOLOGY WITH YOU When a Friend Is Suicidal 383 12 APPROACHES TO TREATMENT AND THERAPY 389 Biological Treatments for Mental Disorders 390 The Question of Drugs 390 Direct Brain Intervention 394 Kinds of Psychotherapy 396 Psychodynamic Therapy 396 Behavior and Cognitive Therapy 397 Humanist and Existential Therapy 400 Family and Couples Therapy 401 Psychotherapy in Practice 403 Evaluating Psychotherapy 404 The Scientist-Practitioner Gap 404 The Therapeutic Alliance 405 When Therapy Helps 406 When Therapy Harms 408 TAKING PSYCHOLOGY WITH YOU How to Evaluate Self-help Groups and Books 411 13 EMOTION, STRESS, AND HEALTH 417 The Nature of Emotion 418 Emotion and the Body 418 Emotion and the Mind 423 Emotion and Culture 425 The Varieties of Emotion 426 Communicating Emotions 427 Gender and Emotion 428 The Nature of Stress 430 Stress and the Body 430 Stress and the Mind 433 Stress and Emotion 436 Hostility and Depression 437 Emotional Inhibition and Expression 438 Emotions, Stress, and Health: How To Cope 440 Cooling Off 441 Solving the Problem 441 Rethinking the Problem 442 Drawing on Social Support 443 TAKING PSYCHOLOGY WITH YOU The Dilemma of Anger: ¿Let It Out¿ or ¿Bottle It Up¿? 445 14 THE MAJOR MOTIVES OF LIFE: LOVE,SEX, FOOD, AND WORK 451 The Social Animal: Motives for Love 452 The Psychology of Love 452 The Erotic Animal: Motives for Sex 455 The Biology of Desire 456 The Psychology of Desire 460 The Culture of Desire 462 Culture, Gender, and Sex 463 The Riddle of Sexual Orientation 464 The Hungry Animal: Motives to Eat 465 The Genetics of Weight 466 Culture, Psychology, and Weight 467 Weight and Health: Biology Versus Culture 469 The Competent Animal: Motives to Achieve 471 The Effects of Motivation on Work 471 The Effects of Work on Motivation 474 Motives, Values, and Well-Being 477 TAKING PSYCHOLOGY WITH YOU Improving Your Motivation 480 APPENDIX: STATISTICAL METHODS 484 Glossary 494 Bibliography 504 Credits 536 Name Index 539 Subject Index 555
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Psychology -- Textbooks.