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One-Week Field Trips
Each fellowship year, the ComSci Fellows take a one-week field trip within the United States to investigate academic, private sector, and government science, technology, and technology policy. Each ComSci class decides on the location of their field trip.
Class of 2004-2005 -- San Francisco, CA: May 16-20, 2005
Class of 2003-2004 -- The State of New Mexico: May 24-28, 2004
Class of 2002-2003 -- Portland and Bar Harbor, ME: June 9-11, 2003
Class of 2001-2002 -- San Diego, CA: April 22-26, 2002
Class of 2000-2001 -- Puerto Rico: May 7-11, 2001
Class of 1999-2000 -- San Francisco, CA: May 22-26, 2000
Class of 1998-1999 -- Hawaii: May 23-28, 1999
Class of 1997-1998 -- Seattle, WA: April 27 - May 1, 1998
2004-2005 -- San Francisco, California
May 16-20, 2005Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District
(San Francisco, California)
(May 16, 2005)Since 1937, the Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District has served the public interest by operating and maintaining the world-famous Golden Gate Bridge across the entrance to San Francisco Bay. As part of U.S. Highway 101, the Bridge serves as a vital transportation link between the City of San Francisco and the vast Redwood Empire to the north.
The district manages the Bridge, which sees over 41 million vehicle crossings annually, and the Golden Gate buses and ferries, which transport over 11 million passengers each year. A Board of Directors governs the District operations and approximately 1,000 employees with 19 members from the surrounding six counties.
The Golden Gate Bridge is internationally renowned, recognized as one of the Seven Wonders of the World and distinguished as one of the greatest suspension spans ever built. A symbol of American progress and ingenuity, the Bridge itself was constructed entirely with local funding and no federal or state assistance. Because of its excellent design, a history of significant structural improvements and the highest quality maintenance, it is estimated the Bridge has a life of 200 years. However, if an earthquake of Richter magnitude seven or greater with a nearby epicenter occurs, the Bridge could fail.
Ms. Ewa Bauer, Deputy District Engineer for the Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District, hosted the ComSci Fellows’ visit to the Bridge. Following Ms. Bauer’s initial overview, the ComSci Fellows donned safety hats and jackets and toured the Bridge with engineers to witness the seismic retrofit project currently taking place at Fort Point Arch and Pylon S2. The job of retrofitting is complicated by requirements to keep the Bridge open to traffic and to preserve its original design and appearance.
The ComSci Fellows were awed as they stood high upon the Bridge and took in the surrounding views of the City of San Francisco.
For additional information on the Golden Gate Bridge, visit the website: http://www.goldengate.org.
Port of Oakland
(Oakland, California)
(May 16, 2005)The Port of Oakland was the second site visit for the ComSci Fellows during their week-long field trip to the San Francisco area. Their hosts, Mr. Joe Wong, Deputy Executive Director; Mr. Jerry Serventi, Director of Engineering; Ms. Roberta Reinstein, Manager of EH≻ and Mr. Robert Bernardo, Public Information Officer, gave a very interesting and detailed description of the Port’s business operations including their projects promoting a more environmentally friendly footprint. The presentation was followed by a driving and walking tour of the Port and their public area.
The Port of Oakland was established in 1927, and is now a world-class international cargo transportation and distribution hub. The first major port on the Pacific Coast to build terminals for container ships in 1962, the Port of Oakland is now the fourth busiest container port in the United States, behind Long Beach, California; Los Angeles, California; and Newark, New Jersey. Although depth and navigation restrictions in San Francisco Bay limited its capacity by the late 1970s, in the early 2000s, severe congestion at the Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach has resulted in some trans-Pacific shippers to move some of their traffic back to Oakland (especially, if the final destination is not in Southern California, but lies further east). Additionally, the Port is now reaping the benefits of investment in Post-Panamax giant container cranes (installed in March of 2005), dredging, and the transfer of military property, which the Port has used to expand its operations. The Port is serviced by two railroads, Union Pacific and Burlington National Santa Fe, as well as major trucking lines.
Since 1962, the Port has invested more than $1.4 billion to construct 1,210 acres of maritime terminals, an intermodal rail facility, and a maritime support area. This includes development of two new maritime terminals (for a total of 20 deepwater berths and 35 container cranes, 29 of which are Post-Panamax size), a new intermodal rail facility, deepening channels and berths from 42’ to 50’, and a new public park and wildlife habitat. Most of the landside projects have been completed or are nearing completion while the dredging program, which started in October of 2001, will take approximately five to six years to complete.
The Port of Oakland is very proud of their efforts to make the Port a more environmentally friendly location for wildlife and the public. They have two projects, the Middle Harbor Enhancement Area and the Middle Harbor Shoreline Park. The Middle Harbor will become an ecological reserve of shallow bay and shoreline habitats. Commercial fishery species, such as Dungeness crab, flatfish, anchovy, herring, and perch live and feed in these shallow waters, often using them as nurseries for their young. The 30-acre Middle Harbor Shoreline Park will have a mixture of new attractions – an educational center, shoreline walkways, fishing and picnic areas, a sandy beach, and the preservation of historic features; a scenic ten-acre peninsula separating the Port’s navigation channel and the Middle Harbor, will offer fishing, walkways, and an observation tower to take in the expensive bay views and watch birds in the shoreline marsh and newly-restored habitat area.
The Port of Oakland became a very distinctive landmark for the ComSci Fellows during the entire week’s stay as it is easily seen, thanks to the giant cargo cranes, from the entire San Francisco Bay area including the Bay Bridge and the downtown area.
Additional information about the Port of Oakland can be found at http://www.portofoakland.com.
University of California, Davis
Department of Viticulture and Enology
(Davis, California)
(May 17, 2005)“Wine is the most civilized thing in the world,” as quoted by Ernest Hemingway and it was a good quote to consider as the ComSci Fellows began their site visit to the Department of Viticulture and Enology at the University of California – Davis (UC Davis). Dr. James A. Wolpert, Department Chair and Marvin Sands Endowed Chair, and Cooperative Extension Viticulture Specialist, hosted the ComSci Fellows’ visit.
Dr. Wolpert joined the Department in 1985. He is responsible for applied research and grower education programs for Northern California. He has two focal points to his research: evaluation of wine grape clones and evaluation of rootstocks, which are critical decisions in vineyard establishment. Mr. Vincent Stewart, Director of Federal Government Relations, Department Government and Community Relations, accompanied the Fellows on their tour lead by Dr. Wolpert.
The Department of Viticulture and Enology at UC Davis is a research and teaching institution with a goal to help improve the quality and value of grapes, raisins, and wine by utilizing new information and a better understanding of grape and wine qualities. One of their missions is to help grape and wine scientists throughout the world seek answers to questions that have no known or well-established answers. The faculty and staff contribute to a better understanding of grape-growing and winemaking through experiments both in the lab and in the field. These contributions cover fundamental science to problem-solving in vineyards and wineries.
Dr. Wolpert, in addition to answering the ComSci Fellows many questions along the way, briefed the group on the history of UC Davis and his Department. He told the group that on April 15, 1880, the California Legislature mandated the Regents of the University of California to establish a program providing for instruction and research in viticulture and enology. The current Department was established on the Davis campus in 1935 following the repeal of Prohibition. It was here that Dr. Wolpert quoted Thomas Jefferson when he said, "No nation is drunken where wine is cheap." This brought smiles to the group.
There are 13 faculty members who conduct laboratory research, teach, and engage in community outreach. Additionally, the Department has graduated over 1,000 students!
As the ComSci Fellows toured the labs, Dr. Wolpert pointed out that wine pre-dates recorded history and there are at least 4,000 to 8,000 wine grape varieties in the world. He further explained the basics of the winemaking process and the sciences that are involved. At UC Davis, microbiology, plant genetics, analytical chemistry, chemical engineering, food science, sensory science, and plant biochemistry are integral. There is both a science and an art to winemaking. UC Davis ensures the science and as much art as possible. The rest of the art is developed by the individual vintner/winemaker at their winery over the course of their careers. On a more serious note, Dr. Wolpert explained that the Department has to be sensitive to potential alcohol abuse on campus. Students can’t wine taste until they are 21 and there is lots of security associated with the wine stored there.
As the ComSci Fellows continued their walking tour, they learn about when to harvest the grapes, where to grow grapes, the fermentation process, the barrels, storage, irrigation, mechanization, government regulations, pests, “green chemistry,” genomics, economics, challenges, and the future of the viticulture and enology worlds. Some examples of the facts that Dr. Wolpert provided include:
-- Grape growing: It takes almost five years to get grapes into production and they are still trying to figure out the best places to grow the different wine grapes. Sunlight affects the color, pH, and sugar content of the grapes.
-- Fermentation process: There are different ways to produce white and red wines and there are two different ways to begin the fermentation. One can inoculate with a yeast to begin the fermentation or let any yeasts present naturally in the winemaking environment begin the fermentation naturally. There are also two types of fermentations: alcohol and malo-lactic.
-- Harvest time: The time is chosen based on the sugar and tannin contents of the grapes.
-- Barrels: Barrels are used for as long as they aren’t contaminated with something that affects the taste of the wine, which is ultimately a winemaker’s style issue.
-- Pests and “green chemistry”: Ninety percent of pests are controlled with a beneficial insect; they want to develop a green or soft chemistry that will only affect target pests. The glassy-winged sharpshooter is a bane to the industry as it spreads a bacterium that causes Pierce’s Disease that causes a strangulation effect on portions of the grape vines.
-- Economics: This is a $15 billion a year industry where 88 percent of wine is consumed by 12 percent of the population. The United Kingdom is believed to me the next big wine market.
-- Challenges: The next challenges are to grow a good wine in a higher temperature climate. Higher temperatures affect the acidity of the wine. In addition, new ways to control the new sharpshooters will be a challenge as they fly faster, are bigger, and feed year round.
-- The Future: Consumer genetic profiling may be the wave of the future as the industry will try to understand what people like about wines. They do this so that specific wines could be marketed individually. This would include some psychological components.
There is openness in the wine community regarding sharing techniques and best practices. This was surprising to the ComSci Fellows. Dr. Wolpert attributed this to winemaker, Robert Mondavi. There is also the California Enological Research Association (CERA) that was set up in the mid-1980s. CERA is a forum for the pursuit of research in the field of enology where winemakers can share their enological and viticultural methods.
Dr. Linda F. Bisson, Maynard A. Amerine Endowed Chair, Professor and Geneticist joined the ComSci Fellows during the latter part of the site visit. Dr. Bisson’s main area of research is the investigation of the utilization of carbon and energy sources in yeast, with a specific focus on how eukaryotic cells detect energy sources in their environment and prioritize use when presented with a mixture of substrates. Dr. Bisson answered additional questions regarding yeasts and gave a mini-tutorial on sensory science and wine making.
No visit to the Enology and Viticulture Department would be complete without tasting the fruits of their studies and labors. The ComSci Fellows were privileged to sample a Chateau St. Jean Pinot Noir, 1998; a Rare Blends (Davis vintage), 1998; a Bogle Petite Syrah, 2002; and an Oakville Experimental Cabernet Sauvignon (Davis vintage), 1995. As a parting thought, it was good to reconsider a statement Dr. Wolpert had made earlier. He said, “Great wines are made in the vineyard and preserved through the winemaking process.” At the end of the ComSci Fellows’ site visit, this statement was thoroughly demonstrated. Cheers!
Additional information about the research being done at UC Davis can be found at http://wineserver.ucdavis.edu.
Acacia Vineyard
(Napa, California)
(May 17, 2005)As the ComSci Fellows stepped off the van into a slight rainy mist, the sweet smell of nectar was in the air. The group walked excitedly past a sea of well-nurtured vines toward the main building where two smiling faces, that the group later learned belonged to Ms. Muriel Lambert, Director of Marketing and Special Events, and Mr. Michael Beguelin, Director of Hospitality and Sales. They greeted the group with bottles in hand. “Here to learn a little bit about the business?” the gentleman asked. Actually, the ComSci Fellows were there to learn about the business, but mainly the years of agricultural, horticultural, and chemical training and implementation that it takes to produce a $10 bottle of pleasure on aisle six. As the ComSci Fellows waited for the tour guide, master winemaker Mr. Anthony King, to find a stopping point in his duties, the group sampled a little of what has made this vineyard one the premier in the country. There was a Viognier, 2004; a Chardonnay, 2003; and their keynote product, a Pinot Noir, 2003. After a few sips and rinse regiments with the palate, Mr. King made his appearance and the group was on their way outside to the vineyard. The ComSci Fellows walked a short distance and stopped at one of the vines. Mr. King explained that the plants are actually grafted onto a durable root-stock. The grapes themselves have a poor root system for a vineyard setting so they take a more climate friendly and sturdy root-stock, grow that, and then graft the fruit producing plants onto it. This is his fourth year of harvest and the three acres of plants at which the group was looking, produce four to five tons of grapes per acre. He said that one of the main difficulties that they encounter is irrigation. There are irrigation issues for much of their land due to the lack of rainfall and water flow related to the landscape. They also have to battle the birds for which they use a system of patrolling falcons which scare away unwanted predators. Boric acid is also applied to the plants to combat fungus. Mr. King told the group that September is harvest time then in October and November, after only about one and a half months of harvesting, the leaves fall off. Another interesting item about the plants is that Acacia uses a particular bud/vine control system of pruning and shaping so that each of the grapes grows evenly and is mature at the same time. This happens between January and March. In mid-summer, the sugar comes. This means that at that time, the plants are producing on average 25 to 30 percent sugar and some times up to 50 percent. The Acacia method is all-natural growth, but not production process. This brought the ComSci Fellows to the next part of their tour, the processing plant. The grapes come in from the field and are put through a machine which shakes the grapes from the stems and then the grapes are weighed. The grapes are then put through a press. The smashed juice and skins are now ready for the rest of the process. This is where red and white wine diverge. For white wine, the skins are removed through filtering and only the juice goes on to fermentation. For red wine, the skins are left as part of the fermentation process. The fermentation process cleans the wine. Yeast is added periodically and acts as a catalyst for the fermentation, which turns sugar into alcohol. After about two weeks the process is complete.
Acacia, started in 1979, produces about 100,000 cases of wine a year. They employ 30 to 40 people full-time and have a total of about 100 acres.
Acacia Vineyard’s website is www.acaciavineyard.com.
United States Geological Survey (USGS) Earthquake Research Center
(Menlo Park, California)
(May 18, 2005)Geologist, Ms. Leslie C. Gordon, who hosted the ComSci Fellows’ visit to USGS, provided the introductory welcome and general overview.
The USGS is organized with a Headquarters and Eastern Region facility in Reston, Virginia. Central Region and Western Region offices are located in Denver, Colorado, and Menlo Park, California, respectively. Thousands of other USGS employees are working in every State in the Nation.
The mission of the USGS is to serve the Nation by providing reliable scientific information to describe and understand the Earth; minimize loss of life and property from natural disasters; manage water, biological, energy, and mineral resources; and enhance and protect our quality of life.
Created by an act of Congress in 1879, the USGS has evolved over the ensuing 120 years, matching its talent and knowledge to the progress of science and technology. Today, the USGS stands as the sole science agency for the Department of the Interior. It is sought out by thousands of partners and customers for its natural science expertise and its vast earth and biological data holdings. The USGS is the science provider of choice in accessing the information and understanding to help resolve complex natural resource problems across the Nation and around the world.
The diversity of scientific issues that demand attention has prompted the USGS to focus its efforts into four major areas: natural hazards, resources, the environment, and information and data management.
Following Ms. Gordon’s briefing, Mr. Tom Brocher of the Earthquake Hazards Team spoke to the ComSci Fellows about earthquake research. Earthquake research is a primary activity as numerous fault zones run through California. Following several major earthquakes in the 1970s, USGS placed numerous seismometers around the region. These instruments are linked through microwave radio transmission to the Menlo Park facility. Seismic data is provided in real time via the Internet to disaster relief personnel, the media, the research community, and the general public.
Ecologist, Dr. Jan Thompson, spoke to the ComSci Fellows about the San Francisco Bay ecology and water quality. Additionally, the group was able to tour the Water Resources Laboratory where Dr. Thompson explained research being conducted in San Francisco Bay. This research offers a unique long-term data set on numerous physical, geological, chemical and biological parameters.
Two lectures followed the Water Resources Laboratory tour: (1) Mr. Eric L. Geist, Research Geophysicist with the Coastal and Marine Geology Team discussed tsunami research, and (2) Mr. Len Gaydos, a geographer with the USGS Geography Team presented information on geographic research and digital geospatial data.
The USGS offers an amazing gateway to rich data bases, manipulatable maps, newly acquired satellite images, real-time information, and a wealth of reports spanning more than a century of science. A geospatial-one-stop demonstration of the National Map was given by Ms. Christy Ryan, a Geographer with the Natural Science Network Team.
More and more, USGS information is available over the Internet and on CD-ROM. For additional information about the USGS, visit their website at: www.usgs.gov.
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center
(Menlo Park, California)
(May 18, 2005)The ComSci Fellows’ visit to the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) was curtailed somewhat because of the ironic fact that this area of Menlo Park had suffered a power outage that morning. Nevertheless, the ComSci Fellows’ host, Dr. Neil Calder, Director of Communications at SLAC, was very eager to talk to the group anyway and provided an excellent briefing and tour.
SLAC is operated by Stanford University for the U.S. Department of Energy. This arrangement enables SLAC to recruit top-flight scientists through Stanford while the Government provides the funding. It began in 1962 and personnel there performed their first experiment in 1966. In general, SLAC is considered one of the world's leading physics centers and in particular, one of the most innovative.
In 1969, SLAC scientists identified and isolated quarks, which led to a shared Nobel Prize. (A number of scientists have received Nobel Prizes for their work at SLAC.) SLAC’s circular collider has also led to the discovery of the charm, two "families" of elemental physical particles. More recently, researchers discovered a third family of particle. These three families make up the "standard model" of physics.
Currently, the Babar particle physics experiment at SLAC involves 600 physicists looking at the collision between matter and anti-matter that occurred at the universe's birth. This experiment will end in 2008-2010.
SLAC scientists are also involved in research to understand what makes up "dark matter." Only five percent of the universe is accounted for in standard matter; the rest is dark matter that still mystifies scientists.
The accelerator itself is two miles long and connected to a circular particle path. Radio frequency waves accelerate the subatomic particles.
Recently, there has been a big shift to photon science. SLAC scientists analyze synchotron radiation in which x-rays are emitted. The relevant SLAC facility can be upgraded in modular thirds. There are now approximately 50 synchotron research labs around the world.
SLAC personnel are looking forward to using a new linear coherent light source (LCLS) machine. By approximately 2009, scientists will be able to make movies of chemical and biological processes at 10-15 second (femtosecond). This will help the pharmaceutical industry understand how to design more effective drugs.
However, particle physics in general has no practical applications at all now and is focused on conducting basic research on the nature of matter. In general, particle physics experiments tend to be very large and last many years. On the other hand, photon science experiments typically are much smaller and shorter in duration.
No military work has been done at SLAC in the past, but this may well change with the advent of the LCLS facility.
In the next few years, a proposed international linear collider (two straight lines of 20 miles each) could be built in the United States, Europe, or Japan. SLAC is not a contender for this facility because there isn't room on the Stanford campus and because of its proximity to the San Andreas Fault. Where this new collider is finally situated will have important consequences for the national educational base.
More information about SLAC is available at http://www.slac.stanford.edu/.
Agilent Laboratories
(Palo Alto, California)
(May 18, 2005)The ComSci Fellows finished their site visit on Wednesday afternoon at Agilent Laboratories, the central research organization of Agilent Technologies. Their hosts for the site visit were Dr. Darlene J. Solomon, Vice President and Director, and Dr. William R. Shreve, Director of External Research. Dr. Solomon’s responsibilities include developing the company's long-term technology strategy and overseeing the alignment of Agilent's objectives with its centralized research-and-development activities. Dr. Shreve’s responsibilities include partnering with universities and research centers to create technologies for use in Agilent products, and creating methodologies for extracting value from technologies developed at Agilent that do not become part of Agilent products.
Agilent, the world’s premiere measurement company, delivers critical tools and technologies that sense, measure, and interpret the physical and biological world.
Agilent's innovative spirit was ignited more than 60 years ago, when two engineers - Bill Hewlett and Dave Packard - invented the future in their garage. In 1999, Agilent was spun off from Hewlett-Packard (HP) Company after they outgrew HP’s garage, and they continue to support the values so important to the two visionary founders. They also continue to pioneer in the fields that are shaping the modern world. Agilent Laboratories has the purpose of powering Agilent’s future through breakthrough technologies. To accomplish this, the researchers will continue to innovate in the areas of Test and Measurement, Electronics/Computers, Communications/Internet, Biotechnology, and Bioelectronics/Nanotechnology. Some examples of Agilent Laboratories’ innovations are optical mouse navigation, DNA microarray platforms, HPLC-chip MS, and FBAR chips used in mobile phones.
In Dr. Solomon’s overview, she pointed out that Agilent’s focus is to innovate in the areas of communications, electronics, life sciences and chemical analysis to make technological advancements that drive productivity and improve the way people live and work. Agilent is also the market and technology leader in the Test and Measurement, Automated Test, Semiconductor Products, and Life Sciences and Chemical Analysis businesses. She went on to point out that Agilent’s values are innovation and contribution; trust, respect and teamwork, uncompromising integrity (all values from Bill Hewlett and Dave Packard); and speed, focus, and accountability. Dr. Shreve also gave additional comments and answers to questions, as needed.
After the overview, the group was split into two different tours of four laboratories each – Tour 1: Life Sciences, and Tour 2: Measurements for the 21st Century, including Homeland Security.
Tour 1, led by Dr. Shreve, included mini-discussions of projects in the laboratories of the Gene Expression Array for Cardiovascular Disease presented by David Deng, Comparative Genomic Hybridization and Cancer Diagnostics presented by Alicia Scheffer, Systems Biology Studies: Diabetes given by Aditya Vailaya, Teho Sana, and Annette Adler, and Nanopore Technology for Ultrafast DNA Sequencing given by May Tom-Moy, George Yefchak, and Rick Pittaro.
Tour 2, led by Dr. Solomon, included mini-discussions of projects in the laboratories of the Sensor Networks/Distributed Imaging Measurements given by Rick Baer, Millimeter Wave Imaging given by Marty Neil, Micro-TOF for HLS given by Carl Myerholtz, and Finding Eyes for Drowsy Driver Detection and Other Applications given by Julie Fouquet.
The laboratory tours and associated projects were very exciting and there were the usual plethora of questions that the researchers eagerly and happily answered.
After regrouping, the ComSci Fellows’ visit to Agilent Laboratories concluded with a final, general question and answer session with Drs. Solomon and Shreve. The questions ranged from, was the idea to split HP into two companies a good idea, to does Agilent look outside its current key areas? For instance, a question was asked regarding how the researchers brainstorm to come up with new ideas for research. Dr. Solomon replied that there is both a bottoms up approach (e.g., discussions on the sand volleyball court, over coffee, or in the cubicles) and a top down approach consisting of a formal meeting of 10 to 12 researchers who get together for a few days with the incentive to innovate. A question was asked concerning how Agilent prioritizes ideas. The answer was that yes they prioritize, but they look at what has the most opportunities in the near-term (three to four years) and in the long-term. The bottom line is they look at what technology will benefit the company the most. Another interesting question centered on how/if Agilent rewards its researchers for innovation. Small cash awards for patents, the Barney Oliver Award (cash and sculpture) for outstanding technical contributions that demonstrate a level of creativity, innovation, technical depth, or business value and which leads to a useful technical or scientific result, and stock options are given to researchers to honor their novel research contributions.
As the visit concluded, it appeared that there may be potential application areas for some of the Agilent technologies at some of the ComSci Fellows and their agencies. There was mutual respect between the Agilent presenters and researchers and the ComSci Fellows. Overall, it was an enlightening site visit.
Additional information about Agilent Laboratories can be found at: www.agilent.com.
Perspectives from Start-up Founders, Marc Tarpenning and Martin Eberhard
(San Francisco, California)
(May 18, 2005)The purpose of the discussion with these two start-up founders in an informal setting was to get a good idea on their experience in starting up new companies and to know how to succeed in the marketplace.
Mr. Martin Eberhard, CEO, Tesla Motors, Incorporated, has formed two successful start-up ventures. Mr. Marc Tarpenning, Vice President, Digital Engineering, Tesla Motors, Incorporated and a software engineer by training, had background in the oil industry through his work career in Saudi Arabia before joining Mr. Eberhard in start-up ventures.
Both of these gentlemen were successful in launching e-book, which was a commercial success.
Mr. Eberhard spent a great deal of time in discussing his newest initiative (e.g., forming the company called Tesla Motors, Incorporated (http://www.teslamotors.com)). The aim of this company is to produce high-performance electric cars for the high-end market. He talked about key engineering specifications of this car. The energy consumption for this vehicle is projected to be about half of the maximum energy that is currently used in the auto industry.
Both Mr. Tarpenning and Mr. Eberhard discussed the business advantage for start-ups in the San Francisco Bay area. They talked about their interest in emerging technologies such as fuel cells, hybrid vehicles, and energy technologies.
The ComSci Fellows learned a great deal about the business acumen that is needed for initiating start-ups, the interaction needed with the venture capital community in different stages of financing, the need for developing a well thought-out business plan, and how to survive effectively in the marketplace.
Genentech, Incorporated
(South San Francisco, California)
(May 19, 2005)Dr. Paul Moran, Senior Research Associate, escorted the ComSci Fellows during their visit to Genentech, Incorporated. Dr. Moran began with an overview of the history of Genentech, beginning with its founding by Dr. Herbert W. Boyer and Mr. Robert A. Swanson. Before founding Genentech, Dr. Boyer was a professor at the University of California at San Francisco. In collaboration with Dr. Stanley Cohen of Stanford University, Dr. Boyer invented recombinant DNA technology (genetic engineering) – the “gene splicing” technology that allows the insertion of a gene of interest into the DNA of another organism. Mr. Swanson, a venture capitalist, was excited by the new technology, and requested a meeting with Dr. Boyer in 1976. Dr. Boyer agreed to a ten-minute meeting, but as a result of Mr. Swanson’s enthusiasm and belief in the commercial viability of the technology, the meeting lasted three hours and concluded with the formation of the first biotechnology company, Genentech.
The company, which is the leading biotechnology company, uses human genetic information to discover, develop, manufacture, and commercialize biotherapeutic proteins. Such recombinant products are advantageous because they avoid the human pathogens that are sometimes associated with proteins isolated from cadavers, as well as the immunological reactions that may be elicited by proteins obtained from non-human mammals. Genentech encourages good science and publishing of results, and believes that its informal, academic atmosphere encourages innovation. Its first products were two important hormones, human growth hormone and insulin (via Eli Lilly). However, Genentech has broadened its search for new therapeutics, and now has 13 products arising from three main areas of research – oncology, immunology, and vascular biology. Its cancer therapeutics includes recombinant antibodies to treat colorectal, breast, and other cancers. Genentech also markets two recombinant antibodies to treat psoriasis and asthma, both of which are diseases involving malfunctions of the immune system. Finally, Genentech markets three recombinant enzymes used to treat disorders of the vascular (blood vessel) system.
Dr. Moran showed the ComSci Fellows some protein structure diagrams produced by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and x-ray crystallography. Using these techniques, the Protein Engineering Department of Genentech may be able to identify new therapeutics or to improve known biotherapeutics so as to make them more effective, longer lasting, or more selective. Dr. Moran also showed the ComSci Fellows a small scale, ten-liter bioreactor and explained the difficulties of scaling up to the capacity necessary to manufacture biotherapeutics commercially. Purification is also difficult, because the proteins must be pure but active. Activity can be retained only under mild purification conditions. Accordingly, Genentech has developed a pilot plant to purify proteins using column chromatography. Scale up of manufacturing capacity is not easy, but Genentech leads the world in biotherapeutics manufacturing, with more than 250,000 liters of fermentation capacity at two United States’ locations.
Additional information about Genentech, Incorporated may be found at their website: www.gene.com.
National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA) Ames Research Center
(Moffett Field, California)
(May 19, 2005)As part of this site visit, the ComSci Fellows visited four facilities: (1) the “Columbia” Supercomputer, (2) the Robotic Education Facility, (3) the Space Shuttle Pilot Training Facility, and (4) the Air Traffic Controller Training Facility.
The “Columbia” Supercomputer is an integrated cluster of 20 interconnected 512-processors, making it one of the world's most powerful supercomputing systems. The team at the Robotic Education Facility works with grade-school children introducing them to the world of robotics to excite them into becoming future scientists. ComSci Fellows, Mr. Dan Speyer and Mr. Steve Garber were lucky enough to be picked to perform “mock” space shuttle landings in NASA Ames Shuttle Pilot Training Facility. As for the Air Traffic Controller Training Facility, NASA Ames works collaboratively with the Federal Aviation Administration, conducting research in air traffic management to make safer, cheaper and more efficient air travel a reality.
Additional information about NASA Ames Research Center may be found at http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames and http://moffetthistoric.arc.nasa.gov.
Intuitive Surgical, Inc.
(Sunnyvale, California)
(May 19, 2005)Dr. Chris Hasser, Director of Applied Research, hosted the ComSci Fellows’ visit to Intuitive Surgical, Inc. This company is a Stanford Research Institute (SRI) spin-off that was funded in part with DARPA and NASA money and has also received funds from NIST's Advanced Technology Program. Intuitive was founded in 1995, has approximately 300 employees, and has a presence around the globe.
Dr. Hasser discussed the three historical generations of surgery: open, minimally invasive (i.e., laparoscopic), and robotic. Intuitive Surgical’s main product is its DaVinci robotic system for surgery. This system has a surgeon's side console and articulated manipulator arms that hold surgical instruments on the patient side. The instruments are designed to be sterilized and reused approximately 10 to 20 times. A surgeon's hand movements can be scaled up or down on the DaVinci system. It is essentially an electronic "fly by wire" system.
The system has proved to be ergonomically advantageous for many surgeons, as it reduces fatigue. Currently, the DaVinci system is used when the patient and surgeon are both in a conventional operating room setting, but it holds significant promise for telesurgery.
Removing cancerous prostate tissue is a common procedure using the DaVinci system; some open-heart surgery is also performed with it. Criteria for robotic surgery include whether there is good access to the site (an obese patient would not be a good candidate for robotic surgery) and whether other known complications exist (if they do, surgeons would be reluctant to operate robotically). The DaVinci system isn't necessarily advantageous for some routine types of minor invasive surgery.
In the future, the DaVinci system could potentially be used for various other kinds of operations. More technologically sophisticated imagery such as CT scans and ultrasound overlays could also help guide future robotic surgery.
Stereoscopic vision is necessary for depth perception. There is force feedback on the master side, but currently it is too challenging to have this on the slave side. Typically, it takes 20 to 40 cases to train surgeons on the DaVinci system.
The system costs approximately $1.1 million and Intuitive has sold approximately 300 systems worldwide since 1999, when the first system went into place. In terms of the economics, sometimes patients pay out-of-pocket and sometimes surgeons use it even if they don't get fully reimbursed by insurance. It could become more cost-effective overall, as less invasive robotic surgery leads to shorter recovery times for patients.
Typically, health care providers find that if the same surgical team does at least one procedure per week, it's reasonably feasible in terms of cost. Some hospitals use their DaVinci systems up to six or seven times per week.
The proprietary software used for the DaVinci system was developed in-house. Special requirements in terms of quality assurance and redundancy were key.
Additional information can be found at Intuitive Surgical’s website: www.intuitivesurgical.com.
Bank of America Venture Partners
(Foster City, California)
(May 20, 2005)Mr. Jim Jones, Managing Director, and Mr. Eric M. Sigler, Director, explained that Bank of America Venture Partners was founded in 1995, and is now investing a $400,000,000 fund. Bank of America is the single limited partner providing the capital. They are comprised of seven investing partners, one principal and three associates. They take roles of active investors by leading rounds and taking board seats on a portfolio of 60 companies (40 percent software, 35 percent health care, and 25 percent hardware). Mr. Jones and Mr. Sigler explained they expect a 15 to 20 percent IIR and that it typically takes five years to see the return on investment.
They explained what a venture capital is and why it matters (e.g., 10.1 million jobs and $1.8 trillion in sales for 2003). They explained that General Partners manage the fund and get a 1 to 2 percent management fee. They explained that 20 percent returns profits, 40 percent returns capital, and 40 percent loses money.
Bank of America Venture Partners reach out to companies, read journals, attend tech transfer conferences/universities, and use the lawyers’ network to identify potential businesses. Once identified, they evaluate the business’ relative value proposition to the closest competitor as well as the time to market. They discussed that Sarbanes/Oxley has impacted the number of IPOs and making it difficult because of internal controls to investors. They estimated that it can cost $5 million to comply. They typically do not invest in mature industries or government end-markets; they also do not look at overseas because of their active oversight role. They discussed India’s increase in investment in the biotech area and the increase of venture capital groups in China.
Additional information about Bank of America Venture Partners may be found at www.baventurepartners.com.
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
(Livermore, California)
(May 20, 2005)Set in the countryside, far away from any famous bridges or towering skyscrapers, is one the most sophisticated research facilities in the world. After going through a security process that would make the Department of Homeland Security proud, the ComSci Fellows were fortunate enough to have a glimpse inside of this brilliant world to visit three very impressive parts of the compound.
Stop 1 was the National Atmosphere Release Advisory Center. As explained by Mr. Ronald L. Baskett, Operations Manager, this Center is primarily concerned with the tracking, notification, and response process associated with the release of a deadly toxin or agent. The release could be terrorist or accident-related; air or ground associated, and could happen in any part of the country. Consequence management scenarios that incorporate the latest weather and other satellite information and simulation capabilities are run there.
Stop 2 was the Center for Accelerated Mass Spectrometry (AMS). The AMS process is what allows scientist to isolate Carbon 14 isotopes that are used to estimate the age of carbon-based material because its half-life is well-known. Some Carbon isotopes are physically heavier than others. This machine uses their weight in combination with natural gravitational effects to create a maze by which only Carbon 14 will be able to make the turns and the others will be filtered out as they crash into the walls of the AMS during a turn. This technology is used in many fields from Biomedical Research to Anthropology.
Stop 3 was the National Ignition Facility. With the advent of fossil fuel shortages and rising prices, one goal of this facility is to prove that the fusion process can actually work. They have built the world’s largest laser configuration that will be tested in the near future. They want to provide a proof of concept of the combining of atoms to produce more energy than was expelled to combine them, thus fusion ignition.
Additional information can be found at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory’s website: www.llnl.gov.
Class of 2003-2004 -- The State of New Mexico
May 24-28, 2004White Sands Missile Range
White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico
(May 24, 2004)Ms. Debbie Bingham, Public Affairs Officer at White Sands Missile Range (WSMR), met the ComSci Fellows at the security gate and served as their escort to the visitor’s center. In the briefing room, she introduced Rear Admiral (Retired) Paul K. Arthur, Deputy Commanding General and Technical Director of WSMR, who gave a command brief overview of the test range. The mission of WSMR is to provide the Department of Defense (DOD) and its allies with high-quality services for experimentation, testing, and research. The missile range focuses on launching, operational detonations, and recovery testing, but doesn’t itself build or develop new missile technology. The range has provided these services since the first atomic bomb was tested at the Trinity Site on its grounds in 1945.
WSMR is ideal for testing due to its large surface area, 3,200 square miles with 2,343 square miles of leased land, which can be called up as needed. The leased land is allotted to local ranchers and requires a 72-hour notification to allow removal of livestock. Call-ups are limited to 12 in a year. The New Mexico climate is ideal for year-round testing with little or no rain and fairly constant temperatures, which creates a consistent testing environment.
WSMR tests a variety of technologies beyond conventional missiles, including the Army’s Patriot Missile System, MLRS, and HIMARS. The Air Force has tested programs such as the AMRAAM and the Airborne Laser.
WSMR receives $363 million in base funds and approximately $500 million from other organizations for its services. The WSMR work force of some 6,600 employees is a diverse group of military, government civilians, and contractors. The majority of the work force is civilian, which helps to maintain the WSMR corporate knowledge.
Holloman Air Force Base
Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico
(May 24, 2004)Following the interesting briefing at the White Sands Missile Range, the ComSci Fellows moved on to Holloman Air Force Base (AFB), home of the 49th Tactical Fighter Wing and the F-117 Stealth Fighter. The base is also the site of the German Air Force’s Tactical Training Center.
Led by Airman Vanessa LaBoy, the visit began with briefings and tours at the Physiological Training Center, which provides ground-based acceleration training and other aerospace physiology instruction, such as how to handle oxygen-related problems. Training began in 1988. The Air Force had been losing too many pilots and aircraft. The United States and its allies had been outmaneuvered by Soviet pilots who could pull “Gs,” or gravity forces, better. Rapidly accelerating, a pilot can experience “G lock,” a loss of consciousness.
It was pointed out that the training at Holloman AFB is harder than the actual flying experience. Pilots learn how to counteract “G” forces physically and mentally. A pilot must pass the training required in terms of handling the appropriate number of “Gs” for the specific fighter aircraft, such as the F-16. All Air Force tactical fighter pilots will come through the center twice in their careers. Some 27 countries have sent their pilots here for training.
The ComSci Fellows were able to watch a centrifuge spinning around with a pilot inside. The pilot’s physical reaction to the stages of rapid acceleration could be watched on a video screen outside the centrifuge.
The ComSci Fellows also sat in the Center’s altitude chamber, where pilots learn about oxygen deprivation, or hypoxia – how to recognize its onset and respond to it in time. This training would help a pilot facing conditions such as decompression sickness or the shutdown of the oxygen system in the plane. Pilots can suffer from both “G” stress and hypoxia.
Air Force fighter and cargo pilots undergo this training once every five years. Civilian pilots, such as emergency rescue personnel and commercial test pilots, also train here.
Holloman AFB is also home to a solar observatory, which is part of the Air Force Weather Agency. This unit, which calls itself the “solar patrol,” collects data on solar activity from both optical and radio telescopes, does analyses and then sends it all to a central forecast center. Major Cornicelli gave the ComSci Fellows both an electronic tour of solar activity and a physical tour of the facility, showing how the unit does it work.
Worldwide communications, space missions, satellite surveillance and GPS navigation can all be affected by solar emissions. Major Cornicelli pointed out that solar flares – ejections of gas into space caused by the sun’s magnetic dynamics – cannot be predicted. He also discussed the 11-year solar cycle. At solar max, there are more sunspots, more emissions and, therefore, more problems for the military.
This Air Force unit also provides training on how to be a solar analyst. Esteemed ComSci colleague Bill O’Clock successfully completed the solar analyst training at Holloman AFB as a prerequisite for his National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration assignment in Learmonth, Western Australia.
On the way out, the ComSci bus with Denny Sanchez at the wheel drove by the building that houses the 49th Materiel Maintenance Group, whose mission is unique to Holloman AFB. Deployed often, this group sets up Air Force bases in remote locations, such as Afghanistan.
The website for Holloman AFB is: http://www.holloman.af.mil.
National Solar Observatory/Sacramento Peak
Sunspot, New Mexico
(May 24, 2004)The National Solar Observatory/Sacramento Peak is located at an altitude of 9,200 feet in New Mexico’s Sacramento Mountains. New Mexico is an ideal location for observing the sun due to low pollution and an abundance of sunny days. Sacramento Peak is a member of the National Optical Astronomy Observatories.
The ComSci Fellows arrived at the Observatory and were given an overview of the facility by its Director, Dr. Stephen L. Keil. The Observatory is used to advance our knowledge of the sun by providing forefront observational opportunities to the research community. In fact, Sacramento Peak is the major provider of solar-observing assets to United States’ astronomers. The U.S. Air Force founded the Observatory in the 1940s to better understand the effects of the sun on its communication equipment. The National Science Foundation (NSF) and the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy acquired the facility in 1976. The Observatory and its three primary imaging facilities are run by approximately 32 NSF employees and 8 Air Force employees.
The Evans Solar Facility is used to observe the sun’s corona and any transient phenomena, such as solar flares, eruptive prominences and surges. A 16-inch lens is used to image the corona and is designed to block out the bright disk of the sun so that the scientists can study the faint corona, essentially simulating an eclipse. Currently, the facility is only run in the mornings by Air Force researchers. The ComSci Fellows were able to tour the facility and examine the instrumentation used by the scientists to conduct their research.
The Dunn Solar Telescope is the world’s foremost high-resolution solar facility. It is used to investigate granulation, sunspots, faculae, weak magnetic fields, filaments and solar flares. In fact, the facility is oversubscribed by a factor of three so that the Director can select and provide research time to only the best researchers. The facility has a 329-foot vacuum tube in which the image travels down to reach the primary mirror. Interestingly, the visible 136-foot tower is less than half the size of the telescope as the building has 228 more feet below ground. The massive 200-ton telescope is suspended from a container holding ten tons of mercury, which acts as a bearing. This allows the telescope to be easily rotated during research. According to Dr. Keil, the telescope has been “reborn” in the last year by incorporating adaptive optics into the facility. It appears that this facility will continue to be a prime source of solar research for years to come.
The Observatory’s website is: http://nsosp.nso.edu/.
White Sands National Monument
Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico
(May 24, 2004)The first day in New Mexico ended with a tour of White Sands National Monument. The Monument preserves a major portion of the world’s largest gypsum dune field, along with the distinctive plants and animals that have adapted in this harsh environment.
At the northern end of the Chihuahuan Desert lies a mountain ringed valley called the Tularosa Basin. Rising from the heart of the basin is one of the world’s great natural wonders – the snowy white dunes of New Mexico. These dunes rise to more than 60 feet and cover 275 square miles. They are composed of gypsum washed into the Tularosa Basin from the nearby San Andreas and Sacramento mountains. This gypsum was originally deposited at the bottom of a shallow Permian sea 250 million years ago. As the water evaporated, gypsum-bearing marine deposits turned to stone and were uplifted into a giant dome when the Rocky Mountains were formed 70 million years ago.
About 12 million years ago, the center of the dome began to collapse along fault zones associated with the Rio Grande Rift, dropping thousands of feet creating the Tularosa Basin. The remaining sides of the basin above the fault zones created the Sacramento and San Andreas mountains that ring the basin.
All material eroded from the two mountain ranges ended up on the floor of the Tularosa Valley, which has no outlet. Some of the gypsum dissolved from Permian rocks was redeposited in lake sediments and some remained in groundwater, which later recrystallized at the surface. From both lake deposits and surface crystals, extremes of temperature and howling winds break the crystals into sandy particles, which are picked up and borne by the wind, then deposited onto the dunes.
Desert plants and animals have difficulty surviving among the shifting sand dunes. A small number of plants, however, have made remarkable adaptations to avoid being buried by the moving sand. The Soaptree Yucca elongates its stem to keep the leaves above the sand, growing as much as a foot a year. Other plants anchor their roots on a part of the dune and continue to grow on a pedestal of sand after the dune has moved on.
The dunes support a limited range of wildlife, some of which has evolved white coloration to match the surroundings, and exist as species unique to this region, such as a species of mouse, the white sands prairie lizard and the bleached earless lizard.
While conducting a self-guided tour of the Monument, the ComSci Fellows stopped several times to walk through the dunes. Often there were no footprints ahead, just wind-created ripples and occasional lizard tracks. At the end of the day, the sands take on a reddish-pink hue and the surface patterns become more pronounced as the shadows lengthen. The group experienced an overwhelming sense of peace and stillness as the sun set in the late afternoon hours. It will be extremely difficult for the ComSci Fellows to ever forget “High Roller” Bill or “Angel” Anne.
Jornado Experimental Range
Las Cruces, New Mexico
(May 25, 2004)The ComSci Fellows traveled to the New Mexico State University campus in Las Cruces, where they were greeted by Dr. Joel Brown. Dr. Brown is a range scientist with the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), but is stationed with the USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS). The agencies work collaboratively on research and technology issues of mutual interest. Dr. Brown introduced his colleague, Dr. Debra “Deb” Peters, an ARS ecologist, who opened the session by providing an overview of the history of the Jornado Experimental Range, as well as current and future research directions. Research objectives include:
- Identification of key ecological principles of arid lands;
- Development of monitoring and assessment methods;
- Development of remediation strategies; and
- Development of new technologies for rangeland livestock management.
Dr. Peters visually demonstrated through photographs and maps how grasslands disappeared over the period from 1858 to 1998, generally as a result of drought and cow grazing. The current focus is to understand what happens now and to go from here, as there was nothing sacred about the landscape in the 1800s.
Dr. Brown then reviewed the history of the NRCS. He discussed the concept of soil quality, the function of soil and its relationship to rangeland health. Dr. Brown explained that range management is the “second oldest profession,” which generated quite a bit of laughter on such a dry subject! He discussed the systematic approach to describing rangeland ecosystems, the Range Succession model, the Non-equilibrium model, Ecological Site Descriptions (ESDs), and State and Transition models.
Dr. Brown and the ComSci Fellows traveled to the field site – the Jornado Experimental Range. During the ride, he provided an enlightening overview of agriculture and common farming and irrigation practices in this area of New Mexico. The group arrived at the site, where Dr. Brown pointed out some of the items that he had discussed in the lecture. The ComSci Fellows explored areas of the site on their own, questioning Dr. Brown about things they found, as well as recommendations for good restaurants in Santa Fe.
Further information on Jornado Experimental Range can be found at: http://usda-ars.nmsu.edu/.
Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge
Socorro, New Mexico
(May 25, 2004)On a beautiful warm New Mexico day, the ComSci Fellows set off to visit the Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge (NWR), located in the floodplain of the magnificent Rio Grande River. The group started their visit with a walk around the visitor center and grounds. Numerous native habitats and gardens located around the buildings, such as the Desert Arboretum, provide opportunities to view lizards, birds, and other fauna and flora of special interest to visitors.
The mission of the Bosque del Apache NWR is to provide habitat and protection for migratory birds and endangered species and to give the public a high-quality wildlife and educational experience. The Bosque del Apache NWR is located at the northern edge of the Chihuahuan desert near Socorro, New Mexico, and covers 57,191 acres. The central portion of the Bosque del Apache NWR is moist bottomlands, with about one-third of it comprising the floodplain of the Rio Grande, and the rest, wetlands, farmlands and riparian forests created by water diversions. The remaining lands in the Bosque del Apache NWR are arid foothills and mesas extending to the Chupadera Mountains to the west and the San Pascual Mountains in the east. Most of these desert lands are preserved as wilderness areas. The diversity of habitats on the Bosque del Apache NWR is reflected in the animal and plant communities. Many species of mammals occur in the area, including coyotes, mule deer, and elk. Over 340 species of birds and many species of reptiles, amphibians and fish are found on the refuge. Various wetland native plants important to wildlife are found on the refuge including smartweed, millets, chufa, bulrush, sedges, cottonwood, and black willow.
Due to past human development in the area, native bosques, or woods, comprised of willow and cottonwoods have been destroyed and exotic plants, especially Salt Cedar or Tamarisk, introduced. Refuge managers work to maintain and improve habitat through the use of various land management tools, such as farming, prescribed burning, exotic plant control, moist soil management, and water level manipulation.
The visit concluded with a bus tour of the refuge in the company of refuge manager, Mr. Bernard Lujan. During the tour, numerous native birds were sighted, including the roadrunner, western grebe, coot, gadwall, red-winged blackbird, and the Chihuahuan raven.
The website for the Bosque del Apache NWR is: http://southwest.fws.gov/refuges/newmex/bosque/index.html
Sandia National Laboratories
Albuquerque, New Mexico
(May 26, 2004)The ComSci Fellows’ visit to Sandia National Laboratories was organized and hosted by Mr. Victor Chavez, Manager of the Office of Advocacy and Small Business Development. Sandia National Laboratories is a government-owned, contractor-operated (GOCO) facility. Lockheed Martin’s Sandia Corporation operates Sandia National Laboratories for the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Nuclear Security Administration.
Originally, Sandia National Laboratories was known as “Division Z” of Los Alamos Laboratory. In 1949, it became the Sandia National Laboratories and assumed a critical role in carrying out stewardship of the country’s nuclear weapons. The Sandia Corporation has operated Sandia National Laboratories since 1993.
Sandia National Laboratories is primarily responsible for the upkeep, viability testing and care of the Nation’s nuclear weapons and for the non-nuclear components and subsystems of nuclear weapons. Sandia National Laboratories is also charged with maintaining involvement in non-proliferation policy and assessments and support of energy infrastructure assurance and homeland security.
The Laboratories have seven locations, including Livermore, with approximately 8,000 full-time employees of whom about 3,500 have Master’s and Ph.D. degrees. There are also between 1,800 and 2,100 contractors on-site utilized specifically for their specialized expertise and to handle workload increases as needed. Director and President of Sandia National Laboratories, Mr. Paul Robinson, has oversight for an operating budget around $2.3 to 2.4 billion annually.
Whereas Los Alamos focuses on basic science and research, Sandia National Laboratories specialize in the applied sciences and focus mainly on technologies involving electrical and mechanical engineering. This expertise makes them particularly successful with industry testing and development of prototypes. It also helps them to focus on transferring technology into high-tech business applications.
At Sandia National Laboratories, partnerships are essential to success, particularly when it comes to addressing its strategic objectives of responding to national security threats and commercializing technology. Scientists and engineers at Sandia National Laboratories accomplish their objectives by working closely with science and technology engineering foundations, as well as with industry and university partners. Sandia National Laboratories also actively teams up with Los Alamos and Lawrence Livermore Laboratories on many projects.
Partnership activities that subsequently give access to leading-edge technology have led to many break-through successes. One such success is the development of decontamination foam that renders environmental contamination harmless. This technology was used in the Hart Senate Office Building and in the post office in Washington, D.C., that were contaminated with anthrax. Other successes include a “chemlab-on-a-chip” micro lab to be used as a biochemical micro-sensor, which could soon be used by first responders.
Sandia National Laboratories employs many mechanisms for technology partnerships including Memoranda of Understanding, Consortia, Cooperative Research and Development Agreements (CRADAs) and an Entrepreneurial Separation program, a unique model that allows scientists to start new technology businesses while on an employment sabbatical from their duties at Sandia National Laboratories. Employees can return to the lab after three years. Sandia additionally offers Small Business Technical Assistance (SBTA) services through a special relationship with the local Manufacturing Extension Partnership Center. The SBTA is the only program of its kind in the country.
Sandia’s use of CRADAs includes one of the largest ever ($350 million) to develop the extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL) with Intel, Motorola, IBM, Livermore and Los Alamos. This endeavor created a whole new technology and required national laboratories and industry competitors to work together to achieve this major accomplishment.
Even though the majority of the work carried out at Sandia National Laboratories is classified, employees are able to file for patents – between 300-350 patent applications yearly with some 200-275 patents accepted through the process. All of the partnerships and collaborations have yielded Sandi National Laboratories 42 R&D 100 Awards, with 24 of the awards coming directly from industry collaborations.
Continued industry and academic alliances have allowed Sandia National Laboratories to recently announce the groundbreaking of a new Center for Nanotechnology, which will include a micro-systems computer simulation testing unit. This will offer a low-cost approach and improved performance in the production of a sensor with the ability to sense, think, act and communicate.
After the presentation, the ComSci Fellows visited several of the labs to see and learn more about the Standard Electric Microscope and Materials Characterization Analysis. At the Micro Analytical Systems Laboratory, the group saw a display board of the much-heralded micro-chemlab. In the Advanced Manufacturing Laboratory, a rapid prototyper, meso-machining apparatus that uses a computer-assisted design (CAD) laser system to extrude metal, which solidifies into an exact solid metal prototype, was seen.
Sandia National Laboratories’ website is: http://www.sandia.gov.
Intel Manufacturing Plant
Rio Rancho, New Mexico
(May 26, 2004)The ComSci Fellows were greeted by Ms. Leslie McNertney, Community Relations Manager, Office of Public Affairs, at Intel’s manufacturing plant in Rio Rancho. An overview of the plant was presented by Mr. Bruce Sohn, Fab 11X Factory Manager. Mr. Sohn informed the ComSci Fellows that Intel’s plant is listed as the top fabrication facility in Semiconductor Industrial Magazine. Dr. Gordon Moore, one of the founders of Intel Corporation, predicted that the performances of the transistors will double every 18 months, which is now referred as Moore’s Law. Currently, Moore’s Law is driving the development of semiconductor technology. According to Mr. Sohn, state-of-the-art lithographic limits are 90nm with gate lengths less than 50nm, thereby resulting in 90 million transistors on a chip. Intel plans to achieve 45nm by 2007. According to the ITRS Semiconductor road map, it will be possible to put 1.6 billion transistors on a chip.
Mr. Sohn further informed the ComSci Fellows that Intel came to New Mexico in 1980 and began operations with fewer than 25 employees. Currently, Intel employs more than 5,000 people, and is the largest private industrial employer in New Mexico. The site consists of two manufacturing plants, Fab11 and Fab11X, which are among the most advanced microchip-making facilities in the world. Intel’s technology roadmap has led to manufacturing on larger 8-12-inch wafers for more efficient manufacturing. Fab11 produces the full range of Intel’s product line, including flash memories which are used in portable electronic products, such as mobile phones and digital cameras; Intel® Celeron™ processors for basic computers; Intel® Pentium® II; Pentium® III Xeon™, and Pentium® 4 processors for high-end workstations and servers. The Fab11X plant began production in October 2002 and is Intel’s first high-volume 300mm or 12-inch, manufacturing facility. It is also Intel’s first fully automated factory. The facility includes complete integrated material scheduling and movement capability, fully Web-enabled decision support systems and remote e-diagnostic capability. The manufacturing takes place in a Class-10 clean room. Fab11X products will include next generation Intel® Pentium® 4 processors, Centrino wireless laptops and Itanium 2 servers with 1.8 billion transistors. Intel’s facility includes more than four million square feet of manufacturing facilities and office space.
Mr. Sohn further emphasized that Intel employees take their talent and dedication into the community, where they are actively involved in education and civic programs. After the presentation, the ComSci Fellows were given a short tour of the plant and were able to observe some of the operations in progress.
The website for Intel New Mexico is: http://www.intel.com/community/newmexico
Center for High Technology Materials
Albuquerque, New Mexico
(May 26, 2004)The ComSci Fellows arrived at the Center for High Technology Materials (CHTM) and were greeted by Professor Steve Brueck, the CHTM Director, and Professors Kirsty Mills and Luke Lester, both Associate Directors. Dr. Brueck gave an overview of the CHTM. The CHTM at the University of New Mexico (UNM) is one of five such centers in the United States and was established by the State of New Mexico in 1983. The objectives of the CHTM are to: 1) create a research education Center of Excellence at UNM in electronics and photonics materials, processing, and devices, 2) enhance interaction between UNM, Federal Laboratories, and industries, and 3) promote economic development within New Mexico. The CHTM has 60K square feet, clean-room laboratories, offices, and five MBEs (Molecular Beam Epitaxy). The most fascinating facilities are their two new crystal growth reactors, the Metal Organic Chemical and Volatile Deposition (MOCVD), situated in 3K square feet.
The CHTM is staffed by faculty from Chemical Engineering, Physics, and Materials, with research staff/faculty and graduate and undergraduate students. Research and education are focused in opto-advanced microelectronics and nanoscience, hardware layer of information technology, materials, fabricated devices, and sub-systems. The annual contract revenue is about $7.7 million, where 80 percent of the funds come from the Federal Government and 20 percent from industry. In Optoelectronics, the marriage of optics and electronics, the focus is on semiconductor laser sources, modulators, detection, microelectronics, and nanoscience and nanotechnology.
CHTM offers high-quality, advanced research capabilities, where, for example, a novel semiconductor device can be designed, fabricated and evaluated completely in-house (vertical integration). Vertical integration is a key to CHTM’s strong research capabilities. To create a useful semiconductor device, a clear understanding of device theory is necessary. CHTM faculty is experienced in the theory and practice of a wide range of photonics and microelectronics devices and they have access to powerful computing power when required for device simulation. The structure of modern semiconductor devices can comprise literally hundreds of individual layers that must be grown with a tight tolerance. CHTM boasts its two MOCVD reactors and five MBE systems for the materials growth of advanced epitaxial semiconductor structures. CHTM's clean room offers a full range of process equipment for the fabrication of advanced semiconductor devices. Characterization provides critical feedback at all stages of fabrication and CHTM laboratories are extremely well-equipped with electrical and optical test equipment for the evaluation of materials, devices and systems.
In terms of the CHTM’s funding, a large part (65 to 70 percent) of funding comes from the Department of Defense. The Department of Energy and the National Science Foundation are also supporting the CHTM. In addition, the State of New Mexico, industry, and the University of New Mexico co-fund the center.
Dr. Brueck gave an organizational chronology on CHTM from 1983 to date. The major research “products” of the CHTM are: Vertical cavity surface-emitting lasers, High-power semiconductor diode laser, Semiconductor manufacturing metrology, Nanoscale fabrication, Quantum well and quantum dot physics, Visible light-emitters and lasers, and Ultrafast and ultra-high spatial resolution spectroscopies. The CHTM’s interdisciplinary core competences are: Semiconductor materials, Dielectric materials, Lithography, Modeling, Lasers, Optical and Electronic Devices, Spectroscopy, Scanning Probes, Electron Microscopy, Non-linear Optimization, Biomaterials, and System Studies. Dr. Brueck also described two initiatives: 1) National Nanotechnology Infrastructure Network (NNIN), which is funded at $14 million per year for ten years; and 2) the Department of Advance Research and Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) funded OptoCenter. He summarized some of the CHTM’s accomplishments: more than 114 M.S. and 125 Ph.D. students have graduated from the CHTM/UNM, over 900 journal articles have been published, and 53 patents have been granted. In addition, five companies were spun off from the CHTM center, and over $105 million in grants and contracts have been awarded.
After this overview, Drs. Mills and Lester gave the ComSci Fellows a laboratory tour. They visited several laboratories, including CHTM’s new MOCVD reactor, the state-of-the-art model P75 (manufactured by VEECO of New Jersey) used for the growth of III-nitrides for HBTs, UV LEDs and other advanced III-N device structures in CHTM research programs. They also visited one of the five MBE (Molecular Beam Epitaxy) systems for the materials growth of advanced epitaxial semiconductor structures.
The CHTM website is: www.chtm.unm.edu.
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Los Alamos, New Mexico
(May 27, 2004)Day four of the ComSci field trip began with a scenic one-hour drive from Santa Fe along Highway 4 to the township of Los Alamos, which resides on the Pajarito Plateau and is overlooked by the Jemez Mountain range. Upon arrival in Los Alamos, Mr. John Rhodes, Director of the Bradbury Science Center, became the ComSci Fellows’ host and treated the group to a very candid and extremely interesting discussion on the history and mission of the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL).
Mr. Rhodes began his presentation focusing on the history and geological makeup of the surrounding area. He informed the group that, in the early 1900s, Los Alamos was basically a ranch school for boys, which provided a hardy atmosphere for learning basic academic skills, as well as engaging in many outdoor activities. By 1930, the Los Alamos Ranch School had an enrollment of approximately 45 students and offered a six-year program. During the 1930s, a visitor rode over the mesas on a pack trip that would later have great portent for the future of Los Alamos. This visitor was Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer who had a summer home across the valley in the high mountains at the headwaters of the Pecos River, east of Santa Fe. Mr. Rhodes emphasized that Dr. Oppenheimer would remember Los Alamos upon being confronted with the overwhelming task of assisting the Corps of Engineers in establishing a secret laboratory site that would be known as the Manhattan Project.
On December 7, 1942 (one year after the attack on Pearl Harbor), the U.S. Government acquired the land on which the Los Alamos Ranch School resided. On January 1, 1943, the University of California was selected to operate a new laboratory using the ranch school buildings, and a formal nonprofit contract was established with the Manhattan Engineer District of the Army. Though there were many factors that went into selecting Los Alamos as the site to develop the atomic bomb, such as land already owned by the government, easy control access for security and safety, infrastructure in place, and a location far from both coasts, Mr. Rhodes provided some fascinating, yet possibly unsettling geological information. He revealed that one of the main geological features in the region was a volcano, and it had been hotly debated by various geologists as to whether it was an extinct volcano or merely a dormant one. Mr. Rhodes pondered the question why anyone would want to build a nuclear manufacturing or testing facility near what could be an active geological fault. This question was basically answered by more than 30 years of U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) research. This research showed strong evidence that the volcano is actually a caldera – a volcano that has collapsed on itself after spewing all its insides out. In other words, the volcano is now considered extinct and non-active.
The current LANL is governed under the Department of Energy and the National Nuclear Security Administration and its director is appointed by a Board of Regents. The annual budget for LANL is approximately $2 billion. Mr. Rhodes again emphasized that the LANL is still managed by the University of California, but a new open contract is being developed that allows for the possibility of new management. Mr. Rhodes pointed out that the average age for a LANL employee is 42 years old and one-third of the laboratory personnel can presently retire. He also candidly pointed out that the laboratory employees are mostly Caucasian, and that the lab has to provide some solutions concerning equal opportunity issues. LANL started in what is now downtown Los Alamos. Only a few of the original Manhattan Project buildings still remain. Los Alamos County currently covers approximately 40 square miles and employs 18,000 people. About half of the employees live in the Los Alamos area, while the other 50 percent live in Santa Fe. LANL is one of the major economic engines in northern New Mexico.
With tongue in cheek, Mr. Rhodes described LANL as 1,000 programs joined by a common janitorial service. He then provided some information on three critical areas that highlighted just what LANL actually does. First and foremost, the laboratory has a nuclear weapons mission. This mission began in 1943 and centers on the idea that weapons in the United States’ nuclear stockpile will perform as described. The last nuclear weapon made entered the stockpile in 1989. The task to ensure that the United States has a functional nuclear arsenal is challenging, especially in light of international treaties that have banned above and below surface nuclear testing since 1992. Mr. Rhodes strongly emphasized that LANL is not a storage facility for nuclear weapons; it is a place where theoretical and design-level management for nuclear weapons occurs. Secondly, LANL has a threat reduction program that focuses on homeland security and weapons of mass destruction. Training personnel in determining where supplies of non-United States’ nuclear materials are stored, such as in Russian stockpiles, and understanding the possible methods that these same materials could find their way into the wrong hands are primary concerns within this program. Lastly, LANL has a strategic research program that looks into a variety of disciplines, such as scientific computing, genetic investigations, deep space astronomy, energy and material science.
The remainder of the visit consisted of a 30-minute bus tour conducted by Mr. Rhodes. He pointed out various historical landmarks that still remain from the Manhattan Project and facilities that were not accessible because of their highly classified operations. He also covered a variety of other topics that ranged from the devastating fire that destroyed over 400 homes in the region a few years ago to the enormous number of PhDs that live in Los Alamos.
The LANL website is: http://www.lanl.gov.
Bandelier National Monument
Los Alamos, New Mexico
(May 27, 2004)The ComSci Fellows arrived at Bandelier National Park, and were given an introduction to the history of the area by Ms. Chris Judson, a ranger at the park. She told the group that for thousands of years hunters and gatherers have occupied the American southwest, including this part of north central New Mexico. These people had formerly been referred to as Anasazi. However, that term has been replaced with the more accurate term – ancestral Puebloans. This is because the people who occupied this land are direct descendants of the current Pueblo Indians. As the ancestral Puebloans learned to farm, they became less nomadic and built pueblos such as those found in this area. It’s estimated that this settlement took place in the 1100s. By this point, the ancestral Puebloans had already mastered basket weaving.
Some characteristics that define these ancestral Puebloans included the cultivation of crops, such as corn, squash, and beans; the use of clay pots to store food and water; the domestication of dogs and turkeys (the latter for the wearing of feathers); the hunting of deer and elk for meat and leather; and the use of basic tools, such as arrowheads. The area was occupied up until the mid-1500s, after which they moved to the more open valleys, to what are now the Cochiti and San Ildefonso Pueblos.
The large canyon of Bandelier is known as Frijoles Canyon, which was formed after a huge volcano erupted in what is now north central New Mexico. The canyon proper is the result of the ash being carved out by the elements over many years. The widest part of the canyon is approximately one-quarter mile. Daylight at the bottom of the canyon is limited, but still enough for growing vegetables.
When the ancestral Puebloans moved into this canyon, they took advantage of the pockets of eroded ash on the cliff faces, which they often enlarged to make them habitable. They also built dwellings on the valley floor. As best can be determined, there was no particular advantage to being in one place or the other (i.e., in a cliff dwelling or in a dwelling on the valley floor). And since they had a very egalitarian society, it’s not clear what determined where one lived. In the case of the cliff dwellings, they often built a house in front of the cliff pockets to provide more room.
After 11 generations, the Puebloans left the area, probably because they needed a critical mass for their ceremonies and they wanted a more reliable water source. The Cochiti Pueblo is along the Rio Grande. That said it is not known how many people actually lived in the valley at any one time.
The Spanish arrived in the area in the middle of the 1500s and kept meticulous records of what they saw. This helped immensely to understand the ways in which the Puebloans lived. Many years later, in the 1870s and 1880s, Adolph Bandelier was living with the Cochitis in their pueblo, which is about 20 miles due south of Frijoles Canyon. In October 1880, they took Adolph to Frijoles Canyon and he is believed to be the first European descendant to see the pueblo. Following this, there was a big push to create the national park as a means of preserving the archeological features. Consequently, the park is named after him. Bandelier National Park is 50 square miles, and the elevation ranges from 5,300 to 10,000 feet.
Trade occurred over a very vast area for many centuries, as seen in the artifacts found throughout the pueblo. People carried most items, though occasionally dogs carried items too. Materials found in the canyon cover the area from the Pacific coast to the Gulf coast. Likewise, obsidian from this area has been found all throughout the region and a copper bowl from Mexico was found here. In fact, it is estimated that the Pajarito Plateau was more populated during the times when this canyon was inhabited than it is today.
The Puebloans spoke eight different languages. It is believed that their standard of living was probably about the same as the serfs, or common people, who lived in Europe at about the same time.
One of the main sites on the tour was the Big Kiva (a Hopi word). A kiva is large, nearly circular dugout depression, approximately six feet deep. This particular kiva is quite large; most are usually one-third the size of this one. Features of the kiva include a ventilator shaft to bring fresh air in, plastered smooth floor and walls, a mud roof, and a hole in the roof to provide access via a ladder. The kiva served a major role in the society – it was a place where traditions were passed down and ceremonies were held. It had rectangular holes in the floor, but it’s not clear what purpose they served. A kiva also has a hole in the bottom center called a Sipapu, which served as an access to the spiritual world below.
A second major site on the tour was Tyuonyi – a major housing development built on the valley floor. As apparent on the tour, many ground floor rooms are very small and were probably used to store food. It is believed that they usually stored enough food to last five years. This enabled the people to live through droughts. Rooms are not interconnected and access is mostly through the roof.
Over the course of the years, many archeological features have been taken from the Puebloans. However, since Congress passed the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, many artifacts have been returned.
The Bandelier National Park website is: http://www.nps.gov/band.
Sparton Electronics, Inc.
Rio Rancho, New Mexico
(May 28, 2004)A tour of a local small manufacturing enterprise (SME) took the ComSci Fellows to Sparton Electronics, the New Mexico branch of the Sparton Corporation, which is headquartered in Jackson, Michigan. The Sparton Corporation was founded more than 100 years ago as a manufacturer of buggy whips. Today Sparton Corporation is a publicly traded company and leader in the electronic design and manufacturing service (EMS) industry. The company specializes in manufacturing electronic assemblies. The Rio Rancho plant primarily supplies custom assemblies to the regulated gaming, telecommunications, and defense industries.
Mr. William E. Smith, Director of Operations at the plant, and Mr. Bruce Bryson, Quality Manager, explained that Sparton Electronics specializes in contract manufacturing. Most of the electronic assemblies they manufacture are contracted by original equipment manufacturers (OEM) for casino slot machines. Sparton Electronics is one of the largest suppliers of electronic boards for licensed gaming machines used by companies in Reno and Las Vegas and is a licensed gaming organization to maintain its integrity in the industry.
With several locations throughout the United States, Sparton’s main competition is other local companies that serve similar industries. In New Mexico, Sparton Electronics has carved out a very successful niche with its local customers. There are 2,000 people in total that work at Sparton’s various locations, with about 150 people working at the Rio Rancho plant.
Sparton’s market niche is approximately 70 percent gaming industry and 10 percent medical. The other 20 percent includes the defense industry for which Sparton Electronics manufactures sensors that are used on the United States border to detect intrusion. The company focuses on customers that need highly custom jobs with low volume. Sparton’s niche is its flexibility and the customers that are interested in limited economy of scale.
Sparton Electronics sought out the Manufacturing Extension Partnership (MEP) because of the success that the corporate division in Florida had with the Florida MEP. Mr. Smith explained that the biggest impact felt at the Rio Rancho plant since bringing MEP onboard has been the cultural change within the work force. The change has made all the difference in the employee’s commitment to the improvement process.
The ComSci Fellows toured a meeting room where a Kaizen event reviewing Sparton’s customer returns process was being held. A Kaizen event, described by Mr. Ronald L. Burke, the MEP Project Manager, is an exercise by which employees map out the current steps in a process and then brainstorm how to streamline that process by incorporating a method that pinpoints specific problem cause and effect areas. The Kaizen event for customer returns showed how, with the employees’ input, process time could be reduced from 3 hours and 20 minutes to 1 hour and 20 minutes.
The concept of “5S” was explained as a method to Sort, Straighten, Sweep, Standardize and use Self-Discipline to increase productivity in the plant. Sparton Electronics line managers explained that they used 5S everywhere possible, including the supply cabinet. Maintaining self-discipline, they acknowledged, is the hardest part of the 5S concept.
A key indicator of success resulting from MEP’s involvement in helping with Kaizen events and 5S is evident in Sparton’s recent awards received from Technology Forecasters, Inc. and Circuits Assembly Magazine, which included the Highest Overall Customer Satisfaction Rating for 2003 and 2004.
Kirtland Air Force Base
Albuquerque, New Mexico
(May 28, 2004)At Kirtland Air Force Base (AFB) in Albuquerque, the ComSci Fellows had an opportunity to visit three different facilities – the Space Vehicle Research Laboratory, the Directed Energy Directorate, and the Large Optics Laboratory.
The Space Vehicle Research Laboratory has a wide portfolio of research projects. It is developing imaging systems for space applications that depend on a “dilute aperture” mirror, consisting of several individual mirrors that together constitute the primary mirror and can be calibrated at the nanometer scale. This approach avoids the problem of launching very large primary reflectors into space. The Laboratory also conducts vibration acoustic testing of space components to investigate the stability of equipment in a launch environment and develop technologies to dampen vibrations. The Laboratory does a great deal of work with composite materials, especially carbon fiber materials, looking at both new fabrication methods and testing tension/compression characteristics of materials using a three-dimensional tester, one of the few of its kind.
The Directed Energy Directorate has 600-700 projects at any given time and an annual budget of about $250 million. It is the largest laboratory in the Department of Defense. Much of the work focuses on high-energy lasers and the platforms that make deployment feasible and accurate given the high-energy requirements and standards needed to aim them. In addition, low-energy lasers are developed to track targets and calibrate/correct optical distortions. In addition to lasers, the laboratory works with non-lethal microwaves. The laboratory provided an impressive demonstration for the ComSci Fellows, firing a carbon-dioxide laser that is used to investigate how the shape and composition of different objects affect their failure when subjected to high-energy beams.
The last stop was the Large Optics Laboratory. The ComSci Fellows saw some ongoing work on a flexible polymer mirror that would greatly reduce the weight and, hence, the cost of deploying optical instruments in space. The challenge is how to calibrate and conform polymer mirrors to nanometer specifications – the sensitivity necessary for modern applications of high-resolution optics.
The website for Kirtland AFB is: http://www.Kirtland.af.mil.
Class of 2002-2003 -- Portland and Bar Harbor, Maine
The field trip to the State of Maine provided us with a clear perspective of the relations between science, technology, government policy and economic development. In the 19th and early 20th Centuries, Maine had a vibrant economy based on diversified manufacturing and its diverse natural resources, including extensive forests and fisheries. As the 21st Century begins, the state’s manufacturing base is much smaller, and, as we found out, a lot of what is left is threatened by global competition. Service industries, such as tourism, government, and retail trade make up an increasing proportion of the state’s economy, and the state is among the poorer in the Union. Its per-capita income ranks at 36th among the 50 states and the District of Columbia and is 88 percent of the national average.
Planners in Maine look to science and technology as important tools for economic development, and, indeed, we were able to see world-class research and manufacturing facilities, even in this rural state. At the same time, tourism is driven by the visitors’ appreciation of the scenic beauty of the state, which is under some stress in places. Clearly, Maine faces significant challenges in guiding economic development in a way that preserves natural resources and the natural environment that sustains much of its economy.
U.S. Coast Guard Group, Portland
Monday morning started off with a visit to the Coast Guard station in Portland. Despite cloudy skies and a light rain, we were able to tour the Fore River Basin and view Portland from a marine perspective.
The morning meeting began with an overview from Lieutenant Paul Wolf, Coast Guard reservist and a Drug Enforcement Agency employee for 19 years. Portland is part of the Coast Guard’s 1st District, with a commander based in Boston. The Coast Guard’s overall jurisdiction is the navigable waters of the United States -- both salt and fresh, and including the Great Lakes, rivers, and east and west coasts -- where commerce, recreation, and other uses are policed. The motto of the Coast Guard is Semper Paratus ("always ready"). Its main activities are search and rescue, law enforcement, and maintaining aids to navigation -- mainly harbor buoys. A separate command in Portland is concerned with marine safety and environmental protection (a contractor, the Marine Spill Response Corporation, handles spills), commerce (fishing, vessel safety), drug interdiction, and illegal migrant interdiction. If compared with other militaries, the Coast Guard would be the world’s 12th largest navy, the 5th largest air force, and the world’s largest and most effective maritime agency.
We came loaded with questions as always, from the impacts of the organizational switchover to the Department of Homeland Security (possible changes in funding), to its interaction with the Immigration and Naturalization Service, to local drug problems, to the use of Para jumpers in The Perfect Storm (they were Air National Guard), to who takes care of the lighthouses that dot the Maine coast (many of the houses are now privately-owned and managed, but most of the lights are managed by the Coast Guard). Group Portland does between 150 and 250 search and rescue operations each year where the biggest killer on the water is hypothermia. Crews are still trained in manual navigational techniques in case the "black box" and several backup systems go down.
We were given a tour of the yard and an introduction to the boats, which included a fully submersible 47 footer that can handle up to 50-knot winds and 30-foot seas. A "fully submersible" is not a submarine, as it turns out, but a surface ship design to be watertight and survive being complete submerged by heavy seas. Thankfully, those were not the conditions seen that day in the harbor, but during our cruise around Portland Harbor on a buoy tender, we did see a huge movable oil platform as well as many commercial vessels, navigational aids, and the still lively commercial scene on and around the wharves of Portland.
Portland Fish Exchange, Inc.
The Portland Fish Exchange was established in 1989 and is America’s first all-display fresh fish and seafood auction. The Exchange offers a fair and open marketplace bringing together fishing vessels (sellers) with seafood wholesalers and processors (buyers). Fresh fish and seafood products are unloaded from fishing vessels daily and displayed for buyers to make purchasing decisions (in a very frosty 38° showroom). The auction is conducted at mid-day. Products purchased are destined for restaurants, markets, and processing plants within hours of vessel landings.
The Exchange off-loads up to four vessels at once, and offers ample berthing space. The 22,000 square foot refrigerated facility holds up to a half-million pounds of fish, with numerous shipping bays for fast, convenient loading and transport of products. At the time of our visit, 140,000 pounds were on-site for auction. Exchange staff provides impartial services such as sorting (culling), weighing, labeling, re-icing and displaying fish and seafood for that day’s auction. Products are segmented from one to 1,200 pound lots depending on the size of the vessel’s catch. On the day of our visit, some of the fish available for auction were cod, haddock, pollock, hake, and wolf fish.
A daily auction is held Sunday through Thursday and we were able to witness the beginning of the auction. Products are sold by an independent auctioneer who controls the bidding process and sale transactions, assisted by a computerized, real time auction tracking system that displays product sale information during the auction process. Buyers have the ability to purchase as many or as few products as desired. The auction is conducted in order of species and size. The auctioneer accepts the highest bid for any given product. The buyer winning the bid chooses as many lots of the product as desired for that price. Sellers have the option to decline any bid price. When a bid is refused, the seller may ship their products to another market or elect the following day’s auction for sale.
The Exchange acts as a financial intermediary, providing payments to sellers and collecting payments from buyers. Sellers receive payment for their catch within 24 hours of product sale at the Exchange. At the close of each auction buyers receive invoices for products and services received as a result of that day’s auction purchases, with 14-day payment terms.
A non-profit organization owned and managed by the City of Portland, Maine, the Exchange is recognized throughout the seafood industry as a leader in innovation, quality, and integrity. The Exchange’s fish handling fees are the lowest of all the major regional auctions. Approximately 200 sellers supply over 20 million pounds of fish each year to 25 registered buyers. In 2001, the Portland Fish Exchange handled approximately 90 percent of Maine's -- 20 percent of New England’s -- total catch of regulated multispecies groundfish.
SAPPI Fine Paper North America, Westbrook Facility
South African Pulp and Paper Industries, or SAPPI, is a global market leader in coated free sheets and claims to be the originator of almost all fine paper innovations. They run 20 pulp and paper mills, and 7 research and development facilities, distributed across three continents -- North America, South Africa, and Europe. SAPPI realized almost four billion dollars in revenues in 2002, with 18,000 employees globally. The enterprise has been one of the most profitable pulp and paper industries in the world. SAPPI’s strategy includes focusing on readiness, leading market positions, and efficient use of its capital.
SAPPI Westbrook is located near Portland, Maine. It is the site of the first coated paper facility in the United States. SAPPI’s three major product lines include specialty release products, number two and number three coated text and covers, and coated bag papers. Its products can be found in items such as shoes, clothing, flooring, furniture, and upholstery.
Coated paper varies in its texture due to processing type. The use of softwood (long fiber) affects the strength of the paper. Hardwood (short fiber) affects the uniformity or appearance of the paper. Fillers (pigment) are used for brightness and opacity. The base sheet process starts with the wood. The wood is debarked then goes through a wood chipper and a screening process to make uniform chips. A digester cooks the substance before it goes through the bleaching process and finally the refining stage. In the coating laboratory, materials are used to characterize the brightness and opacity of the paper. Materials include clay, calcium carbonate, titanium dioxide (pigments), latex, starch (binders), alginate (thickener), TSPP (dispersant), and stearate (release agent). SAPPI's analytical group diagnoses any products or processing problems experienced by SAPPI, its customers, or sales representatives.
The focus of SAPPI’s environmental department is on air emissions, discharges to rivers, and solid/hazardous waste. Sources of air emissions include boilers and paper coaters. The focus of water discharges is on wastewater treatment plant outfall, sand filter backwash, and non-contact cooling water. For solid wastes, treatment plant sludge, wastepaper, and boiler ash represent challenges. Fluorescent light bulbs, old chemicals, and lead paint debris account for the hazardous waste focus. Monitoring is the primary mechanism used by SAPPI to address these potential pollutants.
Doug Daniels
Vice President and Mill Manager
SAPPI Fine Paper North America, Somerset OperationsMr. Doug Daniels (just retired from the Somerset Operations of SAPPI Fine Paper North America) provided a current perspective on the paper mill business in the United States in comparison to the paper mill business twenty years ago. Unfortunately, it’s worse. Mr. Daniels stated that paper manufacturing is a volatile business and cited, as an example, a Canadian mill that set record earnings in 1987 and was bankrupt by 1991. As of last year, the imported paper from countries like Finland, Japan, and Germany far exceeded the demand for the paper produced in the United States. More ominously, the technological roots of the industry -- equipment manufacturers -- are no longer to be found in North America; they’re in Finland, Japan, and Germany.
The main challenges for the paper business in the United States, said Mr. Daniels, are high equipment costs, very restrictive environmental regulations, extended depreciation for equipment, and the high cost of health insurance, labor, and workmen’s compensation. Overall, there is high cost per employee in comparison to the cost in countries like Austria and Finland. There is also a need for new equipment technologies to make them more cost-effective and lower maintenance. Moreover, the state and local taxes in Maine are much higher in comparison to other states. States in the United States such as North Carolina and Louisiana are providing several concessions to the local manufacturing plants and building highways for easy access. Because of high taxes, insurance, and the cost of raw materials, the selling price of the United States' paper is 35 percent higher than imported paper. So bad is the differential, said Mr. Daniels, that although his Somerset Mill is perhaps the lowest-cost mill in the United States in operations, the company’s plant in Austria still can make the same product and ship it to Chicago for less than Somerset can. As a result, the demand for the United States' paper is declining. The high shipping and distribution costs are also affecting the price of paper.
Mr. Daniels concluded that for the United States paper business to be profitable in Maine, there is a need for affordable insurance for the paper industry, a legislative change for equipment depreciation, and more affordable workmen’s compensation.
Bath Iron Works
Bath Iron Works (BIW), the largest private employer in the state of Maine, has been in business since 1884, and has been producing ships for the U.S. Navy since 1890. BIW was acquired by General Dynamics in 1995. Currently, about 98 percent of its business comes from contracts with the U.S. Navy. The shipyard built 82 destroyers during World War II (more than that built by the entire Japanese empire), and built destroyers and guided missile frigates during the postwar period. Its last commercial ship was delivered in 1984. Currently, BIW is the lead designer and builder of the Arleigh Burke class of guided missile destroyers (DDG), and is designated as the "Blue Team" in a shipbuilding alliance with Ingalls Shipbuilding ("Gold Team") to competitively design the "DD-21" new land attack destroyer.
We were provided an overview presentation by Mr. Chris Crabtree, followed by a tour of the shipyard led by Mr. Robert Dionne. The program concluded with a presentation of the Engineering and technical design capabilities of the shipyard, presented by Mr. Steve Adams and Mr. Art Dresser.
The warship-building industry is specialized and has few competing companies. Due to ship design and construction being an extremely large venture, each company employs hundreds of workers. These businesses, as with BIW, are typically located in a town whose population is dependent upon the shipyard as the main source of employment and economic prosperity. With the U.S. Navy being the primary supplier of business to BIW and its other major competitor, the overall plan of a reduced Naval fleet has introduced a business survivability issue. As opportunities for new business present themselves, BIW and its competitor compete for the positions of lead and subcontractor, thus allowing both businesses to benefit and survive. To offset the reduction in ship production, BIW is delving into the international arena, most recently pursuing the opportunity to sell its corvette fleet line to the Israeli Navy. BWI also gains revenue from the repair and maintenance of existing U.S. Naval Ships. Building a destroyer is a time-consuming task, as we found out during the tour of the shipyard. The build cycle for DDGs is three years, and we saw ships at all stages of construction, from sheets of raw metal, to a nearly completed vessel at the dock. The ships are built in sections, the first sections being assembled indoors upside down. These sections are then moved by a system of cranes capable of lifting loads up to 350 tons to an outdoor assembly site called the "Land Level Transfer Facility." Instead of launching the ship by sliding it down an inclined way (the last ship was launched this way in 2001), the ships are transported on wheeled dollies to a floating dry dock, which is towed to the center of the Kennebec River and flooded to launch the ships. Ships are then finished at dockside and taken for a shakedown cruise before final inspection and acceptance by the U.S. Navy and commissioned.
One innovative feature developed by BIW engineers is the "Mobile Information System Technology" (MIST). This consists of linking engineering drawings and plans to the construction area by means of wireless computers. This allows construction workers and engineers to solve problems that crop up on the production floor in minutes versus hours having to run back and forth to the office and manually search for files and drawings. The MIST system also contains a digital photography capability, which expedites problem solving by allowing engineers and remote problem solvers to literally see the item or section in question. In general, engineering and design processes for current ships in the Arleigh Burke class cost 40 percent less than they did in the mid-1980s due to technological advances such as MIST. This was a true example of acting on the concept, "Time is Money."
Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences
Nestled away along the beautiful shoreline of Boothbay Harbor is Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences. An affiliate of the University of New England, Bigelow Laboratory was established in 1974. Its founder, Dr. Charlie Yentsch, was the author of many notable works, including the Color of Water, which explains the causes for the change of water color from the clear blue aqua found in the Caribbean to the opaque dark waters most of us are accustomed to seeing.
Our discussions included a wealth of information that literally covered most of the earth, from the North Pole to the South Pole. The mission of this facility is to "Understand Marine Ecosystems Through Research and Education." This slogan can be found on Bigelow Laboratory's website (www.bigelow.org) and on much of its outreach literature. Bigelow Laboratory plays a major part in Maine’s program to evolve to knowledge-based industries. Already a significant contributor to Maine’s economy, Bigelow Laboratory is one of the largest employers on the peninsula where is it located.
Bigelow Laboratory currently has a staff of 50. One of the new endeavors of the Laboratory is to establish a Tier I University Virtual Technology Center. This outreach program will enable schools without the facilities or resources to host an ocean sciences program to participate in and perform ocean ecology research projects. Bigelow Laboratory stands out as a leader in its field due to its innovation and flexible operational structure. Its mission is truly one of great importance -- and great difficulty, for it is tremendously challenging to study the constantly changing ocean.
Although focused on the oceanic research and ecology, scientists are working to apply the findings of the Laboratory to remote sensing in support of homeland security. The Laboratory has important capabilities in remote sensing, which is used for Coastal Zone Color Scanning and monitoring coastal marine life habitat change. State-of-the-art technologies using satellite images and Compact Airborne Spectral Imagery (CASI) with varying degrees of resolution are used to study chlorophyll content and ocean ecology. These technologies are also being applied to lobster habitat mapping, red tide monitoring, coral reef observation, measuring of nitrates in ocean water, and, now, underwater mine countermeasures.
We received an in-depth presentation showing efforts that are producing greater understanding of the relationship between climate change and ocean biochemistry. The discussion included the global carbon cycle and the effects of atmospheric carbon dioxide on the oceans. Scientists at Bigelow Laboratory are also gathering data using remote sensing technologies that support the study of nitrates in water from space based on water temperature and also determination of how much carbon is being sequestered into the ocean at one time.
Bigelow Laboratory is credited for -- and holds the patent on -- the technology and concepts behind the FLOW CAM, which has been marketed domestically and internationally by Fluid Imaging Technology, Inc. since 1999. FLOW CAM is now being used for oceanography research, fresh water monitoring, and aquaculture dredging, and the technology also is being considered for analyzing drinking water and wastewater and in medical/clinical research. Another major technology resource used at Bigelow Laboratory is the Modular Flow Centrometer where they are able to study cells in an active flowing stream of fluid.
Bigelow Laboratory profits from its science by selling its products to various biotech companies and government agencies such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Products most often sold are DNA from algae, seawater kits and phytoplankton cultures. Bigelow Laboratory is known for having the largest collection of phytoplankton cultures in the world.
Funding for the Bigelow Laboratory extends from Sloan Foundation (Census of Life Program), Mellon Foundation, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the National Science Foundation.
Jackson Laboratory for Mammalian Research
"Our mission is to improve the quality of human life through discoveries arising from our own genetic research and by enabling the research and education of others."
Established in 1929 by Dr. C. C. Little, the Jackson Laboratory was named in honor of Roscoe B. Jackson, heir to the Hudson Motor Car fortune. Mr. Jackson led the initial fundraising effort on behalf of the Laboratory, but died before it could open its doors. Over the next 74 years, Jackson Laboratory made its reputation through identification of mutant mice and the creation of inbred mouse strains. Dr. Little created the first inbred mouse -- one that has been backcrossed, or bred with its parents and siblings, for at least 20 generations in order to create a population of animals with identical genetics, each bearing the gene or phenotype (characteristic) or interest -- and established that the genetics of human disease could be studied by analysis of genetics in mice.
Our visit began with a presentation from Dr. Barbara Tennent, Director of Scientific Program Development, who gave us an overview of the facility, its history, and the types of research performed there. Dr. Richard Smith, Research Scientist, who has already spent a full career elsewhere as an opthalmologic pathologist, told us how he adapted his tools for study of human disease to study glaucoma in a mouse model. Dr. Kevin Seburn, Research Scientist, supervises the large scale Neuroscience Mutagenesis Facility where mice are treated with mutagens in a phenotype-driven approach to identify potentially useful new models of human disease. He showed us photos and movies of their state-of-the-art systems for comprehensive metabolic monitoring of individual mice and a high-tech computerized treadmill for automated gait analysis of neurologic dysfunction.
Ms. Valerie Scott, Director of Scientific Services, took us on a whirlwind tour of their world-class research facilities. We met briefly with Greg Martin, who showed us their confocal microscopy laboratory; with Lesley Bechtold, Manager of Biomedical Imaging, who showed us their histopathology laboratory and demonstrated their new scanning electronic microscope; and with Ted Duffy, Flow Cytometry Manager, who showed us his FACSVantage cell sorter and described how his facility provided core services and valuable standardized reagents for use of all investigators at the Jackson Laboratory. In fact, leveraging resources across many laboratories, Ms. Scott explained, is one strategy the laboratory uses to maximize its research productivity while minimizing the expense.
One of the Laboratory's great services to the scientific community is the preservation and distribution of mouse strains. They maintain 2,700 strains of mice, either living on-site or, for the less popular varieties, cryopreserved as embryos. The production facility annually provides 2 million mice to 12,000 research laboratories in 57 countries around the world. These mice are the gold standard for many lines of scientific research.
Our visit concluded with more interesting presentations. Dr. Molly Bogue described the mouse phenome project (www.jax.org/phenome) that endeavors to coordinate an international effort for collection of genomic and phenotypic data on inbred mouse strains and make them freely available to scientific researchers. We heard again from Dr. Tennent, who spoke about research, resources, and education programs at the Laboratory, and from Cookie Williems, Director, Office of Sponsored Programs, who concluded the program with her description of the Jackson Laboratory's financial support and resources. More information about all aspects of the Laboratory's history, research, education, and production programs can be found at their website (www.jax.org).
College of the Atlantic and Great Duck Island
Counting seabirds on a remote Atlantic island can be a challenge, especially when storms brew and birds shy away from human contact. Even getting there can be fun.
We braved wind, rain, and surf to meet Dr. John Anderson, biology professor at the small, progressive College of the Atlantic in Bar Harbor, Maine. Dr. Anderson conducts non-invasive monitoring of a large colony of Leach’s Storm Petrels on Great Duck Island off the Maine coast.
The petrels come ashore to nest from April to October, laying one egg at a time in a ground burrow. For 40 years, scientists studied petrel nesting by sticking their hands into burrows. Now, remote sensors do the job, and more effectively.
Dr. Anderson and his students place miniature, wireless devices into burrows before nesting season. Tiny computer chips record -- and transmit in real-time -- indicators of the birds' presence and activity, including temperature, pressure, infrared radiation, light levels, and photosynthetic activity.
"This was the first real chance to get continuous live data," said Dr. Anderson during our trip to the Island. Bad weather prevented us from landing on the Island, so Dr. Anderson rowed a small skiff out to our boat to meet us.
Dr. Anderson said the data would feed scientific studies on the microenvironment that affects the birds’ breeding, petrel vocalization, the effect of human contact, and the general ecology of a Maine island. The data also provide educational opportunities.
The sensors were developed by the Smart Dust project of the University of California-Berkeley and Intel Corp., which anticipate commercial and military applications for the technology. Intel provided 100 sensors to be distributed among the 5,000 petrel burrows on Great Duck Island.
Eight of the sensors are accompanied by infrared cameras and microphones that transmit real-time pictures and sounds to the website (www.greatduckisland.net). The data enhance "textbook learning," Dr. Anderson said, by making data and pictures available to middle school, high school, and college students to allow them to see the environment and to conduct remote, but real, research. Dr. Anderson hopes to expand the project to include development of school curricula.
Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory
Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory (MDIBL) is an independent, not-for-profit, marine research institution founded in 1898 to promote research and education in the biology of marine organisms. In addition, the Laboratory fosters understanding and preservation of the environment and advances human health through the study of marine organisms. Located in an idyllic setting near the village of Salisbury Cove, the Laboratory is surrounded by sheltered coves and wooded peninsulas on the northern edge of Mount Desert Island. Eleven small laboratories perch over the water, and 28 cottages and dormitories are situated in the woods and around the coves. For decades, scientists at MDIBL have been leaders in toxicological research, studying the role of the cell membrane in the absorption and excretion of environmental toxins, cellular and molecular biology, and kidney, liver, and cancer research.
After a welcome by Ms. Jerilyn Bowers, Director of Development and Public Affairs, Dr. John Forrest, Director MDIBL, provided an overview of the research supported at MDIBL. Year round and seasonal research is conducted at MDIBL in the areas of marine biomedicine and physiology, marine molecular biology and functional genomics, bioinformatics, environmental toxicology and toxicogenomics, transgenic species, and neuroscience. Dr. Forrest noted that in terms of toxicology research, MDIBL is one of only three marine laboratories supported by the National Institute for Environmental Health Studies that study the effects of environmental toxins on marine habitats and use marine animals as surrogates for human health (Cold Spring Harbor and Woods Hole are the other two).
Dr. David Towle described his work on gene-based approaches to controlling invasive green crab. He noted that this "cockroach of the sea" is wiping out indigenous crab populations. He found only a one percent difference in this crab’s genetic makeup when compared to other marine life. By comparing its genome to that of other marine animals, he hopes to identify targets for controlling this invasive species.
Drs. Bruce Stanton and Alex Lankowki described studies using killifish to assess the impact of arsenic on this organism’s ability to adapt to salinity. This model is being used for examining the effects of heavy metals on cystic fibrosis.
Dr. Carolyn Mattingly described the Comparative Toxicogenomics Database (CTD). This resource provides a comprehensive set of toxicology data that will help facilitate the impact of the environment on gene expression.
Dr. Robert Preston provided an overview of the Collaborative Research in Undergraduate Institutions (CRUI). In this program diverse academic institutions (The University of Illinois, The College of the Atlantic, and MDIBL) collaborate on cross-disciplinary research projects. Dr. Preston also described the hands-on education programs that MDIBL provides to scientists at all levels, from high school to senior investigators. Lastly, Dr. Preston described the Maine Biomedical Research Infrastructure Network (BRIN) -- a research and education network linking MDIBL, Bates College, Bowdoin College, Colby College, College of the Atlantic, the Jackson Laboratory, and the University of Maine -- that is based at MDIBL. The Maine BRIN provides funding for training Maine students to gain hands-on experience in molecular biology. We had an opportunity to touch marine life in MDIBL’s touch tanks and for the last 15 minutes of our visit, we toured the campus, taking in the beautiful scenery.
The Lobster Institute, University of Maine
The key concept to get about the Lobster Institute of the University of Maine is this: think George Washington Carver, except lobsters instead of peanuts and sweet potatoes. Well, and an organized group instead of a single genius, but you get the idea. Working with minimal (mostly donated) funding and the sponsorship of the University, the Lobster Institute’s goal is "protecting and conserving the lobster and enhancing lobstering as an industry…and a way of life."
We met Dr. Robert C. Bayer, the Institute’s Executive Director, and Ms. Cathy Billings, Assistant Director for Communications and Development, in the parking lot of a fast-food restaurant in Ellsworth, Maine. We got our introductory briefing en route and on bus. Stops included a lobster tidal pound owned by the Frenchman's Bay Conservancy where the Institute conducts taste tests of new lobster bait, and a working lobster dock and boat at Bunkers Harbor.
Bait research is typical of the Institute’s efforts to apply scientific research to support the lobster industry. About 360 million kilos of herring per year become lobster bait for the Maine lobster fishery. It’s an expensive and dwindling resource, and the Institute is seeking a synthetic replacement -- something tasty (to a lobster), non-toxic, and that holds together in the water. The test site is a feedlot, a fenced-off tidal pool where lobsters are kept and fed until shipped to market. The Institute’s research and development (R&D) set-up includes a regulation lobster trap and a "lobster cam" to observe how the lobsters react to the test foods. (The curious can view the lobster cam on the Internet at the Institute’s website (www.lobsterinstitute.org).
Even more Carverish is the Institute’s work on new and improved uses for lobster. They’ve developed a process for freezing whole lobsters that allows them to be kept up to two years and -- reportedly -- still taste fresh when cooked; prototype lobster-flavored snack (or maybe breakfast) foods, and pet treats derived from lobster shell (don’t laugh, it might reduce cholesterol); and lobster paste for flavoring. The hope is that eventually licensing fees will cover the costs of the Institute and an expanded R&D program.
The Rice family -- of which we met three generations at Bunkers Harbor -- is among the beneficiaries of the Institute’s efforts, being working lobstermen. Dana Rice is a buyer, one of the industry’s middlemen, and his son, Dana Rice, Jr., catches the lobsters from the 42-foot "Unpredictable." (The third generation was a visiting infant.)
The Rices filled us in on the industry from the lobsterman’s perspective, including the long hours, hard work, and wariness of regulation. Maine is generally considered a poster child for intelligent management of the lobster fishery, but the working lobstermen find themselves at odds with government experts on the status of the fishery. Expert opinion is that lobster populations are in decline and may become threatened without cutbacks in harvests. The lobstermen find this perplexing because their experience is record catches in the past couple of years and no sign of a falloff. Part of the issue, says the senior Rice, is that there remain many unknowns about lobsters; including what affects their spawning behavior, how territorial they are, and how well sampling techniques actually reflect the size of the population.
The Lobster Institute sponsored a project to collect the history of lobsterman and lobstering in Maine. An important part of the effort was to collect the oral history from people who were involved in the industry, especially the older lobsterman who can connect the present to the past through several generations.
Ms. Billing ended our day by presenting a video of oral histories from long-time lobsterman interspersed with a running timeline of big events in the history of lobstering. The business was very hard and dangerous in the old days and it is still quite a dangerous occupation despite advances in boat and navigation technology. Lobstering in Maine appears to be very healthy with some of the largest catches occurring in the last few years. The health of the industry appears to be due to the careful stewardship by the lobsterman and regulatory agencies.
Acadia National Park
One of the jewels of Maine, Acadia National Park is located in and around Bar Harbor. Mr. David Manski, Chief of the Resource Management Division, briefed us on the mission and goals of the National Park Service, and highlighted the use of science and technology to fulfill these goals.
After Mr. Manski's overview, we conducted field visits, and our first stop was at the Precipice parking lot to observe nesting peregrine falcons. We were able to observe two falcon chicks taking their first flight. They spent much time perched on a narrow ledge of a sheer cliff, apparently thinking things over.
Our second stop was at Parkman Mountain with Mr. Charlie Jacobi, recreation specialist, and Mr. Steve Kahl, Director of Senator George J. Mitchell Center for Environmental and Watershed Research. Mr. Jacobi is conducting a capacity and visitor experience study along the carriage road system within the Park. Acadia was created from a series of private land parcels owned by wealthy vacationers, including the Rockefellers. The carriage roads date to that period, were specifically designed to showcase the beauties of the region, and by the terms of the grant, may never be used by motorized vehicles. The study will allow the Park to better understand the trade-offs between the quality of the visitor experience and managing the various levels of usage of the carriage road system.
We hiked along a carriage road to a site where Mr. Kahl is monitoring the water quality of one of the two major watersheds in the Park. This watershed is about 100 acres and collects pollution from many industrial centers in the Northeastern United States. The equipment collects data automatically and transmits it wirelessly to the researchers.
Our third stop was at the McFarland Hill Air Quality Station. At this location, the Park is partnering with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to monitor the air quality in the Park.
Our last stop of the visit was at the Cadillac Mountain summit. At this location, Ms. Linda Gregory, Botanist for Acadia National Park, highlighted the difficulty of preserving nature and accommodating the high number of visitors. Visitors are destroying many of the plants on the summit, but the Park does not want restrictions to the summit because it has one of the most beautiful views in the Park. Ms. Gregory believes, with additional studies and public education, the Park will be able to maintain the natural surroundings and provide memorable experiences to the visitor. For this visit, we were able to learn about many of the scientific activities being conducted in Acadia to better manage the natural surrounding and visitors. Acadia National Park is one the national treasures and research being conducted here will contribute to many of the Nation's environmental goals.
Class of 2001-2002 -- San Diego, California
Port of San Diego
We began our week in San Diego with a visit to the Port of San Diego. Mr. Jim Hutzelman, Assistant Director for Community Services; Ms. Eileen Maher, Assistant Director for Environmental Services; and Mr. Stuart Farnsworth, Maritime Project Analyst, were our hosts for the morning.
The Port of San Diego is a special government entity created in 1962 by an act of the California legislature. The duties of the Port are to manage San Diego Harbor, operate San Diego International Airport, and administer the public lands along San Diego Bay.
A seven-member Board of Port Commissioners governs the Port. One commissioner is appointed by each of the city councils of Chula Vista, Coronado, Imperial Beach and National City, and three commissioners are appointed by the San Diego City Council. The Board establishes the policies under which the Port's staff, supervised by the Executive Director, conducts daily operations.
Major components of the Port include San Diego International Airport, Real Estate, Maritime Trade, Cruise Ships, Environmental Initiatives and Pubic Benefit areas such as parks, bicycle paths, fishing piers, and public playgrounds. The airport will be turned over to the San Diego County Regional Airport Authority at the end of this year.
Ninety percent of the Port’s revenue, approximately $211 million in 2000-2001, is generated in San Diego. Revenue is generated from rent from tenants and fees from users of the marine and airport terminals. The generated income is invested in the development of the San Diego tidelands with more than $1.5 billion being invested since 1963.
San Diego International Airport is the 27th busiest in the Nation, even though it is the smallest major United States' airport. Currently, 15.8 million passengers pass through in a year and that number is expected to rise to 28 million by 2020. This creates a serious problem in that there is no room to expand the airport at its current site. Phased improvements are being implemented while the region assesses its air transportation needs.
The Port operates two marine cargo terminals. Imports include automobiles, frozen and refrigerated goods, lumber, soda ash, and more. Cruise ships also utilize the Port with each cruise ship call generating between $350,000 and $650,000 in regional economic benefit.
The real estate owned by the Port includes 14 hotels, 22 marinas, 56 restaurants, 100 retail stores, 4 shipyards, and 8 boat repair facilities.The Port is responsible for a number of environmental initiatives dedicated to enhancing the environmental quality of San Diego Bay. These include wildlife preserves, storm water run-off programs, fishery studies, alternative fuel initiatives, and environmental partnerships with entities such as the San Diego Zoological Society.
San Diego Zoo
We were hosted and welcomed to the San Diego Zoo by Dr. Lawrence E. Killmar, Deputy Director of Collections of the Zoological Society of San Diego. Dr. Killmar provided an introductory briefing and served as our tour guide during the visit. He informed us that the San Diego Zoo contains some 8,100 animals and they have an additional 1,100 on loan to other institutions. He explained that importing animals from and exporting them to other facilities is important to the general health of the animals.
The park is currently undergoing a six-year, $25 million dollar upgrade. The Zoo also maintains a separate wild animal park, which contains an impressive $21 million animal hospital. The various animal compounds range in size from 2 acres to 95 acres. The Zoo employs some 2,400 employees, with about 325 of these people actively involved in animal management.
The first stop on our visit was to see the Koalas, which are not bears at all but marsupials, which have pouches for rearing their young. Following this, we observed the Indian and African elephants. The Zoo has installed a new type of animal restraint for the elephants, which gives both elephants and zookeepers more freedom for handling, feeding, and caring purposes while providing additional safety for the Zoo's staff. The new system utilizes electric fences and is based upon training technology developed from a study of killer whales.
Next, Dr. Allen Dixon, who operates the Center for Reproduction of Endangered Species (CRES), greeted us. The CRES has been in operation for 26 years and performs fieldwork, scientific research, and conservation. The CRES operates nine divisions and employs numerous post-Doctoral researchers and fellows focused upon aiding the recovery of endangered species populations.
The San Diego Zoo is also a botanical garden, with thousands of interesting plant species on display in addition to the impressive animal displays. Other animals on our tour included giraffes, bongo, and bactrian wapiti. These wapiti are the rarest deer in the world, and only a few remain within the former Soviet Union (FSU). There are about 50 of these animals in a nucleus population outside of the FSU. Also included along our tour were the endangered Vietnamese monkey "Douc Langurs," lowland gorillas, and leopard tortoises. We were also fortunate enough to visit the Reptile and Amphibian Quarantine Facility. This facility holds new animals for some 30 days prior to introducing them to the other wildlife at the Zoo. This is to ensure that no communicable diseases are introduced to the Zoo’s population.
Dr. Don Boyer, the Curator of Herpetology, introduced us to the tuatara, a rare creature similar to a lizard, which has been in existence for 160 million years. These animals exist naturally on an island off of New Zealand, having been eliminated from New Zealand by the introduction of predator species.
One of the more interesting stops was inside the bird aviary, a large complex fashioned after a Malaysian rain forest. Dr. Ed Luens, the Bird Curator, described many issues in wild bird management. The design of this facility is such as to allow the public to experience as well as view the animals. One enters the facility through a double door and is then inside a large caged area. This world is similar to an actual rain forest, complete with squawking birds competing for food and mates. A few of them crave the attention of humans, diving near our heads at break-neck speed. The aviary contains some 67 species of birds with approximately 200 individual specimens present.
The San Diego Zoo is an impressive animal park, research facility, and botanical garden -- well worth the time required to see the entire facility.
Naval Aviation Depot
Naval Air Station, North IslandThe Naval Air Station, North Island (NASNI) is part of the largest aerospace industrial complex in the Navy -- the 5,700-acre Naval Base Coronado. The Naval Aviation Depot (NADEP) on the base is the largest aerospace employer in San Diego, employing 3,300 civilians. NADEP refurbishes naval aircraft and components for the U.S. Navy and other governments. It maintains the capability to test, disassemble, repair, manufacture, rebuild, and calibrate much of the U.S. Navy's inventory of aircraft and components -- a massive task that requires technological savvy and a high-level of creativity.
As explained by Captain Peter Laszcz, Commanding Officer, the Depot provides a wide range of engineering, calibration, manufacturing, overhaul and repair services performed on F/A-18, E-2, C-2 and S-3 aircraft and on ships. The command serves as the logistics engineering home of and provides lifetime support for F/A-18 aircraft, including those flown by the Blue Angels -- the Navy's Flight Demonstration Squadron.
The NASNI’s Primary Standards Laboratory provides primary calibration standards for the Navy and other agencies of the Department of Defense throughout the United States and overseas. The command is also the site of a $20 million Composite Repair Facility, the first of its kind in the Department of Defense, designed to play a major role in the future of Naval aviation technology and maintenance. In addition to functioning as the Navy's largest bearing repair facility, the command dispatches field teams to deployed ships and military installations worldwide. These specialists repair structures and components of aircraft, catapult and arresting gear on aircraft carriers and aviation equipment and facilities on most classes of ships.
Several officials at the Depot described efforts to involve customers and suppliers in efforts to ensure the highest level of quality in their products and services at the lowest cost. The command was said to be working to tailor this production-based methodology to its own industrial maintenance environment for process improvements and significant savings in every facet of its operation. We received a close-up look at an innovative approach to center barrel repair. This component is a major structural member in the aircraft and was not designed to be replaced during the aircrafts life. NADEP developed a process to replace this component, according to Boyd Gail. The goal in this case is to achieve full design life for these aircraft, not to extend the expected life, in light of harsher operating conditions to which the planes are being subjected -- and there are questions about cost implications. Walter Loftus and Boyd Cecil described the heavy workload involved in inspecting and repairing the F/A-18 aircraft. They face the competing challenges of ensuring that the aircraft make it to and even exceed their projected lifetimes while also recognizing the urgency in getting the war fighters up and ready for action as quickly as possible.
Captain Laszcz addressed the tough questions we posed, and stressed NADEP’s commitment to minimum environmental disruption, which is a challenge for the large facility that deals with a variety of chemicals in its daily work. As evidence of the facility’s success, he pointed to the variety of environmental awards earned by his staff, along with a healthy complement of productivity improvement awards.
USS NIMITZ, CVN-68
We also had the opportunity to visit the aircraft carrier, USS Nimitz. This vessel is the first in a class of aircraft carriers that has become the standard design for the U.S. Navy. The ship is a nuclear-powered vessel with a displacement of over 95,000 tons, and a 4.5-acre flight deck. Our host was LCDR Dora Staggs, the ship’s Public Information Officer. Our tour began on the hangar deck -- the large expanse of space below the flight deck that stores and maintains aircraft on the ship. LCDR Staggs pointed out the aircraft elevators used to transport airplanes between the hangar deck and flight deck. We then proceeded to the forecastle, where we were impressed by the size of the anchor chain and anchor handling machinery. As part of a standard inspection, some of the ship's safety equipment was out on the focsle deck.
We then went to the forward area of the flight deck, where LCDR Staggs described the location and operation of the ship’s steam catapults. Two catapults are installed to launch aircraft over the bow of the ship and two additional catapults launch aircraft from the carrier’s angle deck. We also saw the jet blast deflectors that are associated with the catapults.
The airframe of a retired F-14 fighter aircraft was on the flight deck. This gave us an appreciation for the limited real estate available to conduct flight operations on a carrier. It also gave us some prime photo opportunities.
We then proceeded to the angle deck section of the flight deck where the operation of the optical landing lens was described. The optical landing lens is a series of lights on the side of the ship that provide the pilot with a visual reference to the proper glide path to land his aircraft on the carrier deck. LCDR Staggs pointed out the location of the arresting gear cables that stop the aircraft during a carrier landing. She also identified the F-14 aircraft’s tail hook and its support structure, which catch the arresting cables. Since the carrier’s flight deck was being repainted with "nonskid" compound, the actual arresting gear cables were not installed.
We then began our climb up six levels in the carrier’s superstructure to the pilothouse. The ship is navigated and controlled from this location. The space is full of communications and navigation equipment, the ship’s helm and propulsion control equipment. A separate station for ship control during docking operations is also at this level on the starboard side.
We proceeded up an additional level to the carrier’s primary flight control station. This facility on the port side of the ship provided an excellent view of the entire flight deck. Here, operations on the flight deck and the ship’s aircraft launching and recovery equipment are controlled. It is from here that the "Air Boss," a senior officer responsible for the ship’s air department, monitors the safety of air operations.
On the same level of primary flight control is an open catwalk where flight operations can be observed. We had the opportunity to view the ship from this vantage point.
Despite the rather limited time on the ship, we received a comprehensive tour of a modern naval vessel, and gained a better appreciation for the sailors that serve on her.
Submarine Training Facility (SUBTRAFAC) -- Pacific Detachment, Navy Shipyard
While at the Naval Base, we visited the Submarine Training Facility (SUBTRAFAC). There are approximately 60 Attack submarines and 18 Ballistic Missile submarines in the United States fleet. Depending on their mission and age, submarines can vary considerably in size and capacity. The Attack submarines are smaller, 350 to 375 feet, and have a smaller crew, approximately 134, as compared with the larger Ballistic Missile submarines, which are 560 feet in length and maintain a crew of 140. Nuclear propulsion provides modern submarines with nearly unlimited range, the ability to stay submerged for extended periods and high-speed capability.
Submarine classification varies according to their specific purpose. Attack submarines, such as those in the Seawolf class, are designed to assure naval superiority over other countries. Their missions include anti-submarine, anti-ship and strike warfare. The strike warfare mission includes attacking surface targets with cruise missiles. Navy submarines successfully launched Tomahawk cruise missiles during "Operation Desert Storm." Additionally, Attack submarines collect intelligence information and deliver and support Special Forces units. They are exceptionally quiet, fast, well-armed and equipped with advanced sensor systems. The newest version of this type of submarine is the Virginia class, which is designed for battle space dominance. The other major class of Attack submarines is the Los Angeles class, which makes up the bulk of this type of submarine. Some Benjamin Franklin class Ballistic Missile submarines, which have been removed from that role as a result of the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) treaties, are being converted for special operations and support of Navy SEAL (Sea, Air, and Land) teams.
The Ballistic Missile submarine’s sole mission is to be a strategic deterrent. This fleet provides the Nation’s most survivable and enduring nuclear strike capability. With each submarine carrying 24 Trident missiles, they carry 50 percent of the total United States' strategic warheads. The newer Ohio class submarines are being equipped with Trident II missile systems. These systems enable them to deliver more payload, with greater accuracy, than their predecessors. The Ohio class submarine is specifically designed for extended deterrent patrol. Minimizing port time is a key objective of the fleet. The class design and modern concepts allow the submarines to operate for over 15 years between overhauls. The Trident II missiles have a range in excess of 4,500 miles and a speed in excess of 20,000 feet per second.
In addition, we viewed three simulators that the submarine crews use for training in order to qualify for submarine duty. They included the Firefighting Training Facility, the Damage Control Wet Trainer, where emergency repair procedures are practiced, and the Dive Trainer, a submarine control room simulator. The Dive Trainer provided a "hands-on" learning experience for us.
Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command
Following our visit to SUBTRAFAC, we visited the Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command (SPAWAR). SPAWAR developed as the result of the 1985 disestablishment of the Naval Material Command, which included the Naval Electronics Systems Command (NAVELEX). This reorganization resulted in SPAWAR becoming an Echelon II command directly under the Chief of Naval Operations. The new command has an expanded mission to provide the war fighter with knowledge superiority by developing, delivering, and maintaining effective, capable and integrated command, control, communications, computer, intelligence and surveillance systems.
Our coordinator and hosts were Ms. Jackie Olson, Command Visits Officer, and Mr. Eric Hendricks, Acting Deputy Executive Director for Science, Technology and Engineering. We were introduced to the "Command Center of the Future" and provided with an overview of how the command center functions by Mr. Ed Budzyna, Acting Public Affairs Officer.
Mr. Frank White, from the Program Development Office of the Deputy Executive Director for Science, Technology and Engineering, provided us with an in-depth overview of the vision and strategy for Command, Control, Computers, Communications, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (C4ISR) Solutions. His presentation of the Department of Defense "Joint Vision 2020" included research on sensors, topside antenna designs, command control and intelligence systems, and tactical data links known as TADILS. He expressed the need and importance of integration and scalability of C3I systems (Command, Control, Communications and Intelligence) with other meteorological and oceanographic systems. Mr. White concluded with examples of some of the challenges still ahead in designing decision support systems for future war fighters, which may be solved through Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center (SSC) -- San Diego’s Information Operations Center of Excellence.
San Diego Super Computing Center
Our visit to the San Diego Super Computing Center (SDSC) began with a brief overview of the Center by the new Executive Director, Dr. Richard Moore. SDSC is the leading-edge site for the National Partnership for Advanced Computational Infrastructure, commonly referred to as NPACI. According to Dr. Moore, SDSC information infrastructure is a first class tool for science. Its goal is to promote research and development and education, including outreach and training. SDSC was established in 1985 with funds from the National Science Foundation (NSF). The SDSC mission is to develop and use technology to advance science. It enables the scale and synergy required to develop the next generation of advances in technology, science and engineering.
SDSC is a leader in: (1) Grid and Cluster Computing, (2) High Performance Computing, (3) Integrative Bioscience Computing, (4) Data, Knowledge and Storage Systems, and (5) Computational Sciences.
SDSC has a 35 Teraflop Supercomputing complex with 1,102 processors all linked in a grid. The complex utilizes the Internet grid concept. The complex provides services to over 48 institutions, 20 states, 5 countries, 5 National Laboratories, several projects, vendors, industries and government agencies. The IBM Blue Horizon computer at the SDSC is the second fastest operational academic computer in the world, providing a new paradigm for data-oriented computing such as that used in disaster response, genomics, and environmental modeling.
Dr. Kim Baldridge, the Associate Director of Integrated Biosciences, discussed SDSC’s focus on research and development challenges in the life sciences. Their efforts are shifting from data collection to knowledge synthesis and universal access. She stressed the importance of performing leading-edge research across large biological scales this multiscale methodology examines life from the level of organisms to that of atoms and molecules. Dr. Baldridge also stressed extensive efforts in Genomics and Proteomics.
Some of the core activities that the Blue Horizon machine is used for are portal and visualization capability, computer resources, database management and integration, and Integrative Systems Biology. SDSC supports about 200 Principal Investigators (PIs) on the Blue Horizon. A consistent theme amongst the presentations was the use of improved visualization tools that are made possible by the computational capability of the Supercomputer. Before leaving the SDSC, we were provided a tour of the machines housed at the facility.
Palomar Observatory
The Palomar Observatory is located in San Diego County, 66 miles northeast of downtown San Diego. The Observatory is owned and operated by the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), a privately endowed educational and research institution located in Pasadena, California. The Observatory supports research at Caltech, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), and at Cornell, Yale and Indiana Universities.
The principal instruments at the Palomar Observatory are the 200-inch Hale Telescope, the 48-inch Oschin Telescope, the 18-inch Schmidt Telescope, and the 60-inch reflecting telescope (which is operated jointly by Caltech and the Carnegie Institution of Washington).
Our host was Dr. Robert J. Brucato, Assistant Director of Palomar Observatory, who gave us a quick history of the Observatory. In 1928, George Ellery Hale obtained a grant from the International Education Board to build a 200-inch telescope. The Palomar Observatory site was selected for its location because it was far enough away from heavily populated areas that their light would not impair observations. In 1934, Corning Glass Works in New York State made the 200-inch Pyrex® disk. Pyrex® was selected because the material does not change size with temperature. After an 8-month cooling period, the 20-ton disk was sent to Pasadena, California for grinding and polishing. Construction of the building needed to house the telescope started in the mid-1930s and was almost finished in 1941 when World War II started. The war delayed the polishing of the mirror until 1947 when the disk, which now weighed only 14.5 tons, was transported to Palomar Mountain. The telescope was finally completed in 1948 after Hale’s death.
The Hale Telescope -- In recent years, the telescope has been equipped with sensitive position sensors, high-speed computers, and electronic devices that sense faint signals from distant celestial objects or are able to measure infrared light. These devices are sometimes 100 times more sensitive than the photographic plates initially used. The telescope and the dome are mobile. The 200-inch telescope can be pointed at any object in the sky. As the Earth turns, the object appears to move across the sky from east to west, and the telescope can rotate slowly to follow the object.
The dome covering the telescope weighs about 1,000 tons. It rotates smoothly on a series of railroad car wheels. As the telescope moves about to point at different positions in the sky, the dome follows automatically in order to align the dome slit with the telescope azimuth.
Presently, there are many improvements in astronomy that allow for better observations. One of the main problems in astronomy is that the Earth’s atmosphere distorts and decreases the light from faraway objects. Some solutions to this problem include using a telescope, such as the Hubble telescope, which is above the Earth’s atmosphere; the use of Doppler to correct for the distortion; and the use of an interferometer that allows for the diffraction of the light.
The Oschin Telescope -- The 48-inch Oschin Telescope, with its spherical mirror and lens, is designed for wide-field viewing of the sky. Between 1947 and 1954, the Oschin Telescope was used to produce a Palomar Sky Atlas that contains photographs of the entire northern sky. Because we now have a better optical lens and photographic plates, and also because the sky has slightly changed, it was decided in 1980 that a new atlas or "road map" of the sky would be created. This was finished in 1997.
The 18-inch Schmidt Telescope -- This telescope is presently idle. Last year, a CCD camera replaced the photographic capabilities and next year this instrument will be used for a new NASA program called Near Earth Asteroid Tracking or NEAT to search for potentially dangerous asteroids, at least 100 km in diameter, near Earth. It is unknown how many are present but their number is believed to range from 100 to 1000.
The 60-inch Telescope -- Operated jointly by Caltech and by the Carnegie Institution of Washington, this telescope is a reflecting telescope used to detect changes in the sky using gamma ray bursts that occur about once a month and last only a few minutes. This instrument is used for quick response astronomy.
The telescopes are jointly owned -- 50 percent by Caltech, 25 percent by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's JPL, and 25 percent by Cornell University. Scientists submit proposals to use the telescopes, which are then peer-reviewed and ranked. There is, in general, twice as much time requested as available. In addition to scheduling for research, consideration must be given to the time needed for the installation and testing of new instrumentation or equipment upgrades. Additionally, time is set aside for engineering activities such as aluminum re-coating of the mirror. Presently, Palomar Observatory has over 300 nights available for observation each year.
Unfortunately, for us, the weather did not allow for the direct observation. Because of the rain and fog, the dome could not be opened. However, after our tour and an opportunity to share dinner with scientists working at Palomar Observatory, we were able to see data collected by Dr. Shri Kulkarni and his students. He explained that with radio-techniques, scientists were able to detect the presence of planets with mass ranging from that of the Earth to the moon. He is especially interested in planets of nearby stars. By measuring the movement of a star over time, it is possible to infer the presence of a planet. We were able to view the image of a binary star system using adaptation techniques.
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
We began our visit with an introduction by Dr. Lisa Schaffer, Director of Policy Programs and International Relations, a specialist in international environmental cooperation and science policy. Dr. Schaffer is responsible for strategic relationships between Scripps and counterpart institutions around the world. She was a principal creator and first executive director of the Partnership for Observation of the Global Oceans (POGO), involving senior officials from 20 oceanographic institutions in 14 countries plus international organizations. Previous to her position at Scripps, Dr. Schaffer held various private sector and governmental positions, including heading the international offices of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Earth Science program, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s environmental satellite and data service.
Dr. Schaffer described the various programs and research conducted by Scripps Institution of Oceanography (SIO). SIO was founded in 1903 by the Scripps family, and is currently the largest single oceanographic institute in the world. The annual operating budget is approximately $145 million, including approximately $83 million from various Federal Government sources. SIO employs approximately 1,768 people in addition to over 468 volunteers and visiting scholars, 91 researchers and 179 other academics.
The mission of SIO is to seek, teach and communicate scientific understanding of the oceans, atmosphere, Earth and other planets for the benefit of society and the environment. The vision of the organization is to be an international leader in originating basic research, in developing scientists and in advancing the science needed for a sustainable balance between the natural environment and human activity. In addition, SIO endeavors to connect discovery with decision-making, by providing accurate research and resources to policymakers. SIO focuses on basic research; however, success of the programs is judged not only by how they increase basic knowledge, but also on how well that knowledge is applied to world problems.
SIO currently operates as a part of the University of California, San Diego. Its resources are roughly divided into three divisions: (1) bioscience, (2) oceans, atmosphere and climate, and (3) geoscience. SIO owns and operates four research ships, and the Trianna satellite for use in its global ocean and climate studies. Current programs of SIO are aimed at understanding global climate and other environmental factors. Examples include the Argo Float program, which entails a network of instrument-carrying floats that drift with ocean currents to study what happens at different depths of the ocean. Another example is the IRIS/IDA Global Seismographic Network, which is intended to monitor the role of oceans in climate change through field measurements. Other ongoing programs include: the Center for Ocean Modeling and Prediction at Scripps; the Center for Marine Biodiversity and Conservation; the Center for Marine Genomics, studying "drugs from the sea;" and the Center for Coastal Environment, studying beach erosion.
Discoveries from these various programs include improvements in climate prediction, leading to the anticipation of the El Nino and La Nina phenomena’s. Additional studies led to the development of the Keeling Curve, which is used to predict the effect of greenhouse gasses on climate. Studies of the reduction of the snow pack in the Rocky Mountains led to predictions of a 30 percent reduction in the water supply for California in the next 30 years. SIO studies are also used in an international level in international treaty negotiations, such as the Kyoto protocol. Additionally, SIO research results are used in models of future global climate predictions.
In the Earth Sciences area, SIO is active in studying seismic activity worldwide in an attempt to better understand and predict earthquakes. SIO seismic data is also used to detect other events such as nuclear weapons testing, meteor impacts, or events such as the sinking of the Russian submarine, the Kursk. These studies have a beneficial effect to local economies in that they can be used in evaluating where to safely locate factories, bridges or other structures that could be damaged by earthquakes.
In the Biology area, SIO studies how humans impact marine ecosystems such as coastal reefs, fisheries, and biodiversity. Data supports the conclusion that over-fishing precedes all other climate disturbances by humans. For example, in the Chesapeake Bay, when over-fishing depleted oyster beds, the reduced filtration of water led to an increase in the severity of problems from agricultural run-off. Through research, SIO attempts to establish baselines from which changes in fisheries or environmental effects can be measured. This data is used in establishing marine preserves and fishing regulations.
SIO also conducts extensive coastal research, including erosion studies. Applications of this research include: mitigation of fuel spills, evaluating where debris will likely wash up from crash sites, monitoring beach pollution and tracing of contamination sources, stabilizing coastline for development, bioremediation through the use of bacteria and other agents to clean up coastline contamination, and homeland security, monitoring for the potential introduction of biological agents.
Our visit then progressed to a behind-the-scenes tour of the Birch Aquarium, a public outreach program of SIO. In anticipation of the Aquarium’s seahorse exhibit, we visited the seahorse propagation rooms. We learned that seahorses are considered to be "true fish" and that the male is responsible for carrying the eggs after fertilization and for caring for the young. Seahorses also have a camouflage defense, changing colors to match their surroundings. We also observed typical seahorse behavior, such as using their tails not only for swimming, but also for attaching themselves to vegetation or the bottom of the tank. While at the Aquarium, we also viewed the kelp tank and other tropical fish tanks used to maintain the collection.
Finally, our visit ended at the Scripps Visualization Center, which is a joint project with the University of California, San Diego, Supercomputing Center. At the Visualization Center, we viewed three-dimensional imaging of data including a temperature map of Lake Tahoe. From the map image, it was possible to see the underwater topography of the lake. This information is useful in modeling the historical climate changes leading to the natural Earth formations surrounding the lake. Another visualization presented earthquake seismographic data, mapping the major fault areas in California.
General Atomics
We were given a technological overview of General Atomics (GA), a major federal contractor for both the Department of Energy and the Department of Defense. GA was founded in 1955 as a division of General Dynamics and is now privately owned.
At GA’s 125-acre campus, we were introduced to a plethora of high technology, high-importance research projects, ranging from nuclear fusion experimentation to unmanned aerial vehicle refinement. Thus, we observed both basic and applied research and development that maintains the United States’ already decade-plus lead on scientific and technical innovation and application.
GA is comprised of its Advanced Technologies and Fusion Groups. The Advanced Technologies Group is focused upon several naval projects, including electromagnetic launch and arresting systems for carrier aircraft, rail-gun weapons technology, advanced minesweeping apparatus, super-conducting electric propulsion systems, and air/sea stealth coatings science. Also, magnetic levitation systems are a major focus of effort for this division.
The Advanced Technologies Group has developed synthetic aperture radar for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) such as the Predator, which is designed and built by GA, providing high-resolution images from altitudes up to 6,500m, as well as ultra-advanced software, which resolves the images into useful intelligence. We were also introduced to GA’s environmental and robotics enterprises, and cryogenic fracture technology to be used for compliance with arms control treaties regarding the destruction of chemical weapons of mass destruction. Further, this division has designed a truly safe nuclear power reactor system with the highest of efficiencies.
The Fusion Group of GA conducts basic nuclear research. It is the Department of Energy’s contractor for the National Fusion Facility, which is embodied in a Tokomak, a donut-shaped plasma fusion reactor located at the site. The apparatus uses extreme magnetic confinement of an ionized gas-plasma, plus the injection of maximum radio frequency and other energies, to create temperatures and pressures approaching that of the sun, with the aim of starting a sustainable deuterium-tritium fusion reaction. The long-term result of this basic research will be the creation of a clean, almost costless source of energy that will supplant fossil fuels, current nuclear power plants and other sources now considered "alternative." While a practical application may be many years in the future, this reinforced our realization of the importance of government-funded basic research.
GA demonstrated a fantastic picture of what is in terms of the most advanced technology, and what will be in the field of energy production.
William T. Veal, Chief Patrol Agent, San Diego Border Patrol Sector, United States Border Patrol
Mr. William Veal’s presentation provided an overview of the activities of the Border Patrol along the 2,000-mile border that the United States shares with Mexico. The overview included some insights regarding national efforts to address the problem of illegal immigrants as well as cooperative efforts with Canada and Mexico.
Ten years ago, it was exceedingly difficult to catch all the illegal immigrants entering the United States at the San Diego/Mexico border. The Border Patrol caught approximately 1,000 to 2,000 people crossing into San Diego every day. However, Mr. Veal estimated that this represented only one out of every three illegal immigrants entering San Diego. Part of this problem was because the San Diego Border Patrol, with only 500 agents, lacked the infrastructure to operate effectively. Some agents arrested hundreds of illegal immigrants at a time and had great difficulty processing them all for return to Mexico.
Several factors contribute to the difficulty in protecting the United States/Mexico border. First of all, the size of the border -- 2,000 miles -- places a high demand on personnel and resources. Another factor is the profitability of smuggling illegal immigrants. A lot of crime resulted from smuggler’s turf wars, as well as bandits preying on the people seeking to cross the border. Smugglers often seek methods to circumvent security measures including digging lighted and ventilated tunnels. Two of these tunnels were recently discovered, but were not easy to locate. Our economy and need for cheap labor drives illegals into the United States. There are an estimated 10 million illegal immigrants in the United States today and hundreds of millions people visit the United States legally. There is no good mechanism to track all these people. Therefore, there are those who enter legally, but stay illegally once their visa expires.
Recently, the ability of the Border Patrol to deter illegal immigration was strengthened. Between 1955 and 1975, 50 percent of all border-crossing arrests occurred in San Diego’s 56-mile stretch of the 2,000-mile United States/Mexico border. In 1986, approximately 629,000 illegal immigrants were arrested. In 1995, the United States began to address the problem by providing lights and sensors for a distance of 1,000 miles along the border. Now, two fences, 100 meters apart, protect the border. These changes have cut the flow of illegal immigrants to such an extent that only 10,000 were arrested last year. Prior to these improvements, only 33 percent of the illegal immigrants were caught compared with the estimated 90 to 95 percent caught today.
The budget and staffing for Border Patrol has increased over the past five years. In 1992, the Border Patrol consisted of 2,200 officers for the entire country. Now, San Diego alone has 2,250 officers, 400 support personnel and an annual budget of $120 million. Additionally, all officers are trained in Spanish with a two-week course. Electronic information is stored for each illegal immigrant arrested. A database has been developed with state and local agencies to aid in identifying repeat offenders and criminals. State and local agencies are now technologically moving ahead of the Federal Government with the use of face or biometric recognition software. This technology, in combination with metal detectors, is being contemplated for use in airports to identify illegal immigrants. Artificial intelligence technology is also being investigated as a means to assist agents in the analysis of extensive quantity of data being collected.
Conflicts can arise between the Border Patrol and the various agencies that they work with. The Immigration and Naturalization Service is viewed as a dysfunctional agency. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) favors a one-way flow of information, from the Border Patrol to the FBI, which impairs the ability of both agencies to work cooperatively. The creation of a Homeland Security Office is promising, but that office will still have to deal with turf problems among agencies.
In terms of international cooperation, the United States has addressed the problem with limited input from Mexico. Generally, Mexico does cooperate on border issues concerning people that are not Mexican nationals. With regard to Mexican nationals, the Mexican government views border-crossing issues as a United States problem. Conversely, there is good cooperation from Canadian Border Patrol. The problem in Canada is that it is easy to enter Canada, and consequently, the United States due to minimal standards. When it comes to immigrants seeking political asylum, such as from Cuba, it is critical to catch them before they set foot on the mainland. If detained prior to reaching United States soil, these immigrants are diverted to a third country. However, if they are successful in reaching the mainland, they can request political asylum and are no longer under the jurisdiction of the Border Patrol.
While problems still exist in the management of the United States' borders, there has been significant improvement over the past few years. These improvements are tied to the increased personnel and budgetary resources made available to the Border Patrol.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Southwest Fisheries Science Center
The Southwest Fisheries Science Center (SWFSC) is the research arm of NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service for the Southwest United States and South Pacific region. There are four laboratories in this region located in La Jolla, Pacific Grove, and Santa Cruz, California, and Honolulu, Hawaii. The SWFSC conducts marine biological, economic, and oceanographic investigations in support of managing the living marine resources of the Nation. Data collection and analysis for the protection, management and maintenance of a healthy fish stock, and to assist recovering species is the goal. Dr. Richard A. Neal, the Deputy Director of the SWFSC greeted us. He explained the overall mission of the laboratory and arranged for an overview of some of the critical initiatives underway.
The La Jolla lab is organized around a Fisheries Resources Division, a Protected Resources Division, and the Antarctic Ecosystem Research Group. The Fisheries Resources Division conducts stock assessments and provides basic fishery analyses. Stock assessments of coastal and pelagic species including tuna, billfish, and sharks support international agreements and treaties aimed at managing a healthy fishery in the entire Pacific region. The Protected Resources Division deals with provisions of the Marine Mammal Protection Act and the Endangered Species Act including assessing and helping cetaceans and pinnipeds. The Antarctic group is focused on the United States' participation in international efforts to protect the Antarctic and its marine life including overexploitation of krill and fish as well as protecting seals, penguins, and sea birds.
Dr. David Demer presented the SWFSC's survey and assessment efforts using bioacoustics. Population and biomass estimates of schooling species are being developed by using sophisticated single beam and multi-beam sonar. This method of survey is non-intrusive. This technique still requires some validation by capture methods to assure the scientists of what species they are seeing on the sonar. Individual species identification by sonar is still in the development mode. Dr. Demer is involved in the Antarctic Krill estimates also using sonar.
Dr. Paul Smith presented his work with the California coastal fisheries, including anchovy and sardines. These are critical members of the food supply for many other species. Cyclical abundance observations make understanding abundance and prediction difficult. The total collapse of the fishery and the demise of Cannery Row is an example of the impact of over-fishing. Now that the species are recovering, the survey and confidence bands of the data are important. Dr. Smith described the use of the Continuous Underway Fish Egg Sampling (CUFES) instruments and the implications of his research.
Dr. Mike Goebel and Ms. Carrie Le Duc provided other presentations. Dr. Goebel discussed the problems protecting fur seals and studies on their diving behavior. Ms. Le Duc presented the technologies used in marine mammal genetics to assist in implementation of the Marine Mammal Protection Act. Much of the science relies upon forensics and statistics. Sea Turtle research being conducted by Ms. Denise Parker relies upon genetics, satellite monitoring, and international cooperation. The SWFSC maintains the national databank of mitochondria DNA, which is not replicated or backed up in another location.
Dr. John Butler introduced us to some of the techniques and benefits of conducting research using remotely operated vehicles (ROVs). These methods are non-intrusive and do not scour the bottom like a purse seine nets. Squid and crustacean research is enhanced and recruitment is not damaged.
We also toured the experimental aquarium in the basement of the SWFSC's building. There was a stark contrast in visual presentation from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography's Birch Aquarium next door, which is maintained for both researchers and tourists.
The Salk Institute for Biological Research
Our final visit in San Diego was to The Salk Institute for Biological Research. Mr. Del Glanz, Executive Vice President of the Institute, greeted us. As part of his welcome, he provided us a brief introduction to the Institute. He stated that the Institute is an independent research institute engaged in basic biological research. It is a non-profit organization and is not affiliated with any university or hospital. Dr. Jonas Salk started the Institute in 1960 with financial support from the March of Dimes organization. Currently, the Institute has 934 employees with 390 being researchers, 92 graduate students, 220 laboratory staff, 147 laboratory support staff, and 85 administrative and clerical staff. Of the 390 researchers, there are 275 post docs, 27 staff scientists, 23 visiting scientists, and 7 senior research associates. The Institute’s FY 2002 budget is $70 million with 67 percent coming from United States' government grants (61 percent from the National Institutes of Health), 13 percent from private foundations, 5 percent from voluntary health agencies, 7 percent from individuals, 6 percent from investment income, and 2 percent from patents. Following Mr. Glanz’s presentation, members of The Salk Institute’s staff made presentations on subjects ranging from patents to specific research activities.
Ms. Ann-Marie Mueller began the session by discussing Intellectual Property and Technology Transfer (IPTT) issues at The Salk Institute. She explained that successful licensing and technology transfer activities by non-profit organizations began in December 1980 with the passage of the Bayh-Dole Act. This Act allowed non-profit organizations to retain title to, and file patents for, innovations originating from federally-funded research. At The Salk Institute, the IPTT office is responsible for marketing, licensing, and protecting the Institute’s intellectual property and the administration of all active license agreements. The Institute has negotiated approximately 250 license agreements (75 percent are nonexclusive licenses); a large increase from the 18 agreements concluded issued prior to the Bayh-Dole Act. Ms. Mueller provided us with a brief listing of some of the products currently on the market or in clinical trials developed at the Institute and licensed by other companies.
Dr. Walter Eckhart provided a scientific overview of the Institute. He stated that in the 1960s the two primary goals of the Institute were to: (1) understand human nature, and (2) improve the human condition. The Institute focused on the areas of neuroscience and molecular biology or genetics as a means to understand human nature. These focus areas would improve our understanding of how nerve cells communicate with the brain and how the nervous system works. Dr. Eckhart also spoke about the research being done at the Institute’s Cancer Center. He explained that the current research at the Center involves studying how genes are involved in the development of cancers.
Dr. Joe Ecker spoke about his work on plant biology. He is studying Arabidopsis (a common weed) to understand plant processes. Traits of Arabidopsis that make it attractive for research include rapid growth, small size, self-fertilization, large seed production, large genetic diversity, facile genetic transformation, low repetitive DNA content, diploid genetics, and a small genome.
The genome of this plant has been sequenced and was found to be representative of a large variety of plants. This research will provide information on how genes affect different properties of the plant and how gene expression can be altered to produce desirable characteristics (i.e., growth regulation).
Dr. John Reynolds talked about his research on vision and perception. He explained that the brain selects signals to process based on how important they are to us; therefore, we do not "see" everything. To illustrate this point, Dr. Reynolds showed us two nearly identical pictures. Each picture was very busy with several visual stimuli and differed in only one small subtle feature. At first we could not detect the difference, but after Dr. Reynolds pointed it out, we could not ignore the difference. He went on to describe how the brain processes information on what we see. He is conducting experiments on monkeys to understand how neurons react to visual stimuli and the limitations on how much information the neurons can handle.
Dr. Martina Wicklein spoke to us on her work on computational neurobiology and "hovering" research. She is doing her research on hawk moths because they hover at the same distance while feeding; therefore, they are ideal subjects for depth perception experiments. She explained that we perceive depth by one or more of three strategies: (1) area change, (2) change in perimeter length, and (3) expansion or contraction of flow field. She is examining how depth stimuli induce changes in a single optical cell in the hawk moth to isolate the strategy or strategies being used to determine depth.
Class of 2000-2001 -- Puerto Rico
Bristol-Myers Squibb Company (Mayaguez, Puerto Rico)
Dr. Carlos M. Ufret gave a presentation and an overview of the company, after which he gave us a tour of the facility.
Bristol-Myers Squibb (BMS) is partners with the University of Puerto Rico (UPR) and they work closely together in a collaborative way. The BMS Puerto Rico plant was built in 1971 and comprises 70 acres with a fixed asset of $20 million. Additional structures have been added since. When it was built, it was one of only three such facilities in the world, and was state-of-the-art. Thanks to a continuous effort to update and upgrade the equipment, it remains a state-of-the-art facility. They employ 711 persons, 577 of which are permanent employees. The rest are temporary workers.
The Puerto Rico plant produces drugs in parenteral and solid or powder forms. The different forms require quite different manufacturing processes. For example, the parenterals require more antiseptic conditions because they are formulated in solutions that are conducive to growth of contaminants. Many of the drugs that are produced at the Puerto Rico facility are oncologicals used in chemotherapy regimes to treat cancer. Examples of some of the drugs produced are buspar, capoten, questran, gatifoxacin, ovcon, carboplatin, taxol, and cisplatin. Some stability trials are performed at the Puerto Rico plant although the bulk of them are performed at a facility in New Jersey. The targeted shelf life is three years for the solids and two years for the parenterals. Most batches are from 600 to 750 kilograms for solids and 30 to 560 liters for liquids.
A tour of the facility showed the state-of-the-art technology used to manufacture the aforementioned drugs. This included an automated tracking system that ensured no error in the constituents of the manufactured product. Every step of the production process had built-in checks and balances, some of which required human intervention.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Tropical Agriculture Research Station (Mayaguez, Puerto Rico)
Dr. Ricardo Goenaga, Research Leader of the Tropical Agriculture Research Station (TARS), presented an overview of the research efforts at TARS and provided a tour of the facilities. Dr. Goenaga explained that the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) is the principal research agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) related to food issues. Some of the national programs within ARS include: (1) animal production, produce value and safety; (2) natural resource sustainable agricultural systems; and (3) crop production, product value and safety (includes plant germplasm preservation). TARS is a part of ARS and it was founded in 1901 by an Act of the U.S. Congress. TARS is located on a 203-acre tract of land adjoining the Mayaguez Campus of the University of Puerto Rico. The station also has a 120-acre farm at Isabela where most of its research program is conducted. TARS is one of three tropical/subtropical research centers of the USDA/ARS and is supported by annual appropriations from the U.S. Congress, research grants from industry, and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. It is under the auspices of the ARS, South Atlantic Area in Athens, Georgia. The other two research sites are located in Miami, Florida and Hilo, Hawaii. The scientific staff at TARS includes Dr. Heber Irizarry, Horticulturist, in charge of the germplasm program; Dr. James R. Smith, Geneticist, responsible for the bean project; and Dr. Randall L. Pingel, Entomologist, in charge of controlling insect transmissions of plant diseases.
The TARS mission is to conduct agricultural research to: (1) improve the genetic diversity in dry bean and sorghum through the conversion of tropical germplasm into one adapted to temperate regions, and (2) to introduce, preserve, evaluate, regenerate, distribute and develop cultural and management systems for tropical/subtropical crops that are of economic importance to the United States. The TARS research program consists of six research projects whose main objectives are: (1) the introduction, evaluation, enhancement, preservation, multiplication, and distribution of valuable tropical/subtropical germplasm; (2) the development of efficient production systems for tropical/subtropical fruit crops; (3) genetic improvement of bean and sorghum; and (4) seed regeneration for the National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS). TARS is part of the U.S. National Plant Germplasm System. It introduces, maintains, characterizes, and evaluates germplasm collections of banana, plantain, spodilla, mamey sapote, cacao, Carcinia, Annona, and bamboo. A new project to identify, increase and preserve disease-free cacao was initiated in 2000.
Crops under study at TARS include dry bean, sorghum, banana, plantain, papaya, and tropical exotic fruits such as rambutan, carambola, mamey sapote, lychee, longan, sapodilla and mangosteen.
The principal building, constructed in 1909, is noted for its beautiful architecture. TARS is part of the U.S. National Germplasm System and maintains germplasm of bamboo, banana and plantain, avocado, mango, Garcinia, sapodilla, and mamey sapote. There is also an extensive collection of germplasm at TARS consisting of 258 genera and 437 species distributed across the Station grounds. Some of the exotic plants include cinnamon, nutmeg, rubber, coffee, bamboo, vanilla, black pepper, cacao and citronella. Because Puerto Rico is warm all year long, scientists in temperate areas use TARS facilities to breed, evaluate, increase and select promising new plant material for crops like sorghum, corn, pearl millet, soybean, and peanuts during the winter months.
Our tour of the facilities included the entomology and chemical analysis laboratories and the experimentation grounds. In the entomology laboratory, Dr. Pingel explained his research on aphids' viral transmission to papaya. In the chemical analysis laboratory, the analysis of soil and vegetation samples were explained. The properties of interest including pH, content and types of minerals such as Fe, Mn, Mg, and organic nitrates were analyzed using various processes and equipment.
Our tour of the grounds included observations of various exotic plants including teak, mango, banana, bamboo, cacao, carambola (star fruit) and breadfruit trees. Dr. Goenaga provided us with a unique experience of sampling carambola and cacao beans off the trees.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Refugio de Vida Silvestre (Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico)
Uncharacteristically heavy rains for the drier southwestern part of the Island of Puerto Rico and flooded roads prevented us from visiting the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) Refuge in Cabo Rojo, but that didn't stop resident marine biologist, Ms. Beverly Yoshioka, from coming to us. At the USDA Tropical Agriculture Research Station in a more northern, somewhat drier setting in Mayaguez, Ms. Yoshioka impressed us with her in-depth knowledge of the island's ecosystems from the headwaters of forest streams to the coral reefs offshore.
FWS divides into two organizational units in Puerto Rico -- Refuges, and Ecological Services. Ms. Yoshioka, one of nine biologists working in Ecological Services, is responsible for endangered species and habitat conservation. Of the 50 plant and animals on the endangered species list there, we were given insights into the plight of various sea turtles and the threats to their nesting beaches; manatees (approximately 200 in population in the estuarine areas of the island); the Coqui -- a small tree frog with a call that sounds like a Bobwhite, and the Puerto Rican Parrot of which there are less than 100 left.
Ecological Services gets involved in wetland permits of any kind, especially where federal funding is involved. FWS strives to build partnerships with other federal and commonwealth agencies and the public such as builders, so that consultation is sought with FWS before any construction is begun within the island's coastal zone. FWS' jurisdiction extends to the U.S. Virgin Islands and the islands of Nevasa and Guantanamo where problems are ironically similar to the Hawaiian Islands where endemic species are very vulnerable to development in the coastal areas.
With 30 major freshwater reservoirs on the island, Ecological Services strives to protect the indigenous river species such as freshwater shrimp, crab, fish, and eel that come down the river to migrate elsewhere and eventually return to the island's estuarine environment and forest streams. In trying to preserve natural river habitat, Ms. Yoshioka has taken course work to better understand river hydrology and has also been actively engaged in coral reef research. Storms such as hurricanes, cause tremendous damage to the reefs around the islands and poor land use has introduced new diseases, which have contributed to the planet's coral bleaching problem.
Although we didn't get to see the exhibits of freshwater fish and sea turtles at the Refuge in Cabo Rojo, Ms. Yoshioka painted a mental picture for us that will be hard to forget.
University of Puerto Rico (San Juan, Puerto Rico)
Dr. Brad Wiener was our host for a morning of presentations at the University of Puerto Rico (UPR) main campus at Rio Piedras. The presentation topics centered on the federal science and engineering programs associated with the UPR. The UPR's Resource Center for Science and Engineering (RCSE) was described and its activities to promote federal research grants through programs such as the Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research (EPSCoR), the Tropical Atmospheric Science Center (TASC), the Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) Program, and the Center of Biomedical Research Excellence (COBRE). Following the presentations, we toured several laboratories on campus.
Dr. Ana C. Pinero
Associate Director
Resource Center for Science and Engineering (RCSE)
http://web.uprr.pr/rcse/rcse.htmlThe RCSE was formed to develop science and engineering capabilities of the Puerto Rican student population. The RCSE works as a consortium of the higher educational institutions on the island. It is jointly funded by UPR and the National Science Foundation (NSF) and works in collaboration with the Puerto Rican Department of Education to develop scientists, mathematicians, and engineers. The RCSE understood that a modern economy requires students to graduate with more developed science, math, and engineering skills. The RSCE also understood that to train these students it would be necessary to increase teacher training in these scientific domains so they could develop students with high technical skills.
The four basic characteristics of the center are: 1) it operates as a virtual organization; 2) it creates strategic alliances with educational institutions, government entities, and industry; 3) it approaches educational reforms through a systems approach, looking on the educational system as a continuum running from K through 16 plus, which includes undergraduate education, and graduate and research training; and 4) it looks for windows of opportunities in which to try out its new ideas.
The RCSE is a catalyst for change working with the national cultural and educational institutions, the federal-level education community, academia, private sector, school administrators, and teachers. The plan is to manage the strategic plan in which all these stakeholders have an active role. The center looks for best practices in the national education reform movements and helps transfer best practices into the Puerto Rican educational system.
The center serves as an advocate improving teaching and learning processes at the undergraduate level. It supports pilot efforts for new and innovative educational strategies that, if successful, can be generalized to the rest of the school system. The RCSE also serves as a clearinghouse to identify best practices in the national educational reform arena and helps translate the results of research in cognitive science and education into practical implementation strategies.
RCSE sees its clients as both industry and academia, the two groups that receive outputs from the educational system. It gathers Site Feedbackto existing programs, which is demonstrated by the quality of students, and provides it to the academic community. It analyzes the current status of the scientific, math, engineering, and teaching programs and helps develop measures of success to assess teaching effectiveness and efficiency and to ensure accountability.
In the area of teaching improvements the center helps identify education leaders, develop a network of reformers to exchange information on best practices and advocate for change, and works with education administration to facilitate improvements in the teaching and learning processes. This began with schools volunteering to participate in the RCSE endeavors. It has grown into the inclusion of over half the schools on the island.
There are state-federal level partnerships working in Puerto Rico that take advantage of federal funding to develop graduate-level student training programs. These will be briefly described below: EPSCoR and NSF, TASC and NASA, LTER and NSF, and COBRE and BRIN and NIH.
Brad R. Weiner
Director
Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research (EPSCoR)
http://web.uprr.pr/epscor/Dr. Brad Weiner briefed us on the EPSCoR program at the University of Puerto Rico (UPR) and its 15 years of progress since it began in 1986 with its first grant from the National Science Foundation (NSF). The purpose of the EPSCoR Program is to develop an infrastructure and nurture competitive research in Puerto Rico. The NSF is still the core of its program but today UPR is also working with NIH, DOE, DoD, USDA, and EPA, with NIH now being the other big federal program. More than 120 researchers participate in five areas of research: high performance computing, materials science, environmental research, biotechnology, and civil infrastructures. The EPSCoR State Committee brings together members from academia, public sector, and industry. In FY 2002, UPR plans on getting $18 MM in federal funds with matching state funds. The funding by Puerto Rico demonstrates the buy-in by the local legislature to this endeavor.
A major focus of this program is the human resource development -- of both UPR faculty and students. In the area of faculty development, UPR must overcome serious obstacles in being far from the leading-edge research centers and in having low salaries for its faculty. A major effort is underway to hire new recruits, 20 new research faculty have been hired in the past four years. These faculty members are being encouraged to become competitive researchers. A scholarly productivity award (SPA) has been instituted that is given to the most productive researchers. The SPA is being used as a model for merit-based increases in faculty salaries. UPR is also looking into developing new tenure, retention, recruitment, salary, and promotion policies. Additional measures of success being looked at are number of research articles appearing in peer-reviewed journals and number of competitive awards granted.
In the area of student development, the UPR is focusing on developing women and minority candidates for Ph.D. programs in the country. To do this, the University is emphasizing strong undergraduate research programs, ensuring that there are a large number of women science and technology students, and a faculty dedicated to student success. The UPR doctoral programs include civil engineering, chemical engineering, mathematics, and computational and information science and engineering. Other doctoral programs are planned in the fields of biomolecular sciences, environmental sciences, and materials sciences. One indication of success in this strategy has been the increase in Ph.D.s granted, from 6 in 1985 to 25 in 2000.
Partnerships and alliances are established by reaching out to appropriate institutions to strengthen the knowledge base on the island and to share experiences with other institutions in the United States. In addition to the federal programs on the island there are relationships with national labs such as the Fermi National Accelerator and Argonne National Lab. There are partnerships on joint projects with other universities such as Kentucky, Rutgers, and Penn State, and with some of the major pharmaceutical labs such as Pfizer, Amgen, and Bristol-Myers Squibb.
EPSCoR is the catalyst for change on the island in the area of science and technology policy. It works with the government of Puerto Rico to draft broad science and technology policies for the state; developing the capacity for technology transfer in Puerto Rico between the public sector, including academia, and industry, and helping to develop UPR into one of the best public research universities in the United States.
Brad R. Weiner
Project Director
Tropical Atmospheric Science Center (TASC)
http://web.uprr.pr/epscor/nasa-epscor/TASC looks at global environmental response to alternative land-management practices employed throughout the tropics, using satellite tracking and receiving stations to acquire synthetic aperture radar data from various platforms. The data will be used in studying volcano deformations, watershed dynamics, sea-surface elevations, coastal processes, and biomass estimations. TASC will also look at the reforestation of the island, which went from 10 percent forest cover in the 1930's to 40 percent forest cover in the 1990's. This is part of its NASA-sponsored study entitled "Land Management in the Tropics and Its Effects on the Global Environment."
Jess Zimmerman
Luquillo Long-Term Ecological Research (LUQ-LTER) Program www.lternet.edu (site 13)This NSF-funded program looks at the effects of manmade and natural disturbances on the forest structure and function over long time scales. This is a competitively funded program that is reviewed every six years. The program is defining different types of disturbances in the Luquillo Mountains and explaining the role of the biota in responding to those disturbances. The objective is to develop a complete understanding of the environment.
Fernando A. Gonzalez
Center of Biomedical Research Excellence (COBRE) and Biomedical Research Infrastructure Networks (BRIN)COBRE focuses on creating a competitive research center in neuroscience, which is being developed at UPR through a grant from NIH/National Center for Research Resources. The focus of the center will be on developing young scientists and expanding neuroscience capabilities in Puerto Rico.
BRIN focuses on enhancing and strengthening the scientific infrastructure in three key disciplines in Puerto Rico: neuroscience, mental health and medical biotechnology. Other NIH institutes working with UPR are the National Institute for General Medical Studies and the National Institute of Mental Health.
Department of Justice (San Juan, Puerto Rico)
Mr. Alfonso Golderos, Executive Director of the Criminal Justice Information System (CJIS), Department of Justice, briefed us on crime mapping in Puerto Rico. He explained that the only criminal justice agency in Puerto Rico using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is the Commonwealth Police. They have been using GIS since 1996. Mr. Golderos went on to discuss general criminal justice information systems in Puerto Rico. CJIS is the official repository of criminal history and sex offender data. The Service has 45 data entry people who enter data into 12 separate applications including the prosecutor's case management status, arrest, corrections, drivers and vehicles, and court dockets. They provide information to 25 federal agencies, 30-35 state agencies and 10 municipal police agencies. In addition to supporting Puerto Rican agencies, they also provide information to agencies in St. Croix and St. Thomas. CJIS has a connection to the National Criminal Information Center on the United States mainland so agencies can access information about criminals in the States.
In the future, CJIS plans to use mapping with both the sex offender registry and the computerized criminal history. With sex offender's they plan on plotting out the home and work addresses and then making sure that the offender does not live or work within a specified distance from children-focused activities (e.g. child cares, churches, schools etc.).
Many of the challenges that criminal justice agencies face in Puerto Rico are similar to those faced on the mainland. Attracting and retaining qualified technical personnel is difficult given the relatively low salaries they are able to offer. In addition, finding the money to keep abreast of advances in technology is an ongoing endeavor that is a common challenge facing all local, state and Federal Governments.
Bacardi Rum Distillery (Catano, Puerto Rico)
In 1862, Don Facundo Bacardi Masso, a Spanish-born wine merchant in Cuba perfected a process for refining rum --until then a harsh drink, sometimes known as "Kill-Devil." After the Cuban Revolution of 1958, the Bacardi family moved its operation to Puerto Rico. Today, with a production capacity of 100,000 gallons a day, the Bacardi plant is the largest rum distillery in the world. The plant's park-like site sits directly across the San Juan Bay from the historical part of the city.
We learned that water, molasses, the secret amount of yeast, and the aging process in special oak barrels equals a fine quality Bacardi rum. We observed these ingredients being mixed and fermented in several large vats. We went by the huge warehouse that stores the wooden barrels with the fermenting rum. Our guide informed us that at any given time there are more than 35 million gallons in process. Each type of rum has a distinct fermenting time. Once the rum has finished fermenting, it is taken from the barrel and bottled on site.
Bacardi does an excellent job of recycling its waste materials for further use. For example, CO2 is extracted and then shipped to the nearby Coca-Cola plant. The majority of the waste is processed into methane that is then used to operate an on-site power plant producing nearly 70 percent of the company's energy needs.
With the pungent smell of molasses behind us, we dutifully headed toward the Bacardi Pavilion to sample the final product(s). The Bacardi Pavilion serves as a hospitality center. The Pavilion is a modern architectural interpretation of the bat featured in the company's logo. Fruit Bats, which are considered to be a good luck omen, lived in the original building in 1862. Facundo Bacardi's wife, Amilia, suggested that the Fruit Bat should become the Bacardi Company logo. To this day, the official logo of the Bacardi Company is the Fruit Bat.
Guanica State Forest (Guanica, Puerto Rico)
The Intemperate Forest - or - Cactus in the Rain
The 9,200-acre dry forest of Guanica was designated an International Biosphere Reserve by the United Nations in 1981 -- and a Disaster Area by the ComSci Fellows of 2000-2001. Promised "sun bleached hills" requiring hat, sunscreen and plenty of drinking water, we suspected something amiss on discovering the road into the reserve masquerading as a canal, sporting a foot or more of water. Our suspicions increased when we found the office building empty, except for the hombre who waved us away saying, "There's no one here!" He, as if to prove his point, promptly disappeared. Therefore, no guided tour with Daniel Galan, our contact (who, we discovered later, had been out on the forest assessing flood damage -- arguably more pressing than our scheduled briefing). Instead we discovered Guanica's many birds, animals and over 700 species of plants in the company of our new best friends; the host of mosquitoes, gnats, and other stingy, crawly things that had been summoned from their netherworld hibernation by the week's unseasonable rains.
Making the best of every opportunity, as good ComSci fellows always do, our intrepid exploration led to the discovery that the office verandah has a fabulous view of the forest and coast. The verandah being additionally a good place to shelter from the rain, a few of us remained pondering the view for some time, undeterred by the skeleton of a manatee hanging peacefully from the ceiling of the office behind us. Other brave souls risked slippery paths, bugs, showers, and possible contact with the indigenous chicharron (effect similar to poison ivy) to do at least some hiking in the forest. Scavenging from who knows where, someone distributed copies of "A Guide to Trails of Guanica" and we read about the many trails, multiple species, and varieties of forest habitats. We also read too many references to dry climate, direct sunlight, periods of drought, and other defining characteristics of the forest sure to remind us of our wet and muddy state. Realizing we beat the odds and caught the "once or twice a year, on average, torrential rains" that flood the forest, we wished we could manage similar luck with the odds in the casinos of San Juan. After some were persuaded to pose in the mud for a photo with a soggy Spanish dildo cactus (that's its real name, honest!), we were ready to move on.
Jobos Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve (Aguirre, Puerto Rico)
We were treated to a boat trip at the Jobos Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve (NERR). The purpose of the visit was to introduce us to the chain of islets containing mangrove habitat characterizing this 2,883-acre estuarine area on the south coast of Puerto Rico. The Reserve has been designated for protection and scientific study. The Jobos Bay NERR, part of a nationwide system of 25 reserves managed through a cooperative federal/state program, is administered through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the U.S. Department of Commerce and managed by the Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental Resources. Once back in the Visitors' Center, Dr. Carmen Gonzalez, the Reserve Manager, provided an overview of the Reserve, the recently updated management plan, and the research, monitoring, and educational programs being pursued with a range of collaborators. Activities tailored to meet the management needs of this Reserve include monitoring aquifer conditions and restoring mangrove and freshwater pond habitats. The goal of the education program is to facilitate the translation of findings gained through research and monitoring for a variety of audiences, including individuals involved in making land use management decisions.
Camuy Caves (south of Arecibo, Puerto Rico)
In the north central area of Puerto Rico is a group of caves formed by the Camuy River, which is the third-largest underground river in the world. The Camuy Caves are part of a 268-acre ecosystem that is only a small part of one of the most impressive subterranean cave networks in the Northern Hemisphere, comprising more than 200 caves. The river, winding its way from the mountainous central part of the island to the Atlantic Ocean to the north, formed the caves. During its 15-mile trek, the river cut through limestone formations so that about seven miles of its course is underground. Water seeping through the limestone created the stalactites and stalagmites that are seen inside the caves. We entered the caves after descending about 475 feet to a large opening of a cave that is about 200 feet high and a half-mile long.
The most notable features inside were the stalagmites rising from the floor toward the ceiling of the chambers. It was explained that it took up to 1,000 years for these to "grow" one inch by the downward trickling of water with its mineral deposits from the surface water above. Stalactites, those structures hanging from the ceiling, were much less apparent than the stalagmites rising from the floor. Many stalactites had fallen over time, and could be seen littering the cave floor.
Although these caves were discovered in the mid-19th Century, they were not open to the public until the 1960's. Since that time, they have become a major tourist attraction as visitors come to explore the caves and the river forming them. The caves are home to bats, spiders and iguana -- none of which seem to bother most visitors. It should be noted; however, that one of our own (Andy Carson) earned the nickname "Spiderman" after "saving the life" of a frightened girl who got caught in the web of a giant spider.
Interestingly, there is evidence that early man visited and perhaps lived in these caves. Petroglyphs have been found and are under investigation. This is a recent finding; unfortunately, the caves where these images are located were not open for us to see.
Arecibo Observatory, the National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center (south of Arecibo, Puerto Rico)
Following our visit to Camuy Caves, we continued to ride through the mountains south of the town of Arecibo to the National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center. There, Arecibo Observatory's Director, Dr. Daniel R. Altschuler greeted us. He briefed us on the physical elements of the radio telescope and the Observatory. He also discussed the politics of funding and Observatory operations. The Center was built in 1963 with U.S. Army funding to be an ionosphere observatory supporting communications research. The radio and radar telescope missions were added later.
The Center is operated by Cornell University for [and with funding by] the National Science Foundation (NSF). NSF funds the basic facility and its 140 employees. Much of the cost of operation comes from a fee-for-service from users who are typically faculty researchers and graduate students from other colleges and universities. Cornell University is of course a using partner in the Observatory as well as the operating institution. Potential users submit proposals for research that are evaluated by Dr. Altschuler and his scientific staff. In order to evaluate these competing proposals fairly, and to assure that Cornell University is not offered an advantage over other competing users, the Arecibo staff maintains an independence from the University's faculty. The Observatory receives 120,000 visitors each year including 500 student groups.
The reflector, 305 meters in diameter, was originally a mesh type reflector. This was replaced with a more solid and precisely shaped surface in 1974 to improve the resolution of the system. In 1997, Gregorian folded telescope elements were added to give the telescope a greater range in pointing at the target stellar systems. Also the Gregorian telescope housing has a revolving mount so that different instruments can be moved into service with a simple powering of the mount saving the time and probably calibration necessary to accomplish manual swapping of the instruments.
Seventy percent of the Center's operation time is in the passive Radio Telescope mode. Much of the galaxy work is collecting spectral signatures with the hydrogen spectral line of a 21-centimeter wavelength as the focus. The radio telescope does not yield visual images as seen with optical systems such as the Hubble space telescope. The radio telescope images are spectral signatures, not unlike the printout of an EKG. Fortunately, galaxies have distinct individual signatures that can be recognized from one time to another.
The radar images are active collections made by sending a signal and interpreting the return data. The data collected are the classical radar blob images, but with the trained eye, one acquires an ability to interpret the images. The planetary images are collected in the Radar mode.
Dr. Michael Noland's area of interest at the Observatory is planetary science -- specifically, collecting radar imaging of the planets. The Observatory collects relatively "low resolution" (10-meter) images; however, scientists can combine images, and use other data to enhance the "final" image. Also, the beam is optimized when the transmitted beam is given the opposite polarization than the receiver uses to receive it. This additional processing capability makes Arecibo more competitive with satellites. Satellites cannot carry the enhancement processing capability into space with them and a satellite's time available for imaging is limited. The Observatory has no technical limit to how much effort they put into the enhancement of the image. One surprising discovery that has been investigated is that there is ice on Mercury! There are craters at the poles that have the bright return characteristic of ice. How can this be? Mercury's poles are perpendicular to the planetary plane and the craters are high enough that sunlight does not shine into them. Without atmosphere, heat is not transferred in from the lighted surface. Thus, it would be very cold in the shadows and if water exists, it would be in the form of ice.
The Center's planetary scientists are also imaging the asteroids, particularly those beyond Mars. Why image these small objects? It is believed that asteroids are residues from the origin of the solar system, which would give clues regarding to the beginning of the solar system and perhaps the origin of the universe. Also, there is interest in the possibility of mining in the distant future. Finally, there is interest in assessing the risk of the Earth being hit by an asteroid should one come in from an eccentric orbit. Though this is a remote possibility, advance warning would give scientists and governments an opportunity to formulate plans for intervention.
What are the big questions being addressed by radio/radar astronomy? Do we see all there is to see? Since we estimate we can only see about five percent of what is in the universe, what else is left to discover? Does intelligent life exist elsewhere in the universe? Has it ever existed? What is the origin of the universe? By what processes did it form? How is the universe evolving? Can life based on silicon rather than carbon exist? Endless questions for humans to ponder!
National Weather Service Field Office (Carolina, Puerto Rico)
The San Juan Field Office of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service (NWS) provides forecasts for users across Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the United States. The office is staffed 24 hours a day by at least one meteorologist and one hydro-meteorologist technician. One of their major duties is to coordinate with the National Hurricane Center in Miami, Florida and disseminate products, statements, watches and warnings during the hurricane season. The office prepares forecasts several times a day in both English and Spanish for use by the general public, broadcast media, and the aviation industry. The San Juan Office is the only NWS field office that provides bilingual forecasts.
Mr. Israel Matos, Meteorologist-in-Charge, provided an overview of the duties of the field office and his employees. He encourages his meteorologists to provide the forecast data on-air for the broadcast media rather than simply providing the data. Their new state-of-the-art WSR 88-D Doppler Radar (NEXRAD) provides data from a 250-mile radius and is a significant improvement over the previous systems. The radar data is combined with satellite data from geostationary and polar-orbiting weather satellites as well as field measurements on their Advanced Weather Information Processing System (AWIPS). The AWIPS system combines weather forecast data from all of the NWS 120 field stations.
While at the San Juan Office, we were able to observe the launch of a weather balloon. The field office launches an instrumented weather balloon at 1200 UTC and 2400 UTC, which is 7:00 a.m. and 7:00 p.m. local time every day. The NWS launches about 100 balloons simultaneously across the United States. The data are fed back to NWS supercomputer weather models in Washington, D.C. and are integrated to provide input to the forecast systems.
The instrument package or radiosonde provides real-time measurement of temperature, humidity, and atmospheric pressure, back to an antenna located at the launch shelter. Wind speed and direction are calculated based on the radiosonde signal direction. Data are collected to an altitude of 100,000 feet where the balloon bursts and a parachute carries the expendable radiosonde back to Earth.
Caribbean National Forest -- El Yunque (25 miles east of San Juan, Puerto Rico)
The El Yunque Rain Forest, part of the Caribbean National Forest, is the only tropical rain forest in the U.S. National Forest Service System. The 28,000-acre preserve was designated a National Forest by President Theodore Roosevelt. El Yunque, at times called the "Luquillo Rain Forest", is every bit as breath-taking and spectacular for its beauty and bio-diversity now as this writer [Jack Pevenstein] remembers it being 35 years ago.
El Yunque includes four distinct forest types and is home to more than 240 species of tropical trees, flowers and wildlife. At least 20 varieties of orchids and 50 types of ferns are found in the verdant folds of the terrain surrounding El Toro, which, at 3,532 feet, is the highest land feature on the island. In fact, the entire forest is high above sea level. The height of the mountains in part explains the more than 100 billion gallons of rainfall received in El Yunque annually.
The preserve is also home to a variety of tropical animals including the greenish blue, red-breasted Puerto Rican Parrot -- once hunted to near extinction but now making a comeback and the tiny "Coqui" tree frog -- now an unofficial but prominent symbol of the Commonwealth. The name comes from the distinctive sound the frog makes pronounced "ko-kee." Another rare animal is the Puerto Rican Boa that can grow to seven feet. Fortunately, we never encountered any of these reptiles. An interesting point is that the ever-present iguana that is found in abundance is not native to the island, but was introduced by Spanish explorers from other parts of Central and South America more than four centuries ago. One might say it has had (and for that matter is still having) a very successful run.
While a casual visitor to El Yunque senses an overpowering energy with the forest and its plant life, more careful reflection shows that it is a fragile environment existing within a delicate balance of nature. Some years ago, Hurricane Andrew disrupted this balance and damaged a variety of plant and animal life that even now has yet to return to its normal state. Even subtle changes in weather conditions over time could drastically alter this marvelous natural resource.
With a state-of-the-art visitor's center and an eager, enthusiastic staff of park rangers and naturalists, El Yunque is a showplace of Puerto Rico.
Las Cabezas de San Juan Nature Reserve (north of Fajardo, Puerto Rico)
Las Cabezas is an ecologist's heaven. Seven different ecosystems are found on this northeastern tip of Puerto Rico on land owned and preserved by The Conservation Trust of Puerto Rico. The ecosystems are sandy and rocky shores, coral reef, sea grass beds, a dry forest, mangrove forest and lagoons. And just to complete the aesthetic balance of the place, it is overlooked by a 120-year old lighthouse with a view that stretches from El Yunque to the west to Vieques and Culebra to the east.
By tram and on foot the seven ecosystems can be experienced in little more than an hour. The sandy beach gives way just beyond the waterline to sea grass beds that are the home of echinoderms and sea turtles. Further out from the shoreline is the coral reef, which is one of the most complex ecosystems in the world, comparable to the tropical rain forest. The structure of the reef provides recesses and caves that allow many different species to hide, either to avoid predators or to avoid being seen by prey. The reef is an incubator of survival strategies and a battleground of organisms of many colors and shapes and sizes. Further along the sandy shore is a headland where the action of sea and wind has created a rocky shore worthy of New England or the coast of Mendocino (but a bit warmer). Here the promontories are home to nesting marine birds. From the sandy shore, across a very narrow isthmus and through a thin line of mangrove is the lagoon. A deep brown, almost chocolate color, this lagoon is one of three in Puerto Rico that support a permanent dinoflagellate bloom that causes the water to luminesce when aerated. The lagoon, better viewed in the day from a boardwalk that meanders along the edge between the mangrove forest and the water, is also home to an untold number of fiddler crabs, small but easily spotted by the giant claw they hold up in the sun. The dry forest shelters birds, iguanas, mongooses and lizards among other animals, and cactus and evergreen plants adapted to dry conditions. The mangrove forest is a network of four different mangrove species, each adapted to a different zone or location relative to the salt-water lagoon. One species has roots filter-purify the water; another shoots roots vertically into the air to gather oxygen; another has glands at the base of its leaves that excrete salt. Together, the mangroves provide a protected breeding ground for many species of fish that hatch in the swamp and then migrate to the ocean.
Overlooking this ecological wonderland is El Faro, the lighthouse. A beautiful, light gray building with clean, well-balanced lines, it sits at the highest point of the promontory. A lovely wrought iron spiral staircase ascends to the lamp, which is ringed by a walkway. Several neighboring islands, including St. Thomas, can be viewed from this spot. It is also a place from which all of the ecosystems in the Reserve can be seen at once, each in relation to the other. It was a wonderful place to cap a visit to Las Cabezas de San Juan.
Phosphorescent Lagoon (north of Fajardo, Puerto Rico)
Our boat ride began from the sleepy fishing village of Las Croabas to one of Puerto Rico's three bioluminescent lagoons -- only a few in the world exist. The shallow lagoon, only about five to ten feet at its maximum depth, is home to large concentrations of microscopic dinoflagellates that emit light when the water around them is disturbed. This phenomenon is limited to protected shorelines in tropical waters under certain conditions.
We set out near dusk in "clear" water. As night descended, the wakes from the boat caused these creatures to emit light, creating "bluish" streams flowing away from the boat's prow. Fish in the lagoon streaked alongside or away from the boat in blue-white light flashes that were very much like shooting stars. After moving to the center of the lagoon, four of us (Jack Pevenstein, David Bernholz, Andy Carson, and Mike Miron) jumped overboard to "stir" the water and create a light show. They made blue-white angels in the water by waving their arms quickly just under and parallel to the surface. This bioluminescent life form was described as "slimy." In total darkness, the phenomenon was nothing short of spectacular.
Class of 1999-2000 -- San Francisco, California
Pacific Stock Exchange
We visited the Pacific Stock Exchange on May 22nd. Ms. Gloria Kwok gave us a tour on both the equity floor and the option floor. The history, organization, and operation of the Exchange are explained as follows.
The Pacific Stock Exchange (PCX) is a marketplace where individual and institutional investors, professional broker-dealers, and registered member firms meet to buy and sell stocks, bonds and other securities issued by publicly traded companies, as well as options on more than 800 stocks. It is the only stock market in the world with trading floors in two cities -- San Francisco and Los Angeles. The combined volume of these two equities trading floors average nearly 25 million shares each day. The PCX trades the most active stocks and bonds listed on the New York and American Stock Exchanges, as well as many growth companies that are too young or too small to meet New York listing requirements. The PCX is the third most active stock exchange in the country and the third largest stock options exchange in the world.
Mr. Dale Carson of PCX described the origin of the Pacific Stock Exchange, which dates back to 1882, when the San Francisco Stock and Bond Exchange was formed as a result of the Gold Rush in Northern California. In 1899, the Los Angeles Oil Exchange was established during the oil boom in Southern California. The San Francisco and Los Angeles exchanges operated separately until 1956, when the two exchanges merged to become the Pacific Coast Stock Exchange. In 1973, the PCX was incorporated and dropped the word "Coast," becoming the Pacific Stock Exchange. In 1976, the PCX began trading stock options; in 1984, a new options trading floor was opened in San Francisco. In 1986, the PCX opened a new equity-trading floor in Los Angeles.
Mr. Carson told us that the PCX has 552 seat-holding members, made up of the premier U.S. brokerage houses, many international institutions, and sole proprietors, such as the independent market makers on the options floor. PCX members represent customers' orders to buy and sell securities. Technology is one of the most important services an exchange provides to its members. Today over 90 percent of the PCX equity trades are executed electronically. He explained to us that the PCX has developed the Pacific Computerized Order Access System (P/COAST), a fully integrated trading system that automatically executes market orders in seconds. Traders use their computer screens and keyboards to execute trades, display market information, and perform many other trading functions. The PCX also offers its members and investors an extended trading session. After the New York Stock Exchange closes, the PCX still operates for an additional 30 minutes.
The PCX is the world's technology market for stock options. The PCX's San Francisco options floor averages around 500,000 contracts per day. The following companies: Microsoft, Compaq, Sun Microsystems, MCI WorldCom, Micron Technology, AOL, 3com, Applied Materials, and Advanced Micro Devices are the most actively issued stock options. The PCX options floor operates an open outcry auction market, meaning that the bids and offers are called out by trading crowds in each trading pit. Open outcry allows the traders and brokers to execute options trades face-to-face, providing the customer the fairest price available. In contrast to the equity floor, the options floor looks chaotic, but is actually a highly organized and well-regulated market.
Mr. Carson also explained the decimalization conversion project being undertaken by the PCX. Decimalization, i.e., quoting and trading equities and options in currency decimals (dollars and cents) instead of fractional increments is the next development step for the securities industry. The conversion to decimals is intended to make trading on the equities and option exchanges more compatible with each other, as well as with bonds and futures, and make trading more understandable to individual investors and other market participants. The Decimalization conversion project is a significant priority for the PCX.
Genentech, Incorporated
Dr. Marge Winkler, Director of Analytic Chemistry, conducted a tour of the expansive Genentech facility and provided a briefing of the different activities performed at the facility. The tour began in the Founders' Research Center, honoring Genentech founders Drs. Bob Swanson and Herb Boyer.
The Protein Sequencing Lab is the site of automated sequencing of amino acids. In the Mass Spectrometry Lab, molecular weight determinations are made as a precursor to the determination of amino acid sequences. The molecular weight determinations assist in identifying proteins and in determining carbohydrate structures on proteins. Capillary electrophoresis is another activity that can be performed in this Lab. The DNA Synthesis Lab receives identified proteins and enables synthesis of any protein desired. In the DNA Sequencing Lab, protein sequences are read off of DNA. The Manufacturing Plant is the site of the Fermentation area and the Initial and Final Purification areas. The Process Science Plant enables experimentation on a much smaller scale. The building in which this plant is located is expanding to house recovery scientists, analytical chemists, and manufacturing scientists.
Dr. Winkler noted many of the benefits that Genentech employees receive, as well as the challenges of recruiting and retaining a quality workforce as start-up companies create great demand for these employees.
Sun Microsystems
As we arrived at Sun Microsystems, we were greeted by Ms. Paula Green, Customer Quality Manager, who introduced us to Sun's policy of quality and customer satisfaction. She explained how teamwork was the basis of producing quality products, on time, as expected by Sun customers. Mr. Ron Holmes, Mr. Craig Girauda, and Ms. Yoli Garcia guided us on a tour of the production facility to see the product manufacturing process, the impressive 162,000 square foot manufacturing space, and the quality assurance process.
Sun has offices in 150 countries providing network-computing solutions. Three manufacturing sites located in Oregon, Scotland, and California, provide the products. We were impressed by the 15-20 person teams where cross training and mentoring assure that quality products are assembled and shipped to meet worldwide customer orders on a timely basis. A process of kitting, assembly, testing, final assembly and pack out underscored Sun quality assurance. We saw, first hand, Sun's focus and commitment to providing customers a quality product.
The Honorable Willie Brown, Mayor of San Francisco
We had the privilege of meeting with the Mayor of San Francisco and discussing the topics of our choice. Mayor Brown engaged in a conversation on the cultural, technical, and scenic allure of the San Francisco Bay Area. He said that the City of San Francisco draws creative people, which in turn add to the quality of life that everyone is looking for. One challenge has been the availability of affordable housing within the City. To address this challenge, San Francisco is pursuing a smart growth attitude. Other questions for Mayor Brown ranged from earthquakes, to protecting the San Francisco Bay, to transportation issues. Mayor Brown described the immeasurable assistance from the Federal Emergency Management Agency during the 1989 earthquake, which enabled rebuilding to begin immediately after the debris was cleared. The Bay Area Conservation Group clean-up effort was coordinated with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, showing how cities can work with federal agencies to effectively achieve a desired goal. Transportation issues are always high on the list of priorities of Bay residents. Mayor Brown expressed the desire to extend public transportation beyond its present location to San Jose.
Mayor Brown proudly discussed his controversial achievement in the recent restoration of the City Hall building. While many opposed his efforts, the spectacular result is now widely praised.
Following our discussion, Mayor Brown invited us to a press conference being held to unveil the San Francisco "City Pass." The "City Pass" provides a means of allowing residents and visitors to enjoy popular attractions within the City at a reduced cost.
Muir Woods National Monument
Muir Woods is a 560-acre national monument in Marin County, California. It is located 12 miles north of the Golden Gate Bridge, about one-half hour drive north of San Francisco. Muir Woods is a unit of the Golden Gate National Recreation Area and is surrounded by Mt. Tamalpais State Park. Muir Woods, named after the famous conservationist John Muir, was established as a national monument in 1908. It was a gift from William Kent to the United States government.
Muir Woods, one of the most visited natural areas in the United States, receives over 1.5 million visitors annually. Visitation is highest in summer months with an average daily attendance of 8,000 to 10,000 visitors from all over the world. It is estimated that about 20 percent of visitors are from foreign countries, 60 percent are non-local U.S. residents, and 20 percent are local residents. Because of the number of visitors, a wetland meadow was converted into a parking lot. In addition, heavy recreational use has significantly compromised the Muir Woods ecosystem.
While walking on the hiking trail, Ms. Mia Monroe, Site Supervisor of Muir Woods National Monument, told us about the salmon restoration projects and the redwood ecosystem. Because of the impact of human activities on the Muir Woods, Coho and steelhead salmon populations have declined drastically since the 1940s. In 1996 and 1997, populations of Coho and steelhead along the California coast were listed as threatened under the Federal Endangered Species Act. The National Park Service initiated a five-year Salmon Restoration Project to restore and enhance Coho and steelhead salmon population and their habitats within three West Marin parks including the Muir Woods National Monument. The restoration work includes creating a riparian buffer zone along the stream and creating habitats for spotted owls and salmon.
Muir Woods contains the world's largest redwood groves, such as Cathedral and Bohemian Groves. The tallest redwood in Muir Woods is 252 feet tall and the thickest is 14 feet across. The oldest redwood in Muir Woods is at least 1,000 years old. Most of the mature trees are between 500 and 800 years old. Redwoods flourish only in coastal California's fog belt. Frequent fogs supply critical moisture during the dry season. Condensation on needles and leaves drips to the forest floor and decreases water loss from trees by evaporation and transpiration. Redwoods exhibit a remarkable ability to withstand threats to their environment, but do not exhibit the same abilities to withstand human threat. Redwood bark has a fibrous, spongy composition. Its color ranges from reddish-brown to gray. Its tannin content makes the bark resistant to fire and to attacks by insects and fungi. Bark on mature trees runs 6 to 12 inches thick, insulating the tree against fire damage. Redwood is a very good building material.
Of cone-bearing trees, only the coastal redwoods can reproduce by sprouting. Redwood cones are reddish brown, woody and very small. One cone contains about 90 to 100 seeds. Warm, moist soil may stimulate a seed to germinate. If a seed is on suitable, fresh mineral soil, it will root. After the first leaves appear, the seedling will begin to manufacture its own food and may grow to two to three inches tall the first year. Seeds mainly establish redwoods only on ground that is cleared through flood, fire, or wind throw.
In an established forest such as Muir Woods, burl sprouting accounts for most redwood reproduction. Tightly grouped trees or those fused at their roots probably began life as burl sprouts.
Nokia High Speed Access Products
We first visited Nokia High Speed Access Products in Petaluma, about an hour north of San Francisco across the Golden Gate Bridge. Our hosts for the entire day were Mr. Chet Stevens, Vice President of Administration and Ms. Lindsay Lowe, both of Nokia. They arranged an excellent tour of various Sonoma businesses, including Nokia.
Nokia Corporation was started about 100 years ago as a rubber boot making operation in Helsinki, Finland. The company moved into "high-tech" in the 1960's and is now a world leader in the telecommunications industry. Nokia established its first foreign development center about a year ago when it acquired Diamond Lane Communications in Petaluma. Diamond Lane, co-founded about five years ago by Dr. Stevens, was a pioneer in DSL technologies, which enables high-bandwidth Internet access through regular copper or fiber phone lines. This is accomplished by transmitting data signals at very high frequency so as not to interfere with the low frequency voice transmission.
Nokia's Petaluma facility conducts a variety of activities including research, design, development, manufacturing, testing, and sales. The focus is on design and development of DSL equipment.
The region around Petaluma is becoming known as "Telecom Valley." Nokia's presence has further strengthened that characterization. Known for its high quality of life, proximity to the San Francisco metropolitan area, and abundant educational opportunities, the region has attracted a large concentration of world-class telecommunications companies.
Nokia is growing rapidly and expects to relocate its Petaluma operation in about a year. The company has purchased property a few miles away and is planning for construction of the first building of what will become a Nokia "campus." While not referred to as such, Nokia representatives emphasized the importance of "corporate citizenship" repeatedly. This concept was reflected in discussions about linkages between schools and businesses, the need for continuing education, community infrastructure, experiments with "telework," and other such issues. We can expect Nokia to be a critical player in the overall future development of Telecom Valley.
Advanced Telcom Group
Mr. Stevens introduced us to the Advanced Telcom Group (ATG). The ATG is a facilities-based Integrated Communications Providers. It is in the process of designing, building, and maintaining new data and voice networks to serve mid-sized cities across the United States. Mr. Dan Fee, ATG Chairman and CEO, informed us that ATG, in conjunction with Lucent Technologies, will draw advanced research to rapidly deliver state-of-the-art local and long distance business communications and Internet services. This year, ATG plans to offer a broad array of voice services, plus high-speed, DSL-based services for Internet access and telecommuters. ATG's initial service offering will be to 18 mid-sized cities in California, Maryland, Nevada, Oregon, Virginia, and Washington. The company plans to expand to over 100 cities across the United States in the next five years. The result is "one-stop" shopping, which allows ATG to become "the local telephone and Internet Company" of choice to its customers.
When ATG is able to accommodate large-scale cities, this service will allow voice and images to be projected through your screen to communicate and carry-on everyday business.
Iron Horse Winery
The Iron Horse Winery, located in the Green Valley of Sonoma County, is comprised of 300 picturesque acres of land on which about 188 acres of Chardonnay and Pinot Noir grape vines are planted. About 35 miles away, in a warmer climate, about 78 acres of Sauvignon Blanc, Merlot, and Cabernet Sauvignon grape vines are also planted.
The winery tour began with a description of the processes used by Iron Horse to plant, replant, irrigate, and frost protect the grape vines. Because Iron Horse uses only its own grapes, the yield is very susceptible to climate changes. Our guide, the winery's hospitality director, Shirley Everly, then described the stepwise processes for making sparkling and table wines. These processes include the computerized bottle turning and the clock method of riddling to aid in sediment removal. The bottling process was then described as a demonstration was performed. The Iron Horse dedication to quality was evidenced throughout the tour.
At the conclusion of the tour, it was noted that Iron Horse has made special wines for the White House state dinners, for top U.S. restaurants, and for Barbra Streisand's 1994 New Year's Eve concert in Las Vegas.
The Farmhouse Inn
Our Nokia hosts, Mr. Stevens and Ms. Lowe, arranged a spectacular lunch at the Farmhouse Inn in Sonoma County. A representative from Congresswoman Lynn Woolsey's local office, other Nokia representatives, and representatives from Sonoma County University joined us.
The proprietor of the Farmhouse Inn, Ms. Rebecca Smith, and chef, Mr. Steve Litke, arranged a wonderful meal highlighting local fresh-picked vegetables, herbs, and other delicacies. Lunch was served in the main house of the Inn, which is a farmhouse restored to the turn-of-the-century period. As we soon understood, there have been numerous requests for a Farmhouse Inn cookbook. The proprietor then guided us on a tour of the charming Inn, including the English gardens and guest suites.
Gallo of Sonoma Winery
While touring the Gallo of Sonoma Winery, we were told by Mr. Don Cook that the Gallo of Sonoma Winery is the largest winery in the North Coast and employs the top technology available around the world.
Our tour of the winery commenced with a riding tour of the vineyards. Mr. Cook described the climate and soil conditions, the use of grasses between vine rows to control erosion, and the use of irrigation to supply recycled water during the growing season, using a manmade dam. About 2-3 weather stations are located in each vineyard to supply wind speed and direction, temperature, and humidity conditions. This information is fed into a database every 15 minutes. Using this information, calculations can be made of harvest dates.
Mr. Cook then described the processes used to pick, transport, and squeeze the grapes, distinguishing the processing of white and red wines. For white wines, the grapes are crushed with an air cell, and the juice is gravity fed for fermentation. For red wines, after destemming, the grapes are dropped down by gravity. Ninety-degree angles are nonexistent to minimize bruising of the grapes. After the addition of yeast and sprinkling over the grape skins, rotary fermenters are used to create more contact of the skins with the juice. The equipment used at Gallo of Sonoma enables limited waiting time and enables separate processing of truckloads, thus ensuring proper routing according to the grade of wine being processed.
The tour concluded with a visit to the winery's state-of-the-art underground barrel cellar. This cellar reproduces a cave environment, having high humidity and low temperature. This winery is the source of three tiers of vintages -- the estate series, the vineyard-designate series, and the county series.
Dinner at John Ash and Company
Nokia hosted dinner at the John Ash and Company Restaurant in Santa Rosa. Dr. William Hammerman, a retired education professor from San Francisco State University and active proponent of community Internet connections, and Mr. Joseph Horak, Project Director, Sonoma County Economic Development Board, joined us.
The evening offered stimulating discussion about how science and technology issues interface with corporate strategies, academia, the economy, and state, regional and local community needs.
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
At the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, located on the scenic campus of the University of California in Berkeley, Ms. Terry Powell conducted a walking tour of the facility and arranged for a number of briefings on different aspects of research performed at the facility. A graduate student described a project on which she had been working utilizing precise light spectrum measuring capabilities and uses of the on-site cyclotron. We were also afforded the opportunity to view a demonstration of the cyclotron in use. As the graduate student was describing her project, we were unexpectedly engaged in an earthquake drill, causing all of us to get under the conference table prior to evacuation of the building. Following the drill, Mr. Dave Akton, an in-house attorney who handles intellectual property issues, described the operation of his office, particularly with respect to patenting issues. The visit concluded with a briefing on fruit fly experiments performed in the DNA analysis section of the Laboratory. Of particular note during this portion of the tour was the linkage to the research performed by other DNA facilities we had previously toured.
Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District
Ms. Eva Bauer, Deputy District Engineer for the Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District, hosted our visit to the Golden Gate Bridge. The District manages the bridge, which sees over 41 million vehicle crossings annually, and the Golden Gate buses and ferries, which transport over 11 million passengers each year. A Board of Directors governs the District operations and approximately 1,000 employees with 19 members from the surrounding six counties.
Standing atop the Golden Gate Bridge's south tower 746 feet above the water, we were awed by the 360 degree vista of the Pacific Ocean to the west, California's Redwood Empire to the north, Alcatraz Island, San Francisco Bay, and gleaming downtown high-rises to the east and south. Looking down across the nearly one-mile span of the central bridge section and straight down at the constant flow of cars, trucks, bicycles and pedestrians crossing on the bridge 500 feet below, we were also struck by what a magnificent engineering accomplishment the Golden Gate Bridge had been when construction was completed in 1937.
The Golden Gate Bridge has withstood all windstorms and earthquakes in the region for 63 years. However, after the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake, analyses suggested that the bridge would be vulnerable to damage if a severe quake struck nearby. Thus began a $220 million state-of-the-art seismic retrofit project. The retrofit is being funded from bridge tolls (20 percent of total) and federal grants. Phase I, expected to be completed in October 2001, is retrofitting the bridge's north approach viaduct; phase II will focus on the south approach viaduct; and phase III will retrofit the suspension span. The job of retrofitting is complicated by requirements to keep the bridge open to traffic and to preserve its original design and appearance. The seismic retrofit of the Golden Gate Bridge is a huge science and technology undertaking. The necessary knowledge and resources appear to be in place. The open question is whether man or nature will win the race.
U.S. Geological Survey Western Regional Center
Ms. Pat Jorgenson, who is the Western Regional Outreach Director, hosted our visit to the USGS. She reviewed the mission and history of USGS, which was established within the Department of the Interior in 1879. The USGS provides the Nation with geologic, topographic, biological, and hydrographic information. Its products include maps; databases; and descriptions and analyses of resources, land and marine environments, geologic structures, dynamic processes of the earth, and natural hazards. The USGS operates through 300 field offices, including large regional centers in Virginia, Colorado, and Menlo Park, California.
Earthquake research is a prominent activity at the Western Region Center. Mr. David Oppenheimer discussed advances in seismography, which now enable long-term forecasting of earthquakes. Numerous fault zones run through northern California. Following several major earthquakes in the 1970's, USGS placed numerous seismometers around the region. This network now totals 579 instruments in northern California, all of which are linked through microwave radio transmission to the Menlo Park facility. Seismic data is provided in real time via the Internet to disaster relief personnel, the media, the research community, and the general public. The USGS publishes reports that give estimates of earthquake risk. The latest report estimates that there is a 70 percent probability of at least one magnitude 6.7 or greater quake striking the San Francisco Bay region before 2030. Determination of those regions most likely to experience an earthquake and the areas most vulnerable to major damage is helping to strengthen building codes and improve construction practices.
Dr. Frederic Nichols, a Research Oceanographer in the Water Resources Division, discussed marine research work in the San Francisco Bay. Operated continuously for some 30 years, the USGS' Bay research program offers a unique long-term data set on numerous physical, geological, chemical and biological parameters. San Francisco Bay is heavily stressed. One of the main problems is a shortage of freshwater input, since much of the water is diverted to municipal and agricultural uses before it ever gets to the Bay. While conscious efforts have led to dramatic improvements in water quality, San Francisco Bay suffers from a legacy of mercury contamination from gold mining in the 1800's and selenium contamination from agricultural run-off. This contamination is a critical issue in current discussions on a proposal to fill in two square miles of the Bay in order to expand the San Francisco Airport. Because the Bay is a major transportation conduit, many non-native plants and animals have been introduced, both intentionally and unintentionally. One of the latest problem species is the Mitton crab, which, while considered a delicacy in Asia, is causing problems in the Bay.
In addition to research on earthquakes and water, the USGS Western Region Center at Menlo Park does work on mapping, marine geology, volcanology, and paleomagnetism. All discussions at the center suggested a close tie between fundamental research and practical application.
Rehabilitation Technology and Therapy Center
Stanford University Medical CenterThe Rehabilitation Technology and Therapy Center was established 26 years ago to provide children and adults having disabilities with an opportunity to obtain comprehensive and individualized assistive technology services and devices. Mr. Maurice LeBlanc, Biomedical Engineer, provided a description of the integration of engineering disciplines with medicine in these technology services.
Following our discussion with Mr. LeBlanc, Mr. Hugh O'Neill, Director of the Rehabilitation Technology and Therapy Center described the evolution of limb prosthetics (e.g., a prosthetic hand) and orthotics (e.g., a crutch) as the scientific community learns more about the needs and desires of the users. Numerous studies have, and continue to be, conducted to assist in these assessments. As an example, a study has been conducted to evaluate the expenditure of energy during the use of crutches. The results of the study demonstrated that the majority of the energy expenditure is attributable to vertical motion and shock absorption as the crutches contact the ground. A motion analysis lab was then able to develop composite material crutches designed to address the energy distribution concerns. The crutches have a springed curve to provide energy return, a cut-away to allow rotation, and a wrist brace. Simultaneously, the crutches address cosmetic concerns such as noise imparted by the use of the crutches.
The Center primarily conducts research and development as a result of increased awareness of patient needs. Some ongoing projects being performed include: teleconferencing to spread clinical expertise; and the GoBot mobility aid, designed to assist children under the age of six who have a disability limiting their ability to achieve self-initiated mobility. The GoBot aid is a device with an easily adjustable frame to accommodate various positioning needs. Children are encouraged to use movements and weight-shifting efforts in order to reach and explore objects. The GoBot aid has been used in mobility camps to further facilitate exploratory experiences for the children. As expressed during the presentation, human factors in this area of technology prove to be extremely fascinating.
DNA Sequencing and Technology Development Center
Stanford University Medical CenterWe were welcomed to the DNA Sequencing and Technology Development Center and first briefed by the Center Director, Dr. Ronald W. Davis.
The DNA Sequencing and Technology Development Center has, as its main mission, the desire to change the infrastructure of science so that students will not need to spend so much time dedicated to performance of unskilled labor. Equipment is designed at the Center to achieve cost reduction in the ultimate goal of completing the genome sequence, while minimizing the space needed to achieve the goal.
Equipment is developed at the Center both independently and through collaboration with other entities such as the National Institutes of Health, the National Science Foundation, the Department of Energy, and private industry. An interdisciplinary approach has been taken toward the development of technology aimed at automating high throughput modular DNA sequencing and high throughput genotyping.
A tour of the facility enabled a first-hand view of the developed equipment in operation. Some of the equipment observed included robotic instruments such as a modular picker for picking a proper colony, a high-density shaker, a DNA template production machine, a DNA analyzer, and a rotary scanner. A prototype instrument for use in running sequencing reactions was shown which enables operation in very small volumes. The Center is collaborating with Berkeley to develop a high throughput, automated capillary sequencer.
Through such enhancements, the Center plans to achieve its mission of changing the infrastructure of science, thus enhancing the skills of its students.
Perhaps no state typifies more the ComSci Program objectives of international commerce, science and technology than Hawaii, the meeting place of Eastern and Western cultures. A geographic location which favored sugarcane, pineapple, and coffee made Hawaii desirable for commerce in the early 1700's and promotes scientific agriculture research in seed production and plant genetics today. Tourism, the largest commercial commodity of the Hawaiian Islands, continues to generate the exchange of ideas in science and technology in the Hawaiian community.
Bishop Museum (Honolulu, Island of Oahu)
We met at the traditional meeting place of Hawaii -- Oahu -- and paid tribute to Hawaii's traditions by commencing our week at the Bishop Museum. Founded by Princess Beatrice Pauah Bishop after her death, the Bishop Museum's endowment includes buildings which house the greatest collection of historical relics and scholarly works on Hawaii and the Pacific in the world. The collection of "things Hawaiian" was started by several members of the royal family and finally amassed in one location which includes an archives, library, planetarium, demonstration rooms, and exhibits.
The planetarium's star show depicting early migration routes of the Polynesians is enhanced by a demonstration which links human characteristics whether exploring an uncharted ocean or outer space. This exhibit is intended to educate Hawaiian youth in their heritage and their possibilities.
We met Lei Kanea Kui who introduced the museum and its history before permitting us to wander about freely, absorbing the exhibits which range from KaHana Hulu Manu featherwork to representative samples of early flora and fauna of the Hawaiian Islands. Major exhibits highlight long-standing Hawaiian interest in environmental conservation and management, particularly the control of unwanted animal species.
Ocean-going sea captains brought the latest in technology from all parts of the globe to Hawaii and the royal family of Hawaii reflected the interest that the Hawaiian people had in trade and technology. King David Kalakaua had a telephone and electricity installed in Iolani Palace four years before it was installed in the White House. Further information on the Bishop Museum is available at www.bishop.hawaii.org.
Leaving the "State Museum of Natural and Cultural History" as the Bishop Museum is officially designated, we spent the afternoon on the USS Port Royal, an AEGIS guided missile cruiser.
USS Port Royal (CG 73) (Pearl Harbor, Island of Oahu)
The USS Port Royal is part of the U.S. Pacific Fleet, homeported in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Not only is the military community the second largest commerce in Hawaii, it also typifies sophisticated technology. Lieutenant Junior Grade Bruce Schuette, Officer of the Day and our host, welcomed us aboard and began our tour with a brief mission of CG 73. The ship is ready to conduct prompt, sustained combat operations at sea in support of carrier battle groups, surface action groups, amphibious assault groups, and is an integral part of interdiction forces.
Walking to the fantail, we observed the housing for the MK41 vertical launching system, and learned that this is only a small portion of her firepower which includes harpoon anti-ship missiles, Tomahawk cruise missiles, anti-submarine rockets, torpedoes, Phalanx Close-in Weapons systems for self-defense against aircraft and missiles, and five-inch rapid fire deck guns.
Walking forward and up to the bridge where normally three officers and seven enlisted personnel keep the ship on course, we learned that this particular cruiser started with fabrication work at Ingalls Shipbuilding, a Division of Litton Industries in Pascagoula, Mississippi, in November 1990. Her keel was laid October 18, 1991 and she was launched on November 20, 1992.
Fire Controlman First Class Chris Cole demonstrated a new software program developed by the ship's crew in the combat operations room. Here we learned how the USS Port Royal can defect hostile surface ships, submarine, and air forces simultaneously while delivering long-range offensive land attacks.
We visited the ship's well-stocked galley -- one of the only solaces against a long sea voyage. We also visited the ship's Wardroom where the USS Port Royal's heritage is on display under glass in an extensive silver service. The USS Port Royal is the second U.S. Navy warship to be named to commemorate battles of the American Revolution and the Civil War.
Before departing CG 73, we were taken on a tour of the engine room spaces by Main Propulsion Assistant Tim Nielsen. The ship's four gas turbine engines provide power to cruise at 30+ knots in support of her mission. Two controllable reversible pitch propellers assist in rapid acceleration and maneuverability.
Dr. Ryuzo Yanagimachi on Cloning (Honolulu, Island of Oahu)
We had an excellent opportunity to hear Dr. Ryuzo Yanagimachi, Professor of Anatomy and Reproductive Biology, School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, speak on cloning during our first evening in Hawaii. The research team led by Dr. Yanagimachi at the University of Hawaii successfully cloned the first mouse from an adult mouse cell in July 1998. To date, Dr. Yanagimachi's laboratory has produced five generations of cloned mice from the first cloned mouse, Cumulina, named for the cumulus cells surrounding the developing ovarian follicle in mice. Cumulus nuclei were injected into mouse eggs to produce the cloned mice. The success of the cloning of Cumulina followed that of Dolly, a sheep cloned in Scotland. According to Dr. Yanagimachi, the reproducible cloning of a mammal from adult cells has far-reaching implications for agriculture and medicine. One of the earliest uses of Dr. Yanagimachi's technique will be to produce replicas of special mice for medical research, such as for drug screening. The technique will also be useful for studying differences in cells involved in aging and diseases such as cancer; generating tissues and organs for transplantation; repopulating endangered species; and producing animals with desired traits. We found Dr. Yanagimachi's presentation exciting and informative. We were also fascinated by the video that Dr. Yanagimachi showed us. The video was a demonstration of the microinjection technique used to produce the cloned mice. Dr. Teruhiko Wakayama, who developed the microinjection technique in Dr. Yanagimachi's laboratory, also attended the dinner session.
Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (Ewa Beach, Island of Oahu)
Charles McCreery, Geophysicist-in-Charge, met with us to discuss tsunamis. Tsunamis do not occur often but when they do, they can have a devastating impact, particularly on coastal areas. Mr. McCreery first gave us an overview of tsunamis and tsunami hazards, talked about how the tsunami warning center operates, the limitations on what the center can do, and public perception of the threat.
Overview of Tsunamis
A tsunami is a series of ocean waves which may be generated by any rapid large-scale disturbance of sea water. Typically, tsunamis are generated by earthquakes although they may also be generated by other impacts such as asteroids impacting the Earth, landslides or volcanic eruptions. The speed of tsunamis is dependent on the water depth and may be calculated as follows: g x h = s, where g = acceleration of gravity, h = water depth, and s = speed of tsunami. Tsunamis typically have a period or time between wave crests of between 5 and 60 minutes. The size of the source and the depth of the ocean determine the period of the tsunami. Shape of the source is also a factor. In deep ocean, wave heights are generally small, usually less than a few feet, although they can move at speeds of more than 500 miles per hour. The most destructive tsunamis may generate wave heights of less than two feet in deep ocean. Consequently, tsunamis are virtually undetectable at sea. The tsunami becomes a hazard as it reaches shore and shallow water where the wave speed diminishes, causing the waves to compress and wave height to grow. Most of the world's tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean although they also occur in the Indian Ocean, the Caribbean Ocean and others. Tsunamis are often referred to as tidal waves; however, this is a misnomer because they really have nothing to do with tides.
Why is the Tsunami a Hazard?
Wave heights grow in shallow water. In the best case, the tsunami will behave as a quickly rising tide which may flood low lying areas. In the worst case, however, a wall of turbulent water several meters high will form and may rush onshore with great destructive power. This may be followed by a deep flood carrying rocks and debris. Persons caught in the path of the tsunami have little chance of survival. They may be crushed by debris or they may simply drown. Because tsunamis consist of a series of waves, the danger can continue for many hours. The shape of the shoreline and the existence of offshore ridges and other sea floor structures can cause energy focusing effects which increase the hazard in small areas. Often the most severe damage and casualties occur very near the source of the tsunami because the waves will not have lost much energy to friction or spreading. Also, nearby coastal areas will generally have very little warning before a tsunami strikes.
Pacific Tsunami Warning Center
The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) is operated by the U.S. National Weather Service. It serves as a local tsunami warning center for Hawaii. Additionally, the center works closely with other regional and national centers in monitoring seismological and tidal stations and instruments around the Pacific Ocean. It also serves as an international tsunami warning center for most Pacific Rim and Pacific Island countries. Specifically, the center collects and analyzes seismic data and water level data. When an earthquake of sufficient magnitude to generate a tsunami occurs in the Pacific Ocean, PTWC personnel determine the epicenter location. If this is under or near the ocean, a tsunami is possible. On that basis, the center will issue a tsunami watch. The information issued under a watch includes the fact that an earthquake has occurred, its location and the time that it occurred, and that a tsunami is possible. Estimates of arrival times throughout the Pacific can then be determined since tsunamis move through water in predictable ways. A tsunami warning is usually issued by the PTWC after receipt of positive indication of tsunami existence from the tidal station nearest the disturbance. The warning alerts warning system participants of the approach of a potentially destructive tsunami and gives estimated tsunami arrival times for all locations within the region.
Public Perception of Tsunami Threat
The need for public awareness and education has been recognized as vital for the population of coastal states and particularly those in Hawaii. Due to the lack of tsunamis within the last several decades, there is an entire generation of people who have no concept of the threat of tsunamis.
There have not been any devastating tsunamis in Hawaii since 1965, although prior to that time, they occurred fairly frequently. Consequently, people do not recognize the danger of tsunamis. There appears to be a great need for public education regarding tsunamis, particularly targeting those people who have not experienced past tsunamis.
Tour of the Nuclear Submarine USS PASADENA (SSN 752) (Pearl Harbor, Island of Oahu)
Her motto is "Anytime, Anywhere," but as we made our way through Pearl Harbor, the most visible sign of the USS PASADENA, an improved LOS ANGELES Class submarine, was the submarine's banner affixed over the foot bridge (brow) from the pier to the boat. Even when surfaced, the bulk of the submarine (two-three decks) is underwater with only approximately one-fifth of the submarine exposed above the surface. The Commanding Officer, Commander Scott Van Buskirk, met our group and commenced a three-hour tour that captivated us with information about the advanced technology utilized onboard. We were equally impressed with the unique living conditions and tight quarters onboard for officers and crew, which had just returned from a six-month deployment to the Western Pacific.
One by one, we stepped through the hatch and descended a long ladder into the submarine. The narrow confines of the vessel were immediately apparent. With only 120 bunks stacked three high, four bathrooms (heads), and one washer and dryer for the entire 145 crew members, living space is at a premium during PASADENA's six-month deployments. The torpedo room is utilized for bunking for some junior personnel in order to ease the bunking conditions with 12 to 20 personnel utilizing temporary bunks located among the Tomahawk missiles and torpedoes. Even with these accommodations, "hot bunking" is often required where three sailors share two bunks in rotation. Only Commander Van Buskirk has a private stateroom the size of a small walk-in closet with a single, fold down bunk and shared head with the Executive Officer, Commander Jon Kan.
ommissioned February 11, 1989, PASADENA is the second Improved 688 Class submarine and was built by General Dynamics Corporation in Groton, Connecticut. At 360 feet long and 7,000 tons, PASADENA specializes in stealth warfare at speeds in excess of 25 knots and depths greater than 800 feet. She can carry 12 vertical launched million dollar Tomahawk missiles, as well as a mix 24 torpedo launched Tomahawks, torpedoes, and mines stowed in the torpedo room. Her many missions include anti-submarine, anti-ship and strike warfare, as well as mine delivery, Special Operating Forces delivery and intelligence and warning. PASADENA is one of only two LOS ANGELES Class submarines fully under-ice capable with a demonstrated ability to break through six feet of ice while conducting missions under the polar icecap. With her nuclear propulsion, PASADENA has unlimited endurance and contains some of the most advanced sonar, torpedo, cruise missile and mine delivery systems as well as the ultimate combination of speed and stealth. A visible example of one of her stealth enhancements includes the thick rubber tiles (anechoic) that cover the entire hull to minimize the ship's acoustic signature.
The propulsion plant of a nuclear powered ship is based upon the use of a nuclear reactor to provide heat. The heat comes from the fissioning of nuclear fuel contained within the reactor. Since the fissioning process also produces radiation, shields are placed around the reactor so that the crew is protected.
The nuclear propulsion plant uses a pressurized water design that has two basic systems: the primary system and the secondary system. The primary system circulates ordinary water and consists of the reactor, piping loops, pumps and steam generators. The heat produced in the reactor is transferred to the water under high pressure so it doesn't boil. The water is pumped through the steam generators and back into the reactor for reheating. In the steam generators, the heat from the water in the primary system is transferred to the secondary system to create steam.
The secondary system is isolated from the primary system so that the water in the two systems does not intermix. In the secondary system, the steam flows from the steam generators to drive the turbine generators, which supply the ship with electricity, and to the main propulsion turbines, which drive the propeller. After passing through the turbines, the steam is condensed into water that is fed back to the steam generators by the feed pumps. Thus, both the primary and the secondary systems are closed systems where water is recirculated and reused. There is no step in the generation of this power that requires the presence of air or oxygen. This allows the ship to operate completely independent from the Earth's atmosphere for extended periods of time.
The submarine is driven much the same way a pilot flies a plane. Similar to a plane, the submarine has two wings called "planes," retractable bow planes forward and stern planes aft near the rudder. A spherical sonar encased in a fiberglass dome forms the bow and functions as the eyes and the ears of the submarine. Additionally, two towed array sonars with hydrophones can be towed astern of the ship to provide additional detection capabilities. Five pairs of ballast tanks surround the ship fore and aft to provide air ballast to maintain the ship's buoyancy when surfaced and are flooded with water in order to submerge.
During the last deployment, PASADENA demonstrated the submarine's unique capability of conducting independent operations remaining in a "passive mode" where no radio transmissions are sent out, but radio transmissions are received, to avoid detection for weeks and months at a time. The ship's underwater endurance is only limited by the amount of food it can carry, typically two-four months worth.
Seawater is desalinated for drinking and then purified to make oxygen. In early submarines, the oxygen level was indicated by a candle, which also provided light. Now, sophisticated atmosphere monitoring equipment samples all of the ship's spaces to monitor for oxygen, hydrogen, mono and carbon dioxide as well as other potentially hazardous gases.
Food is a major morale issue and its preparation is a highly efficient operation. Within one hour, the entire crew is served their meals in a 24-seat dining space called the "crew's mess." Five cooks, mess specialists, rotate cooking duties in a galley only the size of most home kitchens, serving meals every six hours. Every day they prepare fresh baked products and take pride in their special Sunday evening menus, which often include prime rib, steaks, or seafood. The crew's rigorous work schedules including 18-hour workdays probably help burn up the extra calories.
Nuclear attack submarines have only one crew and maintain a 50 percent operating tempo, while the larger ballistic missile submarines utilize a two crew concept to maintain a 75 percent operating tempo. Presently, current Navy policy prohibits mixed gender submarine crews as a direct result of the space limitations and privacy issues.
We particularly enjoyed the hands-on use of the submarine periscope while taking turns viewing pierside activity with the 24 power magnification capabilities. It was easy to understand how the periscope is used for covert operations and classification of other ships.
Following a lesson in torpedo launching, we recessed to the Wardroom (officers' lounge and dining area) for a demonstration of PASADENA's digital imaging capabilities and images taken during the ship's recent port visits to Malaysia and Singapore. As we sipped lemonade and drank coffee, Commander Van Buskirk answered our many questions and demonstrated the submarine's emergency respirator system. We were surprised to learn that the Wardroom table that we were seated at was also used as an emergency operating table. In such small confines, we learned that every space has to have multiple uses.
We concluded our tour infused with Commander Van Buskirk's sense of pride and professionalism for his crew. We were pretty impressed with him also. His next assignment, as a special assistant for legislative matters, will take him to Washington, DC. To receive more information on the Navy's Submarine Force, visit the submarine website at www.csp.navy.mil.
National Weather Service Forecast Office and Central Pacific Hurricane Office (Honolulu, Island of Oahu)
We visited the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service Forecast Office for the Hawaiian Islands; the same office serves as the Central Pacific Hurricane Center. We met with Paul A. Jendrowsi, the Science and Operations Officer, who described the responsibilities of the office. The Weather Service Forecast Office (WSFO) in Honolulu has forecast programs for public, aviation, and marine interests. Public forecasts are for the State of Hawaii (6,423 square miles). The WSFO is also an aviation Meteorological Watch Office for the North Central Pacific. The area of responsibility covers approximately five million square miles generally from the Equator to 30N between 140W and 160E. The marine high seas area covers nearly 11 million square miles of the Central North and South Pacific from 160E to 120W and from 30N to 25S.
The Central Pacific Hurricane Center (CPHC) issues tropical cyclone warnings, watches, advisories, discussions, and statements for all tropical cyclones in the Central Pacific from 140 Degrees West Longitude to the International Dateline. The season officially begins on June 1 and ends on November 30. However, tropical cyclones can occur at any time. The WSFO activates the CPHC when: (1) a tropical cyclone moves into the Central Pacific from the Eastern Pacific, (2) a tropical cyclone forms in the Central Pacific, or (3) a tropical cyclone moves into the Central Pacific from the west.
The WSFO deals with circumstances that are different from most offices on the mainland. Because the Hawaiian Islands are far from any other land, there are few meteorological observations available and only a course-gridded global weather model to work from. Most mainland offices have a network of observation stations they rely on and a half-dozen computer models using the observations on which to base their forecasts. The Hawaii office makes extensive use of satellite and other remote-sensing data and also of reports of weather data from pilots of trans-Pacific flights. They are working on using the global weather numerical model as input to a local model for the Hawaiian Islands.
Because of the large range of responsibilities, the WSFO has a staff of about 50 -- larger than most mainland offices. There are six people on duty at all times, including four meteorologists and a hydrologist.
We also visited the computer laboratory where the staff works, and were present for the morning map briefing. During the briefing, each of the staff describes the significant weather in his or her area of responsibility -- surface, marine, upper-level, aviation, long-range, etc. We were invited to ask questions during the briefing, and we saw weather forecasting in the making.
The WSFO is located on the campus of the University of Hawaii, Manoa, and we were told that they work with the Department of Atmospheric Sciences, supporting some graduate students, employing undergraduate students in the office, and doing cooperative projects.
Most of the products, model calculations, and publications from this office are available on the worldwide web at www.nws.noaa.gov/pr/pacific.shtml. The National Weather Service (NWS) provides extensive information from all its offices; the NWS homepage is www.nws.noaa.gov/.
Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory (Honolulu, Island of Oahu)
As the second part of our day at the University of Hawaii, we visited the administrative location for the Hawaii Undersea Research Laboratory (HURL). The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the University of Hawaii established HURL in 1980 with a mission to study deep-water marine processes in the Pacific Ocean. We were met by a new arrival to the HURL team, Brian Midson, for a briefing on the nature of the research center and to review some of the video footage captured during his dives in a submersible research vessel. Over lunch, Mr. Midson updated us on the status of the program and outlined the procedures for conducting research at HURL. The HURL is supported by research projects from private, federal or state agencies and participates in international projects in the Pacific Ocean. As part of this research, the HURL continues to search for opportunities to tap into the hidden resources of the Pacific Ocean. To emphasize the uniqueness of the undersea environment and its untapped potential, Mr. Midson narrated several films from one of the HURL's submersibles, Pisces V. Contrary to popular belief, the deep depths of the ocean are filled with undersea life. The images seemed like something out of a "Star Wars" movie. Large transparent undersea animals floated gracefully by the camera, while the pilot attempted to maneuver the heavy submersible around for the optimum image. Over the years, the undersea teams have constructed ingenious tools for retrieving floor samples and data measurements. The HURL's research programs are dedicated to four areas: habitats, ecosystems, and fisheries resources; submarine volcanic processes; coral reefs, marine carbonates and ferromanganese oxides; and coastal and slope processes.
After our lunch at the HURL's center at the University, we traveled to Sand Island to survey the submersible's transport vessel, Ka'imikai-o-Kanaloa. Maintenance is an important part of any research project and the HURL is no exception. On the day we arrived, the transport was being fitted with a new generator and the wet laboratory was being remodeled. The 222-foot vessel was dedicated in 1994. It provides facilities for 10 scientists, 9 technicians, 14 crew members and food for up to 50 days at sea. As part of the preparation for a research vessel, the ship was lengthened and an A-frame winch was added to hoist the submersibles from the water. A "moon pool" was added to allow navigation and communication systems to be lowered to the keel level. A multibeam sonar mapping system was added to the vessel to allow acoustical charting of the sea floor peaks and valleys to depths of ten kilometers.
To round out the HURL's research efforts, two submersibles are maintained on the Makai Research Pier at Makapu'u Point on the east coast of the Island of Oahu. Each submersible can transport 3 persons to a depth of 2,000 meters at 1 atmosphere for up to 8 hours. Each unit has view ports, cameras, hydraulic manipulators, sonar ranging devices, and emergency equipment. In addition to providing a platform for scientific research, the submersibles are available for deep-sea search and rescue. Since many research programs require unique tools and setups, each submersible can be quickly fitted with a variety of equipment including cameras, storage baskets, measuring instruments, flood lights and water samplers. The submersibles use directional antennae and pingers for site locations. For more dangerous research, the HURL uses a fiber optically tethered remote submersible, RCV-150. This unmanned vehicle can obtain depths of 1,000 meters in currents up to 1.5 knots.
The HURL will continue to study the undersea world with a focus on deep-sea geology and ecosystems. Previous studies indicate that these systems will continue to have a dramatic effect on global climate and deep-sea marine life. With the constant activity of the volcanic regions surrounding Hawaii, the HURL will continue to monitor and assess the progress of this hostile environment.
With the increasing industrial use of the oceans, the dramatic global changes and the systematic destruction of our water systems, it is important that the HURL continue its research. The next major breakthrough may be achieved from this team. Further information may be obtained by visiting HURL's website at www.soest.hawaii.edu/hurl/.
Hawaii Agriculture Research Center (Aiea, Island of Oahu)
In 1966, the Hawaii Agriculture Research Center (HARC) was officially born. Originally founded in 1895 as the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association (HSPA), it was dedicated to improving the sugar industry in Hawaii. The transformation to HARC reflects its expanding scope to encompass research in many other diversified crops in addition to sugarcane. HARC, a non-profit organization, still receives the bulk of its funding from sugar planters, even though sugar production in Hawaii has declined.
Our hostess for the morning, Ms. Sandra Lee Kunimoto, is HARC's Director of Marketing and Business Development. She explained how sugarcane, which was planted in over 200,000 Hawaiian acres, now fills only 69,000 acres. Sugarcane in Hawaii is a year round crop. It grows in all stages at all times. Due to economic reasons, former sugar acres are now used for other crops. Sugar prices are the same now as 20-30 years ago, yet the cost of sugar production has gone up significantly. Dr. Robert Osgood, Vice President and Assistant Research Director for HARC, told us how papaya, coffee, trees for fiber, and other crops have replaced sugarcane in many instances. Sugarcane is still a viable business operating on the Hawaiian Islands of Kauai and Maui.
With 65 employees, HARC is actively applying research in many areas. HARC's activities are divided into several groups: sugarcane; "the beverage crop group," which includes coffee; forestry including laminated products and eucalyptus trees; fruits and nuts including macadamia nuts and papayas; seed production; botanicals used in cosmetics; neutraceuticals such as kava; and biological and chemical analytical services such as chemical efficacy studies and residue testing.
We were intrigued with kava, a relaxant Dr. Osgood called "the natural Prozac." Dr. Osgood told us that HARC is becoming "the" lab in the Pacific to analyze kava. Germany, we were told, has standardized extracts of kava. That level of standardization has not reached the United States yet.
In the area of forestry, HARC has successfully cloned fast growing eucalyptus trees. The slow growing Acacia koa is a high-quality Hawaiian hardwood used in furniture and in crafts. HARC koa research is centered on the selection of a low elevation koa to increase the current koa wood production, thereby ending the current shortage in koa wood. Koa in the lower elevations has been decimated by a fungus, which is carried into the tree by a borer.
While coffee used to be grown exclusively in Kona, it's now grown on five of the Hawaiian Islands. HARC coffee research focuses on improving flavor, increasing harvestable yield, and enhancing disease resistance through breeding and selection.
HARC provides services in the seed industry. When the University of Hawaii developed a virus-resistant papaya, HARC got the contract to produce the seeds. This was the first commercial genetically modified fruit crop. While the seeds will not initially be shipped to Europe, there is preparation underway to get clearance to export them to Japan. HARC also has contracts with seed companies to develop seeds for corn, potatoes, wheat and rice.
Dr. Osgood listed several vegetable and fruit improvements. They are working with asparagus, a new crop for Hawaii. Asparagus is increasingly being grown year round, bringing in higher revenues for the winter months.
We learned that no insecticides are used on sugarcane, but standard herbicides are registered for use. As part of its analytical chemistry laboratory activities, HARC specializes in studies for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) registration of pesticides, as well as the chemical analysis of pesticides in water, soil, and plant tissues.
Dr. Paul Moore from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), told us about research in "plantabodies." Imagine, having plants make antibodies instead of animals!
We also found out that a new $45 million agricultural research facility is slated for Hilo, Hawaii. Hawaiian Senator Daniel Inouye spearheaded the Pacific Basin Agricultural Research Facility, part of the ARS. HARC and ARS have had a successful private-public partnership for 30 years.
We proceeded to the laboratories and gathered around chemist, Gerald Pitz. Mr. Pitz explained how he monitors water from sugar plantations tracking any herbicide residue. Mr. Pitz also has substantial involvement in EPA pesticide registrations.
Our last stop at HARC was at the laboratory of Dr. Chifumi Nagai. We were fascinated by her discussion of alternatives to pesticide use for controlling pests in tropical crops. She described how biotechnology is used for the initial development (as in the disease resistant papaya) and then the production of a hybrid yields the new seeds.
Dr. Nagai's current work in pineapples was a melding of commercial use and research work. Small worms called nematodes eat the roots of pineapples. These pests are controlled by fumigants such as methyl bromide, the use of which will be phased out in 2003 pursuant to EPA regulations. The USDA is funding the research to put the gene for nematode resistance into pineapple. A gene gun uses the explosive force of high-pressure helium gas to force the DNA particle into the gene. In 10-12 months, the pineapple tissue will be checked to see if the resistance gene is in and how it is expressed. To find out more about HARC and their work, check their website at www.hawaiiag.org/harc/.
Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority (Kailua-Kona, Island of Hawaii)
Our visit to the Big Island commenced with a visit to the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority (NELHA) and the Hawaii Ocean Science and Technology Park. Our host was Dr. Tom Daniel, Scientific/Technical Director of NELHA.
The laboratory was founded in 1974 as a research vehicle seeking alternative energy and related technologies. Their principle mechanism is Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC). OTEC uses the temperature difference between warm tropical surface water and the cold deep ocean to generate electricity, but only where the difference is more than 20 degrees centigrade.
Hawaii is an ideal location for an OTEC plant because of the ocean temperature gradient and the volcanic formation of the island, which makes deep water accessible from relatively close to shore. The Japanese built another OTEC plant that operated briefly in the Republic of Nauru in 1982. NELHA still is the pre-eminent world OTEC site, with the current ability to draw more than one ton per second of deep seawater.
One of the major challenges of this technology is to find cost-effective heat exchangers and turbines that can resist the corrosive qualities of seawater. For some time, titanium has been the primary metal used, but researchers have also created experimental aluminum alloy heat exchangers. We were shown the tremendous scope of applications resulting from the development of ocean thermal energy conversion.
In 1990, the laboratory became part of an authority set up by the state for commercial development -- NELHA. Since then, many commercial enterprises have been formed to take advantage of OTEC's power and by-products. Economic conditions have not favored the use of alternative energy sources, and Hawaii is still feeling the effects of the recession that began during the Bush Administration. However, the companies currently leasing space at NELHA are well-positioned to succeed in their markets.
The first tenant we toured was Cyanotech Corporation, whose president, Gerald Cysewski, gave us an introduction to aquaculture. This company's main product is microalgae -- specifically, a blue-green algae known as spirulina. Spirulina is a rich source of protein and anti-oxidant compounds, often used as a nutritional supplement. Another product, astaxanthin, is used to supplement the diet of farm-grown salmon to give them the normal pink color of wild salmon. Cyanotech also is developing a species of blue-green algae that is a source of food for mosquito larvae. The company has modified this alga to produce a natural pesticide that will kill the larvae. Since mosquito-born malaria is still the number one killer in tropical countries, this product should have a large market. Cyanotech has 90 acres of algae fields under production, using the nutrient-rich, deep seawater from OTEC as a growing medium. The crop yield for spirulina was approximately 300 tons this past year.
The next enterprise was not a commercial venture at all, but a non-traditional program for high school education. West Hawaii Explorations Academy was established to provide students an opportunity to see and apply the standard textbook learning to real world problems. Their premier effort last year was the design and construction of an electric car for competition. The vehicle placed second in the statewide race, out of 25 entries. It is capable of holding a 45-mile per hour speed for an hour. Other projects of the West Hawaii Explorations Academy include raising yellow tang fish for aquarium owners -- an attempt to prevent the depopulation of natural reefs. The Academy is also using cold ocean water to cool off the soil in flower-growing beds, enabling them to cultivate roses and other non-tropical plants year round.
Aquasearch, Incorporated -- a marine biotechnology company, also uses NELHA's cold, nutrient-rich, deep sea water to produce high-quality marine bioproducts from microalgae. The cold seawater is used by Aquasearch to provide optimal control of growth conditions inside their fully enclosed, patented, photobioreactors (the Aquasearch Growth Module, or AGM). Company research scientist, Dr. Miguel Olaizola, believes that the AGM growth technology gives Aquasearch a competitive edge with respect to product quality and resource utilization efficiency over their competitors.
The next stop was the Kona Cold Lobster Company owned by Joe and Phil Wilson. The availability of cold ocean water from the OTEC intake pipe makes it possible in Hawaii to grow marine life from colder climates; thus, a group of entrepreneurs thought up the idea of growing Maine lobsters in Hawaii. They would supply the local restaurants with top-quality Maine lobster, grown locally and thereby saving on the tremendous shipping costs from Maine. Once again, economic conditions interfered -- the lobster yield in Maine has been growing even as consumption has increased. Increased supplies in Maine have led to downward pressure on the price so it is still cheaper for Hawaiians and the Japanese to ship lobsters from the mainland than to use the Hawaiian grown lobsters. Should the demand and supply situation change, this could be a major revenue source for Hawaii. Kona Cold Lobster Company could become the major supplier of Maine lobsters to Japan and other Asian countries. Meanwhile, the company runs a small business importing and distributing live Maine lobster to restaurants in Hawaii and throughout the Pacific basin. NELHA's clean cold seawater allows them to guarantee healthy animals to their customers.
Coast Seafoods Company (CSC) operates the second largest site at NELHA. CSC is a mainland-based company and the largest producer of oysters worldwide. The facility at NELHA is a nursery for Manila clams and Pacific oysters. Larvae or small seed are shipped overnight to the site and reared there for three to four months. The larger seed are sent back to the mainland for continued growth in coastal bays. Ninety percent of the seed that CSC sends out of Hawaii is sold to other farmers from Canada to Mexico. The ability to use deep and surface seawater to control growing conditions year round affords CSC an advantage that mainland nurseries cannot economically duplicate.
A former tenant on the Coast Seafoods site, Ocean Farms of Hawaii (OFH), had experimented with tank-grown salmon. While they were developing their culture system, salmon farms throughout the world started releasing their product on the market. The price for salmon dropped 50 percent, and OFH found that they could not compete.
Today, Indo-Pacific Sea Farms, another tenant on the old OFH site, is a major supplier of rock and coral used by collectors in aquariums. An additional tenant in the same former OFH area is High Health Aquaculture, which markets brood-stock shrimp that they guarantee as being free of pathogens -- a result of using the very clean water pumped from the ocean depths for OTEC research.
Pacific Harvest, Incorporated, owned by Ben Krause, specializes in raising indigenous fish for the seafood market. At one time, moi was considered the fish of royalty, restricting its availability. When the restriction was removed, overfishing almost wiped out the supply of moi. Through aquaculture efforts, the fish are making a comeback, and are a very popular entree in the local restaurants. The company uses warm water brought in by OTEC for its growing tanks and cold water for storage and shipping. Pacific Harvest also raises amberjack, which is similar to tuna in appearance. Raising amberjack at NELHA has the advantage of avoiding all the parasites and worms that sometimes infest this fish.
Big Island Abalone Company (BIAC) specializes in raising the shellfish abalone, long considered a delicacy. For many years, abalone populations off the coast of California and throughout the world have been in decline, causing demand and prices to soar. President Michael Aley told us about BIAC's experiments in raising abalone in tanks on three different kinds of algae grown entirely on site. The company also reports that abalone growth rates using these proprietary algae are more than double that found elsewhere. The water that provides the nutrients for the algae and the abalone comes from NELHA's deep seawater supply line.
Our final stop in NELHA was at Ocean Rider, Incorporated. Its owner, Carol Schmarr, raises seahorses for aquarium pets and Chinese folk medicinal uses. She told us that the seahorse is the only species of animal where the male carries and bears the young.
Dr. Daniel told us that this was just a sampling of the 26 tenant companies now active at NELHA. Although these enterprises are not yet generating the sort of revenue initially expected, they nevertheless clearly show the kind of synergy that can exist between government technology and commercial interests -- the natural "spin-offs" of new technology into commercial applications that help pay for the cost of developing the technology. To see the OTEC concept in actual operation with its attendant commercial enterprises leads us to believe that this is a clear image of the future of science and technology. To learn more about NELHA, visit their website at www.bigisland.com/nelha.
Holualoa Kona Coffee Company (Holualoa, Island of Hawaii)
The Holualoa Kona Coffee Company is nestled in the hills on the Kona coast of the Big Island of Hawaii. The eight year old plantation spans 12 acres and is one of the larger farms on the island. Most of the farms in the area are smaller, between three to ten acres. The majority of the trees on these coffee farms originated from Guatemala in Central America. Coffee trees can flourish in Hawaii because of the ideal climate: fresh, rich volcanic soil, partial shade, sunny mornings and shady afternoons. The actual yields of the farms are influenced by the amount of rain received.
The acreage at the Holualoa Kona Coffee Company is divided into two areas, the plantation and the dry mill. Located on the plantation are the trees where the coffee cherry containing the coffee bean is grown. Harvesting of the coffee cherry begins once the green cherry changes colors to a red cherry. The harvesting season begins during August and lasts through January. The harvesting process, performed by pickers, is very labor intensive. The pickers use a stick with a hook to pull the tree top over, then pick the red coffee cherries with both hands and put them into a basket. After picking, the coffee cherries are taken directly to the wet mill. The wet mill removes the skin of the cherries. The bean has a slimy mucilage flesh surrounding it. The flesh is removed during a natural process called fermentation and takes approximately 12 to 15 hours to complete.
After the fermenting process is complete, the beans are rinsed and spread out on drying decks for seven to ten days. The drying decks are used to extract moisture from the bean. The moisture content is checked continually during this state to prevent mold and mildew in the beans.
The smaller farmers have three choices after the harvesting is complete: go to the big mills and sell their red cherries by the pound; process the red cherries in a wet mill and on drying decks, then store the beans for later; or take the red cherries to a full-service mill such as the Holualoa Kona Coffee Company. The advantage of using a full-service mill is that the mill marks the coffee with the farmer's name, performs all of the processing and returns the coffee packaged with the farmer's labels.
After the drying deck, the beans are taken to the dry mill for processing. There are three steps involved in the dry mill process: hulling, sizing and weight grading. The hulling machine breaks off and removes the paperskin or parchment and separates the green coffee bean. The (size) grading machine separates the beans by size and shape using a shaker with different size holes in the screen. The gravity table or weight grading separates the bean by density and weight. The best coffees are determined by the size, density and weight of the bean. Each cherry normally has two beans inside. A peaberry is a cherry which has one full round bean. These beans are used for gourmet coffee and are the highest grade quality of Kona coffee available. There are four more Kona coffee grades: extra fancy, fancy, number one and prime. The two Hawaiian grade coffees are number three and off-grade. All other beans are discarded as rubbish. After the coffee is graded, it is bagged, inspected by a Hawaii State Department of Agriculture inspector, then stamped with a batch number and certification of the grade given.
Roasting and cooling is completed next. The beans are poured into the roaster and removed approximately 15 minutes later. The decaffeinated process entails soaking the bean in a minimum of 170 degree hot water to dissolve the caffeine. The caffeine is then removed from the liquid and any flavor components that may have dissolved are recaptured and kept with the bean. From the roasting area, we ended our tour in the gift shop. We sampled coffee, purchased our souvenirs and had an opportunity to meet the owners, Desmond and Lisen Twiggs-Smith. A special thanks to our guides Tim Davis, responsible for the plantation and Wes Summer, who oversees the milling and roasting. The Holualoa Kona Coffee Company's website, www.konalea.com, provides a history of the farm and an on-line store for fresh roasted Kona coffee and other gift items.
Observatories on Mauna Kea (Hale Pohaku, Island of Hawaii)
We drove from the west coast of the Big Island of Hawaii up the Saddle Road between two large volcanoes -- Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa. The road, narrow but adequately paved, runs through lava fields, arid land, and a military reservation from sea level to about 6,000 feet in altitude at the turnoff for Mauna Kea. The Mauna Kea road, of similar type, rises more steeply to 9,400 feet at Hale Pohaku, the headquarters, dormitory, astronomers' dining room, and public visitors' center for the astronomical observatories at the summit of the mountain, which is at almost 14,000 feet. By the time we reached Hale Pohaku, our four-cylinder vans were puffing and groaning from the combination of altitude and the steep climb; we ran in first gear on the steeper climbs.
We arrived at Hale Pohaku just before lunch and spent the next one and one-half hours drinking fluids, eating lunch in the astronomers' cafeteria, and acclimating to the altitude before proceeding to the summit. Our summit trip was in four-wheel drive vehicles with staff from the University of Hawaii and the Gemini-North telescope, since the road from Hale Pohaku to the summit is coarse gravel most of the way, and it is yet steeper and more difficult than the roads we had traveled.
Our visit was arranged by the University of Hawaii Institute for Astronomy, and during the trip we were accompanied by Andrew Pickles, University of Hawaii 2.2-meter telescope manager, and Peter Michaud, public information and outreach manager for the Gemini Observatory. Staff from each of the telescopes we visited talked with us. In all, we visited four of the 12 telescopes at the summit in the four hours we spent there. Mauna Kea is currently the world's best site for visible and infrared astronomy, as the number of large new telescopes demonstrates. The site is managed by the Institute for Astronomy at the University of Hawaii.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Infrared Telescope Facility (IRTF) is a 3.0-meter telescope optimized for infrared observations. The observatory belongs to NASA and is operated and managed for NASA by the University of Hawaii Institute for Astronomy. The IRTF is the United States' national infrared observing facility. Its primary mission is to support NASA exploration of the solar system. At the time we visited, a group from Harvard was using the telescope to look at dust around other stars as a way of understanding planetary formation and searching for extra-solar planets.
The new Subaru Telescope Facility is operated by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Science, Sports, and Culture. It is a new 8.2-meter single-mirror telescope that saw first light in December 1998 and is still in the commissioning process. We were told that the previous night it had achieved its design resolution, and its resolution would get better as the control process improved. It is currently equipped with a large-field camera with six 1024 x 1024 charge-coupled-device arrays and a 1024 x 1024 near-infrared camera. It will have two additional instruments by the end of the year and a total of seven at the end of 2000. Instruments can be changed robotically. The day we were there, they were in the process of changing the secondary mirror. It is clear that this telescope has been designed for great versatility and that considerable resources have been available for its design and construction. (Subaru is the Japanese word for the star formation called the Pleiades in English. The observatory is not associated with the automobile company of the same name, and we were told the company provided no funds for the observatory.)
The W. M. Keck Observatory consists of two identical telescopes about 75 meters apart on the summit of Mauna Kea, each with a segmented 10-meter mirror. When the telescope is not in use during the daytime, the mirror is stored vertically (telescope pointing at the horizon), so we had a good view of it from the dome. The telescope uses adaptive optics to achieve a design resolution of two milliarc-seconds; we were told that one milliarc-second is the width of a person's shoulders on the Moon as seen from the Earth. During a visit to the control room, we saw a project that is observing supernovae in distant galaxies.
The Gemini Observatories Project is an international partnership that is building two 8.1-meter single-mirror telescopes. One telescope is located on Mauna Kea, and the other on Chile's Cerro Pachon mountain. Together they will provide complete unobstructed coverage of both the northern and southern skies. The Gemini is an international partnership of the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Chile, Australia, Argentina, and Brazil, managed by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy under a cooperative agreement with the U.S. National Science Foundation. The Gemini-North telescope, which we saw, is in the final stages of construction (first light photographs were obtained in February 1999) and will be dedicated in ceremonies June 25-27, 1999. It will then undergo about a year of commissioning before it is in regular operation. The Gemini-South telescope is about a year from completion. The Gemini telescope has an instrument carrier that can hold five instruments at a time, although not all the instruments are yet funded.
We toured the control room and dome, and we were there when the dome was opened. The telescope and dome system are carefully designed for thermal stability so that air currents do not degrade the images and so that the whole telescope remains at a uniform temperature. The mirror, like that of all large modern telescopes, is a relatively thin (12 cm) piece of glass supported by computer-controlled actuators that actively determine its figure as gravitational forces on it change as the telescope moves. The telescope is also equipped with computer-controlled adaptive optics that can remove most of the image-distorting twinkle due to the atmosphere.
While some astronomers make instrumental observations at the summit, all the telescopes are designed to be operated remotely, and it is common to make observations from remote control rooms, either in Hilo (on the Big Island of Hawaii at sea level) or at a university that may be thousands of miles away. Scientists provide observational parameters, and in come cases, the precise time observations are made is determined by the quality of the images being obtained, the other observations required that night, and the nature of the request. Telescope operators, who are themselves astronomers highly skilled with the particular telescope, operate the telescopes. In order to provide better links, funding has recently been obtained for increasing the speed of the data transfer between Mauna Kea, Hilo, and the rest of the world.
All of the observatories provide extensive general information, data, photographs, and specialized information for astronomers on their websites. The University of Hawaii Institute for Astronomy provides links to all the websites at www.ifa.hawaii.edu/ifa/observatories.html.
After four hours at the summit, we descended the rough road back to Hale Pohaku, where we had dinner and more discussion with our hosts. Then we visited the public visitors' center and drove one and one-half hours back to our hotel.
MacFarms of Hawaii (Captain Cook, Island of Hawaii)
The single largest macadamia nut farm in the world, MacFarms of Hawaii, is located on the Kona coast on the Big Island of Hawaii. An American-owned company, MacFarms of Hawaii, supports the local community by employing the majority of their 250 employees from the Kona coast. The macadamia nut tree orchard is 3,850 acres. Macadamia nuts originated in Australia, but have flourished in the Hawaiian climate making Hawaii one of the best places to grow them in the world. The south Kona coast provides this temperate rain forest tree with mineral enriched soil, brilliant sunlight and moderate rainfall.
Macadamia nuts have been available commercially since the 1950's. Macadamia nuts are used in cookies, ice cream and chocolates. They are also eaten raw, salted or roasted and are used as food garnishments. Macadamia nut cooking oil is a healthy alternative to most other oils and is used in salads. The macadamia nut has the highest fat content of any nut, but has a high nutritional value as well. The nuts are expensive because there is only 12 percent kernel yield per weight of nut. Forty to 50 percent of the nut is the outer shell. The shell thickness is dependent on the growth of the tree. Macadamia nuts have the hardest shell of any nut in the world.
The process from harvest to shelf takes approximately two to three months. The harvesting of the crop begins in August and can extend into April. The peak of the harvest is mid-October through December. A catcher is clamped to the tree and a tree shaker shakes the tree so the nuts will fall. Most of the crop is picked by hand from the lava ground. The nuts are then taken to the production facility. The first stop is the husker station. Foreign matter is removed from the crop, the nuts are washed and the outer layer is removed. The nuts are sent to the drying tanks in 100-pound batches for aspiration to remove blanks. The next step in processing is to separate the nuts by size. They are sized up to 1/32" and then subsized again. The cracker machine cracks each shell and 90 percent of the shell is removed completing the raw processing. All of the substandard kernels removed during the process are used to produce non-food oils basically for cosmetic purposes.
The raw kernels receive a fresh water wash if dusty, steamed, then dehydrated or roasted. The full roasting process takes approximately 45 minutes, then the nuts are sorted for color. Quality analysis is performed in-house at every stage of the processing cycle.
MacFarms of Hawaii supports the local farmers by purchasing the superior crops of macadamia nuts. Thirty-three percent of the mainland market belongs to MacFarms of Hawaii with a gradual entrance into the European community. The company is continually striving to produce a better product and works with universities to evaluate the fat content and nutritional value of macadamia nuts.
Mr. Rick Vidgen, the President of MacFarms of Hawaii, provided an overview of the farm and then joined us for a ride through the orchards with Mr. Hilary Brown, the orchard manager. Our processing facility tour was provided by Mr. John Sullivan, the factory manager. A special thanks to all of them for making our visit an educational success. MacFarms of Hawaii can be found on the web at www.macfarms.com offering recipes and convenient on-line shopping.
U.S. Geological Survey Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (Hawaii National Park, Island of Hawaii)
Early Friday morning, we met our guide, Dr. James Kauahikaua, a geologist with the U.S. Geological Survey, for our trip to Mount Kilauea. During the spectacular drive along the southeast shore of the Big Island of Hawaii, Dr. Kauahikaua's excellent overview of the island's formation was intermixed with much of the island's colorful, cultural native history. Kilauea is famous for its lava flows, fountains, and especially its recent activity. Residents and visitors enjoy its beauty and until relatively recently, its benign activity. As long ago as 1823, legend has it that, "for many kings' reigns past [Kilauea had been] throwing up, with violent explosion, hugh rocks or red-hot stones." The ancient Hawaiians described a battle between the Volcano Goddess, Pele, and her erstwhile lover, the Pig God Kamapua'a. This long fought battle ended with Pele driving Kamapua'a into the sea where "she followed him with thunder, lightning, and showers of large stones." This legend may be based upon true geological events in the history of the island. Modern geologists have confirmed that surface deposits around Kilauea's caldera indicate a series of explosions lasted from about 1500 AD to 1790 AD, when members of a warring band were killed in the last major explosion of the series.
Kilauea was formed between 300,000 and 600,000 years ago and has been active ever since, with no prolonged periods of quiescence. Geologic studies of the surface and examination or drill hole samples, show that Kilauea is mostly lava flows intermixed with deposits from explosive eruptions. Geologists believe the last 200 years provide an accurate template for Kilauea's growth since it emerged from the sea some 50,000 to 100,000 years ago. Although Kilauea can be called an explosive volcano, most of its eruptions produce lava flows and fountains, so the explosive nature of the volcano tends to be overlooked.
Contrary to popular opinion, the most dangerous single event related to a volcano is not an eruption, but an earthquake. The sudden release of pressure that triggers lava flows and eruptions can create significant tremors along the fault lines. Movements in the fault area can redirect lava flows into populated areas or weaken the roof of the lava tubes to create large lava fountains. The possibility of a violent upheaval of molten lava or fracture of a large portion of the delta plain is a lingering possibility. The existence of two large rift zones provides ample opportunity for Kilauea to continue its ancient growth.
Historically, Kilauea has erupted from three main areas, its summit and two rift zones. The caldera at the summit is a relatively recent feature of the past few thousand years and has come and gone throughout the life of Kilauea. Since eruptions are more frequent on the summit than at any other single location on the volcano, the caldera remains the highest point. Statistically, more eruptions interspersed along the rift zones, creating ridges of lower elevation than the summit. Eruptions along the east and southwest rift zones have built ridges reaching outward from the summit almost 125 km. Kilauea's relatively gentle eruptions have sent lava flows downslope to gradually sculpt its gentle, shield-like form. If the future of Kilauea continues much like its past, the U.S. Geological Survey Hawaiian Volcano Observatory (HVO) mission to monitor the volcanoes of Hawaii will become increasingly important. The escalating geological processes associated with eruptive and seismic activities must be monitored to inform the public of the potential geologic hazards associated with these volcanoes.
Our trip to the HVO must have been much like Mark Twain's time with the geologist at Kilauea. He has been quoted as saying, "The only people that like the smell of sulfur are sinners and geologists." It was as true then as it is now. To learn more about volcanoes and earthquakes, visit the HVO's website at wwwhvo.wr.usgs.gov.
Class of 1997-1998 -- Seattle, Washingto
Weyerhaeuser Forest Products
Bright and early Monday morning, we boarded a van and headed for the Weyerhaeuser Technology Center for a breakfast hosted by Mr. Hank Montrey, Vice President of Corporate Research. Weyerhaeuser, an international forest products company, is the largest private owner of merchantable softwood timber, the largest producer of softwood lumber and market pulp, and the largest forest products exporter. Weyerhaeuser is also one of the largest recyclers of office wastepaper, newspaper and corrugated boxes. Briefings on Weyerhaeuser's integrated activities, which include forestry management, conservation methods, ecosystems management, recycling, and total quality management, were made by Mr. Montrey and other members of the management team. The values of the company focus on customers, people, accountability, and citizenship.
We were taken on a tour of the Analytical Laboratories at the Technology Center; where 25,000 samples of water, plant soil, and/or animal tissue are tested per year. We were given an overview of Weyerhaeuser's interbreeding and natural variation approaches in order to produce seeds for the "very best" conifers. A tour of the in-house woodshop where testing and pilot manufacturing is conducted was also provided.
We left the Technology Center and headed south to the Mima Nursery. We learned how Weyerhaeuser grows seedlings to plant on its land and to sell to outside customers. The day continued with a trip to Headquarters Camp to see the forests at various stages of growth. Weyerhaeuser harvests one forty-fifth or two percent of its land base each year to source its manufacturing facilities. We were given an overview and tour of Weyerhaeuser's reforestation and ecosystem management techniques. In addition, we toured Weyerhaeuser's new visitor center at Mount St. Helens. We saw the beginning of new plant and animal life evolving since the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption and massive destruction. We got to see the results of Weyerhaeuser's 18.4 million seedling regeneration effort within its 68,000 acres of wasted forest in this area.
Our first day was educational as well as enlightening on the variety of scientific and technological approaches used by Weyerhaeuser to help them achieve their vision of being "The Best Forest Products Company in the World."
University of Washington
On Tuesday morning, Dr. Nathan Mantua, Research Scientist, in the University of Washington (UW) Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Oceans (JISAO), greeted us. Dr. Mantua presented some very interesting data from a study conducted by the JISAO for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The study focuses on the potential utility of climate forecasts for water resources management in the Columbia River Basin. The Columbia River supports many economic, social and cultural activities in the Pacific Northwest including hydropower, fisheries, recreation, and agriculture. The streamflow, upon which these activities are dependent, is highly variable from year to year. Approximately 40 percent of the streamflow variability correlates closely with patterns in the El Nino Southern Oscillation phenomenon (ENSO). Dr. Mantua explained that these close connections between climate variability and water resources in the Columbia River Basin offer the potential benefit for improved management of the resources. Yet, many barriers exist to policy makers and managers in applying the information gleaned from climate forecasts to the region's management policies. The JISAO is attempting to clarify the use of climate forecasts to improve planning and management of the vital resources of the Columbia River Basin.
Dr. Craig Weaver, Regional Coordinator of the U.S. Geological Survey Earthquake Hazards Program and William Steele, UW Geophysics Seismology Lab Coordinator, provided an excellent presentation on the geologically active Pacific Northwest region. About 75 miles off the coast, on the floor of the Pacific Ocean, is a major fault (subduction) zone where two plates of the Earth's crust meet. Along the plates where they collide, hot materials rise to the surface to build the volcanoes of the Cascades Range, including Mount Hood and Mount St. Helens. The Pacific Northwest has a history of great earthquakes (magnitude eight or larger) and of the tsunamis generated by them. The most recent of these earthquakes; however, predates the Lewis and Clark expedition by about a century. Only since 1980 have scientists been able to assemble overwhelming evidence that the Cascadia Subduction zone has produced great earthquakes in the past. Dr. Weaver and Mr. Steele presented research from studies of the coastal geology of buried marsh and forests indicating when the earthquakes last occurred. The research also indicates that hundreds of years can elapse between great earthquakes in Western Washington.
Ms. Suzanne Weghorst, Assistant Director of Research for the Human Interface Technology Lab (HITL), provided a tour and demonstrated some of HITL's fascinating projects. The Human Interface Technology Laboratory is a research and development lab in virtual interface technology. It was established in 1989 to transform virtual environment concepts and early virtual reality research into practical products and services. HITL research projects include interface hardware, virtual environments software, and human factors engineering. Our first stop included a virtual reality experience in the Laboratory for Integrated Medical Interface Technology. Inside the virtual "emergency room", doctors and other medical personnel can grab data objects and place then anywhere in the space. The purpose of the research is to explore the design of medical interfaces for the future. We also saw the Virtual Retinal Display Project, which is based on the concept of scanning an image directly on the retina of the viewer's eye. The program's purpose is to produce a wide field-of-view and low-cost stereo display in a package comparable in size to conventional eyeglasses.
Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center
Our visit to the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center (the "Hutch"), started with a brief history and overview presented by Ms. Annie Beringer. The Hutch currently employs 2,200 people and has an operating budget of $170 million. About 60 percent of this comes from grants and contracts; the remainder comes from patients or their insurance companies.
The Hutch is composed of four scientific divisions (basic research, clinical research, molecular medicine, and public health sciences) and one operating division. The Hutch is renown for its bone marrow and stem cell transplantation clinical research programs. In these programs, patients are first treated with doses of radiation or chemotherapy sufficient to destroy their bone marrow and then "rescued" by the transplantation of healthy bone marrow or stem cells. All patients are under some experimental protocol, either in the treatment modality or in the management of the transplant.
Ms. Catherine Hennings briefed us on the technology transfer program of the Hutch. Technology transfer is the transfer of intellectual rights (patents) from the developer to another entity for commercial application. The Hutch, like other research facilities, looks to technology transfer both as a source of income for the facility and a means of disseminating the results of their research. Companies want new drugs, diagnostics, and research tools. Current trends in technology transfer are more complex licensing agreements, greater appreciation of the value of equity, and more cooperation with the local biotech industry. Current challenges in technology transfer are the need to recognize that technology is not products, that biotech is a tough business, that rewards are long-term, that relationships require efforts to maintain, and that conflict and litigation are inevitable.
Dr. Robert Witherspoon next introduced us to the clinical research program of the Hutch. He used marrow and stem cell transplant research to illustrate the research process. Marrow and stem cell transplant research requires investigations into human lymphocyte antigen typing, immunology (including infections, rejection, and gastrointestinal diseases), transplant biology (graft versus host disease, factors mediating acceptance or rejection of grafts, and factors causing graft versus leukemia reaction), pulmonary diseases, and detection methods for residual diseases.
After Dr. Witherspoon, Mr. Jonathan Patten, a contracting specialist with the Hutch, discussed issues involved with managed care funding and its clinical implications. As grants have decreased in number and magnitude relative to the need, the Hutch has turned to payer funding to support clinical research. One problem with this approach is that because insurance companies will only pay for proven effective treatments, it is difficult to initiate new protocols. Another is the financing trend over recent years, in which insurance payments have gone from full cost to managed payment to contract cost per transplant. The latter puts financial responsibility on developing cost controls on the provider, here the Hutch.
Our final speaker was Dr. Helmut Zarbl, an associate member of the Hutch. He discussed why some people are at high risk for developing cancer and some are not. Cancers can be divided into childhood cancers, which are predominately genetic, and adult cancers. The latter arise by a process that involves many risk factors. These include non-environmental factors, such as age, heredity, and organ turnover, and environmental factors, such as chemicals, electromagnetic and ionizing radiation, viruses, diet, and smoking. The most important inherited factors are the presence or absence of tumor suppressor genes and DNA repair genes, over which we have no control. Dr. Zarbl ended by noting that all cancers have age distributions, with the peaks of most occurring around age 55 to 60.
We left the Hutch with a better understanding of the many complex factors involved in running a modern medical research facility.
Washington State Major League Baseball Stadium Public Facilities District
Wednesday morning brought us another beautiful, sunny day in Seattle. It was perfect weather to visit the construction site for the new Major League Baseball Stadium being built just south of the existing Kingdome. We arrived at the Public Facilities District office right next to the stadium site where hundreds of workers were constructing a magnificent structure scheduled to open after the All-Star game break in July 1999. Ms. Meg McNeil was the host for our visit in which we were presented several briefings and toured the ballpark and the facility where a key part of the retractable canopy is being made.
Mr. Dennis Forsyth, the Project Manager, gave us an overview of the project. The stadium budget is $417 million and the Seattle Mariners have signed a 20-year lease and contributed $45 million to the stadium construction. The Mariners will have exclusive rights to the use of the stadium. Stadium construction started on March 8, 1997. Some of the challenges faced during the planning included dealing with a low water table, which prevented sinking the field more than five feet below ground, transitioning between the Pioneer Square historic district and the industrial area, and bordering two major railroad lines, which have 80 trains transiting daily.
The stadium will seat 45,000 fans and have 68 private suites, which will cost from $80,000 to $120,000 to lease each year. The suite owners will have a private parking garage and covered walkway entrance to the suite level. The most amazing feature of the stadium will be the retractable canopy that will keep the rain out, but will not seal the stadium from the outside. Extensive study of the Seattle weather concluded that up to 30 percent of the games would be rained out without a canopy.
Mr. Kurt Nordquist, Vice President of Skilling Ward Magnusson Barkshire, is the stadium structural engineer. He provided us with a detailed briefing of the entire canopy system. The canopy is designed as a linear, vice curved, system. Using tracks at the north and south end of the stadium, a three-panel roof was designed so that the rain could be kept out, but the wind would not. The roof could be opened or closed in ten minutes. When stored, the roof will sit over the railroad tracks past the right field fence.
A unique challenge to the engineers was dealing with the fact that the stadium is being constructed on a major earthquake fault, increasing the total cost of the project by 25 percent. Mr. Nordquist used a computer animation to demonstrate how the canopy structure would respond to being struck by a major earthquake. The swaying of the roof was quite impressive, the keys to absorbing the force of the quake are the viscous dampers placed on each of the trusses. The dampers are 18 inches in diameter and each can absorb a force of 1.6 million pounds. These dampers improve the natural dampening of the structure by 30 percent and are key to avoiding a collapse in the event of an earthquake.
Eight rather large wheel assemblies sitting on the tracks at the north and south ends of the stadium move the canopy. Mr. Neil Skogland, the President of Ederer, Incorporated, gave us a tour. His company specializes in projects that are "big and bad". Ederer, Incorporated is responsible for the manufacturing of the wheel assemblies for the new stadium. We were able to view and touch the assemblies as they were nearing delivery to the stadium site.
The overall visit to the stadium was quite enjoyable and gave us one more reason to plan for a ComSci reunion in Seattle after the Mariners have moved into the stadium.
Port of Seattle
Mr. Thaddeus Jackson provided us with a high-energy, enthusiastic, and in-depth tour of the Port of Seattle. The Port of Seattle is on a natural harbor in Puget Sound, carved out by glaciers to depths of 900 feet. A second natural feature, the water temperature range of only 45 to 48 degrees, allows Seattle to remain open year round. The Port is a public enterprise overseen by five elected commissioners. The Port is required to support itself and its expansions. It is managing to do so using both income and public monies, such as superfund allotments. Current expansions include a new runway at the airport and an overpass to improve truck access to the docks.
The work of the Port of Seattle encompasses management of the Seattle-Tacoma Airport, as well as the many functions of the Port. Only 325 employees work for the Port. The majority of the seaport functions are contracted to private companies or negotiated with labor unions. Other property, such as a pier, is leased to a private company.
A pervasive feature of the Port Headquarters is its art collection. The collection results from gifts from sister and other friendly world ports. The Port charter requires that they spend one percent of their income to acquire American art. The Port Headquarters, which was converted from a warehouse, utilizes fountains, aesthetically and functionally, to muffle sound in the enormous warehouse space.
The functions of the seaport include grain storage, chilled fruit warehouses, ferry, cruise ship, and fishing terminals, shorefront real estate acquisition and development, and leasing of property. The most impressive part of the Port's work is management of the enormous cranes that load the ships. In 1997, they handled one million containers. In 1998, they expect to handle two million.
Boeing, Incorporated
Thursday began with a drive south of Seattle to Auburn to visit the Fabrication Division of the Boeing Commercial Airplane Group. Ms. Rose Rossi, our host, greeted us there. Mr. Philip Kelly, Vice President and General Manager, Fabrication Division, provided us a brief overview of the Division. He introduced us to Mr. Leonard Brown, Manager, Machine Fabrication, who gave us an extremely enthusiastic tour of the Composite Structure Manufacturing Facility.
Boeing is attempting to become more of a world company. They are expanding from building planes to providing the configuration management for their customers. The philosophy in the Fabrication Division has changed to utilize the input from the workers in the design and construction of parts for planes. All of the employees are involved in controlling costs. Profits are shared with the employees through stock value. Mr. Brown provided us a tour of the manufacturing area for wing and landing gear parts. He provided us with numerous examples of improvements in the manufacturing process and opportunities to see up close how the parts are created using various machines.
We then boarded the van for an hour-long ride north to Everett. We were given a guided tour of the Assembly Plant for the wide body planes -- the 747, 767, and 777. This facility covers nearly 100 acres. Mr. David Anderson, Large Airplane Preliminary Design, provided an overview of each plane, including details on plane capacities and takeoff weights. Boeing is responsible for building the entire plane, except for the interior and the engines. The engines are provided by the airlines and installed at the end of the assembly line. The interiors are installed after delivery. The factory delivers a total of 16 planes per month. Mr. Anderson narrated a video showing the entire process of assembling a 767 condensed into two minutes. The typical plane is assembled within five months of the order. Our tour included riding golf carts throughout the facility. We were able to see each wide body plane at each of the various stages of assembly.
Our final stop of the day was the Boeing Developmental Center in Seattle. We were treated to several speakers. First, Mr. Mickey Michellich, Vice President, ISDS, Information and Communications, gave us an overview of the Boeing Company. Boeing is the world's largest commercial manufacturer of aircraft, employing 230,000 people. Sales in 1997 were $45.8 billion, 60 percent of which was commercial and 40 percent for information, space, and defense.
Next, Mr. Ken Kissell, Director, ISDS, provided us with a briefing on the converging of government and commercial environments. He discussed the fact that the U.S. defense budget is now the smallest part of the Gross Domestic Product in history. Boeing must move into the commercial market and is targeting the global telecommunications market. The incredible increases in data transfer rates will provide great opportunities for Boeing. Specific areas that Boeing is working include: Global Positioning System, Digital Xpress, Teledesic (288 satellites providing bandwidth on demand), Aviation Information Services, and Resource21 (earth imaging).
Mr. Michael Smith, Director, Major Programs, Space Transportation, briefed us on the International Space Station. This U.S./Russia joint effort will become permanently manned in January 1999. The Russians and the Americans are building independent sections which are joined at an interface. The first cargo will be brought up in July 1998.
Mr. Mike Foley, Manager, Fighter Programs, spoke about the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF). This next-generation plan must be affordable, lethal, supportable, and survivable. The same plane, with slight variation, will be built for the Air Force, Navy, and Marines. Demonstration of the JSF will be completed by 2001, with final procurement decisions to follow.
Mr. Karl Kaseburg briefed us about the Information Systems support being provided to over 100,000 employees. The constantly evolving make-up of the aerospace business, and Boeing specifically, creates quite a challenge for integrating the information systems at Boeing.
Following our briefing on ISDS Information Systems, Mr. David Model, Manager, Modeling and Simulation, provided a tour of the Integrated Technology Development Laboratory where we were able to view the development of various systems at Boeing. Of particular note was the demonstration of a flight simulator.
Our day at Boeing wrapped up with a visit to the Museum of Flight. We were able to see exhibits of historic airplanes and demonstrations of how technology improvements have improved air travel.
NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory and NOAA Forecast Office
On Friday morning, we visited the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL) and NOAA's National Weather Service (NWS) Seattle Field Office. First, we met with the Director of PMEL, Dr. Eddie Bernard.
Dr. Bernard provided an overview of PMEL. He described two recent news worthy events in which PMEL has played a significant role. The first event was El Nino. Dr. Bernard used the PMEL Web Homepage to illustrate what El Nino was and how they played a part in predicting it. PMEL first started researching El Nino in about 1978 when they installed the first buoy in the Eastern Pacific. It took almost five years to learn how to install the buoy permanently. They proceeded with a system that totaled 70 buoys, stretching across the Pacific Ocean from Australia to Central America. The buoys provided an array of sensors designed to collect water temperature from the surface to the bottom of the ocean, surface water currents, air temperature, wind speed and wind direction. This data allowed NOAA scientists to predict the upcoming El Nino. All data is downloaded daily and posted on the web homepage allowing access to the information by anyone.
The second event that was not as well publicized was a volcanic sea floor eruption. The use of the Navy's hydrophone system allowed these eruptions to be detected for the first time. The research on these volcanic eruptions is just beginning and may provide new sources for minerals and genetic research. This information will help the Navy filter out noise to better detect submarines. Dr. Bernard finished up by showing us an actual Pacific buoy that will be used in the El Nino array.
Next, we visited NOAA's NWS Seattle Field Office. Mr. Chris Hill provided a briefing on the NWS organization. He described in detail the different forecasts they provide. Television and radio stations rely on NOAA's public forecast. Some of the other forecasts include those for aviation, marine, fire weather and hydrologic forecast. The NWS uses a diverse system to collect data, ranging from commercial airplanes, buoys and ships, balloons, volunteer spotters, radar and vertical doppler radar. Mr. Hill then provided us with a tour of the facility and allowed us to sit in on a weather briefing. He finished the tour by showing us the modeling program that allows them to do special local public forecast for the local area. The NWS is in the midst of updating its computer technology for better modeling capability. He concluded by showing us imagery both in the infrared and the visible wavelengths, explaining how they can use this information to help predict the weather.
Microsoft Corporation
Friday afternoon brought us to the Microsoft Executive Briefing Center. Our first speaker was Mr. Paul Maritz, Vice President of Applications and Platforms. His division employs 8,000 of the 25,000 Microsoft employees and is responsible for the development of Windows, Windows 98, and the application software for the Windows operating environment.
After the description of the company, he proceeded to have a free form dialogue with us. He discussed upcoming technology and trends in the consumer marketplace. Some of the technology of note included increasing the speed and reducing the cost of the processors. The trends in the consumer marketplace include non-PC applications, including handheld devices, car mounted devices, and television connected devices. An example of the television based system would be Web TV.
Mr. Maritz concluded with challenges facing the computer industry. One of the biggest challenges is to drive down the cost of ownership. This includes both personal and business computers. Maintenance, upgrade cost and personnel cost can be as much as $4,000 to $8,000 a year per PC in an organization using business computers. For personal computers, the initial cost is the barrier. That is one of the reasons why Web TV could become a big player, because it reduces the cost to several hundred dollars for ownership. Another challenge is trying to develop other means of interfacing with the computer. He discussed the potential of voice recognition and how this would allow more people to adapt to the computer environment.
The program manager for Web TV, Mr. Steven Guggenheimer, provided us with a hands-on demonstration of Web TV. He showed us how one could be using the Internet and still have the capability to record or view a television show. The system itself will be a power mini-computer with the capability to download and record large amounts of programming. This will become more practical after the transition to Digital TV. Mr. Guggenheimer explained some of the interfaces and specifications for the transmission of Digital TV. He expressed a concern that some of the major broadcasters were not using the same format and that no standard had been agreed upon. In his opinion, this could create some troubles in the future expansion of Digital TV. He felt that Digital TV and Web TV had possible applications in schools, libraries, offices and homes.
We finished the day with a tour of the facility that houses the network for Microsoft's worldwide operations. The facility includes its own power plant and has connections in 66 countries with over 100,000 nodes. The network system is also where all new products are tested before production. Just recently, they started a conversion, migrating their network from a VAX mainframe to an NT run PC system. This conversion will allow them to reduce cost at the same time as increasing the speed of the network. This would still take at least another two years to complete. The network will be operated from a number of sites worldwide, providing redundancy to guarantee data protection.
The entire tour of the Microsoft Campus was very impressive. The people that briefed us were very gracious and reflected a casual work environment.
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