Newsletter of the International Task Force On Land Degradation

September 1997, No. 2

Contents

LETTER FROM THE EDITOR

A recent article in Nature⁽¹⁾ attempts to estimate the annual value of the services that Earth's ecosystems provide. Though the words economics and ecology share a common root, yet for many years their practitioners had little to do with each other. This is perhaps the basic problem of us, the earth scientists, who have feared to quantitatively and monetarily evaluate soil resources. Costanza et al. argue rightly that the services of ecological systems and the natural capital stocks that produce them are critical to the functioning of the Earth's life-support system. They have been brave enough to estimate this value and indicate that the current economic value of 17 ecosystem services of 16 biomes is in the range of US$ 16-54 trillion per year. The value of the global gross national product is around US$ 18 trillion per year. The numbers are mind boggling but I suspect that the magnitudes are real.

If we accept this, then are we killing the goose (land resources) that has been laying the golden eggs (land based services) through mismanaging the land. We must start to talk about land degradation in these economic terms and develop good databases to support our cause. We have been Pedologists too long and perhaps it is time to reorient our actions towards implementation. Soil scientists define Soil Quality as the ability of the soil to perform certain functions such as manage water and nutrients etc. This is a good definition but it is good only for soil scientists. o be useful, we should define Soil Quality as the ability of soils to provide goods and services. This attaches an economic value to soils by which we can compare one soil to another, we can use it to determine the changes that may take place with time, and we can determine the best use of the soil given the different options that are available. The value of the soil is one component required to determine the value of the ecosystem. If sustainable agriculture is preserving, protecting and/or enhancing the quality of the resource base, then we need a value factor to measure sustainability.

Have we ever valued soil? Some of us may have relative measures but generally in capitalistic societies, market forces determine or at least place a nominal value for a soil. I never paid serious attention to the question until recently, when I was in Bulgaria and was asked this question. In a centrally controlled economy, as was Bulgaria, value for land was perhaps not necessary as land belonged to the State. However, with privatization, the question becomes critical. With no market economy yet to have a handle on relative values, is their another basis for making this value judgment? How can soil maps and soil surveys provide assistance? Is soil quality a basis for this kind of assessment and if so, is there sufficient information on soil quality to enable these countries to make the assessments? These are real questions which we soil scientists must wake up to and help provide answers.

What does all these got to do with land degradation? A whole lot!. If we do not know how to value the land, we do not know if it is degrading or aggrading or sitting still. If we do not know how to differentiate between lands we cannot provide an estimate of the relative rates of degradation and we will have a lesser appreciation of their resilience. Regretfully, this is the status quo today. Soil science literature is saturated with papers on land degradation and there are also estimates of human-induced land degradation. How real are these numbers? They are perhaps real because the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) frequently cite these numbers to obtain more funds to address these problems.

Over the last year or so, I conducted a totally unscientific poll on knowledge of land degradation. Whenever I was in the field, with persons of long experience and experts on soils, I posed the question, "is this soil degraded?" This was followed-up with, is it natural or human induced degradation and also at what rate is the soil degrading. The experience is usually exasperating. One quickly finds that there is usually no basis or weak justification for the observations, there are no investigations and so no data, and that the state of the knowledge is theoretical ­ what is written by established gurus of soil science. It is time to be more down-to-earth.

This is indeed a sad situation. The society has finally become aware of the environment. Politicians are willing to address this issue. The international community is willing to invest in some of these activities. But the soil scientists are not meeting the challenge. Or, are we? Write to us and give us your opinion. We are interested to hear from you on:

Can you or your institute confidently make a soil degradation map of your country?

Do you have estimates of rates of degradation?

Do you know the resilience capacity of your soils - at what rate and to what extent will they revert to their initial levels of production?

What is the value of the land in your country? Is it important to know this? Does the value change with degradation and how do you establish this?

How do you assess soil quality? Is there a need for an internationally accepted unified system of soil quality assessment?

Are these areas where training will help? What specific aspects of land degradation will a training course contribute to?

While we are worrying about soils on earth, the intelligent rover of Pathfinder was looking at soils on the Red Planet ­ Mars. Watching the images from Mars reminded me of my many treks on the deserts of the world. NASA scientists suggest that there may have been water on Mars and the landscape which Pathfinder recorded was developed by torrential flow. What happened to the water? Was there desertification on Mars and what triggered that?

The International Task Force on Land Degradation of the ISSS (i.e., us) has been working slowly due to the fact that we have been hampered by our inability to obtain any funds to support our work. The international organisations such as FAO, UNDP, UNEP etc., do not even acknowledge our letters. They are all involved in global problems such as desertification and sustainable development and perhaps in their view, what we are doing is trivial and unimportant. We are indeed very grateful to many of the Turkish institutions (specifically Çukurova University) and the British Council who funded this Newsletter. We will keep prodding and we need your support. One way you can support us is to contribute to this Newsletter by submitting articles. The reader will note that the 1^st and this Newsletter is heavy with articles by Task Force Committee Members. We want to change this by having contributions from you.

The Task Force has a temporary Web site, now housed at the web site of USDA NRCS. You can access us at, "http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/". Once you have accessed us, you can save it in your bookmark so that you can reach us any time. The plans for the 2^nd Workshop are well under way and the Thais are doing a great job in making the preparations. The Task Force is working with them to develop the program. They have produced a first brochure (write to them to get a copy; see their announcement in this issue). We are also making some progress in obtaining funds to develop the monograph, "Guidelines for land degradation assessment". The British Council has indicated that it will provide some assistance. Once, this activity comes on line, we will need your assistance.

In this second issue of the Newsletter, we have decided to include a Lead Paper. The paper is of general interest and of course related to the functions of the Task Force. In future issues, we would like to continue with this approach and we welcome your published papers to be considered for inclusion here. If you send us a paper, please include a floppy disc with the text using Microsoft Word or Word Perfect. Finally, if you have something to say on land degradation or related subjects and want it said in this Newsletter, send it to us by the end of January 1998. Keep visiting the web site for more information. Soon we hope to set up a dedicated web site for the Task Force.

We like to leave you with the following anecdote and hope it will help you to work with us. Many years ago, a shoe company sent two of their salespersons to a country to look for opportunities for the business. Some time later, they cabled back their boss. One said, "No business here . Natives don't wear shoes". The other said, "Great opportunity here . Natives don't wear shoes".

LEAD PAPER

OPPORTUNITIES FOR SOIL SCIENCE IN A MILIEU OF REDUCED FUNDS⁽²⁾

In the last two decades a dramatic change has taken place in our thinking about research and development for agriculture in general and utilisation of the natural resources in particular. Slowly but certainly, even in the poorer third world countries, there is an increasing awareness for ecosystem health, maintaining the quality of the environment, and rates of resource consumption. In many countries, most dramatically in the affluent countries of the world, national priorities for environmental management are in place and donor countries that provided assistance to the developing world are requiring that this is sine que non for development assistance. The rationale for this is that environmental transcends national boundaries coupled to the less convincing but valid argument that environment and quality of life are inter-linked. The concept of sustainable development initiated by the Bruntlandt Commission (WCED, 1987) and amplified by agenda 21 promulgated by the United Nations Conference for Environment and Development (UNCED, 1992) have been the driving force in the new attitudes.

Research funds in virtually all science disciplines are now scarce, and becoming scarcer. Koshland (1990) eloquently described that cries of alarm will not translate into an increase in funding without concerted action on the part of scientists. In his view, Koshland indicated that the world needs major expansion of investigator-initiated science, as in the past, to open new frontiers. First, we need to find out how science can contribute to make the world a better place, and then organize the scientific efforts to carry out the task. We need to build our research strategies toward solving problems, and persuade the decision-making bodies, or the public at large, to invest money in research. We must provide the rationale, and not allow the funding agencies to dictate research topics from top to bottom (Hillel 1993).

Some observers believe that all or most applied research should be funded by industry. Cerf (1996) suggests that this cannot be in the context of Wall Street thirst for quarterly profit. Support for applied and basic research is one of the most highly leveraged investments that any government can make. The fact that all developed countries are not only self sufficient in agriculture but have also surpluses for export and further, in addition to significant increases in productivity there has also been a similar enhancement in the quality of the produce, testifies to the role and impact of well funded and coordinated research.

Soil science is one of the basic sciences that provide the above mentioned enviable progress in food security. The accomplishments of plant breeders and bio-technologists have been lauded in contributing to the impressive increases in crop performance. The role of soil scientists, on the other hand, is frequently not recognized, despite the fact that they have had a small but significant contribution to the achievements. Part of the reason is due to the fact that the role of soil management technology is not obvious and perhaps also due to the fact that soil scientists have not been successful in glorifying their contributions. With the greater awareness to address the environment and the notions of sustainable agriculture, there is a thrust to make agriculture more environmentally friendly. Soil scientists who take up this challenge and make the paradigm shift in research and development are beginning to see the rewards of their approach. However, traditional approaches are well ingrained and changes in mind-set and research approaches have not taken place to the desired extend to respond to the new needs. In a few cases, this has resulted in frustration and disillusionment.

In this article, some of the more significant problems in soil science are reviewed, as part of the process of meeting the current challenges and inviting readers to respond. Three recent publications address some of these issues and explore opportunities : 1) A special issue published by the journal, Soil Science (1991), 2) Opportunities in basic soil science research (Sposito and Reginato, 1992), and 3) The role of Soil Science in interdisciplinary research (Wagenet et al. 1995). As indicated by Rose (1981) we should not selectively ignore vital aspects and concentrate on only one or a few simple features in science, as if those were the whole. This is a formula for failure.

Role of Soil Science

Soils are among the most significant group of natural resources on earth. As early as 1862 Friedrich Albert Fallon wrote (Sparks 1988) that "there is nothing in the whole nature which is more important or deserves much attention as the soil. Truly it is the soil which makes the world a friendly environment for mankind. It is the soil which nourishes and provides for the whole of nature, the whole of creation depends on the soil which is the ultimate foundation of our existence". In a similar vein, Professor J. H. Ellis, in a report entitled "The Soils of Manitoba", wrote that "the soil, formed by life, continues as the supporter of life" (Ellis, 1938).

Despite the fact that soils are an important component of the environment, the attention given to soils from the viewpoint of research and development funds, does not match its significance. There is an apparent perception that much is already known about soils and that generalisations made for one site are applicable everywhere. There is also a failure to recognize that agriculture is one of the major 'stressors" of environment and if this attitude prevails, we will have major catastrophes in the near future.

Hunger and malnutrition and the deterioration of the environment are the two important international problems that mankind faces today (Brady, 1990). Several proposals were made during the 15th World Congress of Soil Science, in Acapulco, Mexico, July 1994 (Bouma, 1994a), clearly reminding us that soil science has a crucial role in developing sustainable land management systems for food production. The current focus on agricultural production needs to be broadened to include research on food security (including a clean and healthy food), ecosystems (to understand the role of soils in ecological processes), soil quality in relation to water quality, land use and soil degradation ( Moss, 1959; Miller, 1993). As guardians of the soil, soil scientists are uniquely placed to participate in environmental programs and specifically those that deal with land degradation. One commendable international effort is that under the International Geosphere Biosphere Program (Roots, 1994) of the International Council of Scientific Unions.

Integrating the Science

The tendency to become highly specialized with sub-disciplines, such as soil biology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, pedology and so on (Wild, 1989) is tempting and is a necessary process in the development of the science. However, integrating the different components and synthesizing the information for consumption by users, particularly decision makers, is equally important and is also a science. Explaining a process or phenomenon is frequently considered as the endpoint of most sciences. As our science is ultimately linked to use and management of the soil resource, the end point of soil science research is attained when the research findings are translated into policy options. This requirement demands different skills, most important of which is the ability to integrate information and communicate this in a non-technical manner to end-users. In most university curricula there is insufficient or few opportunities to be trained in this area.

We should all be holistic at heart and in perspective, even though developments in science require some degree of specialization. Gardner, (1991) suggests that we are not effectively weaving the different sub-disciplines together, and that more attention must be given to this integration. There is a strong need to promote such interdisciplinary efforts commencing with a better grounding on the fundamentals (chemistry, physics, biology, geology, and mathematics), as suggested by Warkentin (1992) and Gardner (1993). The training should emphasize the ecological context of soils, not only the landscape approach to soil genesis and evolution but also the ecosystem approach to soil use and management.

A major paradigm shift will be to change the emphasis from the farm and farmer to the ecosystem or a unit of the ecosystem (water-shed) in technical assistance and technology transfer activities. This does not imply that the farmer and his farm are no more important, but recognizes the fact that the farm is an integral part of the ecosystem and the farmer and society is better served if agriculture is viewed in the context of the system. The same notion may be extended to regional and eventually the global context as environment has no national borders. To be effective, it requires many disciplines talking to each other (Barinaga, 1994); to have a successful agricultural program requires full participation of the stakeholders.

Issues and Challenges

Development of new agricultural technologies and a better appreciation of the existing but underutilized knowledge of resource management will be crucial in meeting the ecological needs and in achieving the anticipated food demands of the growing population in the future. The greatest challenge for the coming decades lies in the fact that the production environment is unstable and degrading and the balance between intensive and extensive agriculture is precarious. Experience over the past 20 years has shown that mismatch between crop production methods and resource characteristics has led to decline in soil fertility, increased soil losses, disturbed hydrological balance, and a buildup of pests and diseases. The sustainability of agriculture in developing countries and particularly under-stressed semi-arid environments is thus under a serious threat.

The issues of sustainability are well enunciated in the countless publications and meetings held globally and, thus, there is a general understanding (and some misunderstanding) of the challenges. The generic causes of unsustainability and the difficulties of implementing programs to institute sustainability are also well debated. There is, however, a significant knowledge gap in rates and magnitudes of degradation resulting in the stresses and consequently early warning indicators for mitigating the stresses so as to prevent their onset, are hampered. Sustainability requires a holistic approach to agriculture: one that consider both temporal and spatial variations. This then demands information and knowledge of rates and magnitudes of degradation processes, along with indicators and threshold values for not only impending collapse of system but also for diagnosis of system impairment; the response of the system to ameliorating measures; and the resource specific technologies required to halt or reverse the unsustainability trends. The following is an elaboration of the areas where soil science has and should play an important role in meeting these challenges.

Land Degradation

The FAO/UNESCO/UNEP 'Global Assessment of Soil Degradation' provides data, albeit somewhat subjective, to quantify the current magnitude of soil degradation problem and there are other analyses on these and other aspects of environmental degradation. Although the underlying causes of land/water degradation are socio-economic, changes to these factors will not automatically restore productivity of the biophysical resource base, if it is not maintained. Thus, critical importance attaches to soil and water management to ensure that production of food, fuel and fiber can be sustained and the environment protected. Efforts to restore productivity to these lands must be coupled with efforts to recognize productive capacity of all soil resources and the ability to flag all stresses before productivity is significantly impaired.

Causes for stressed systems are numerous and include removal of nutrients, development of acidity, salinization, alkalinization, destruction of soil structure, accelerated wind and water erosion, and loss of organic matter. In some regions of the world, the combination of some or all of these, results in such degradation that the term desertification is popularly used to describe these regions. Finally, it must be appreciated that there is an important interaction of the causes of degradation. Erosion, for example, may be flagged as the major problem, whereas chemical degradation of the soil prevents establishment of vegetation and hence the ability of the soil to stabilize against erosion. In this example, lack of appropriate vegetation becomes an early warning indicator. Very few studies have been conducted on this linkage between factors, and there is an urgent need to look into this.

Land degradation, either natural or induced by humans, is an important concern affecting the wealth of nations, food security, and is impacting the livelihood of almost every person on this earth (Eswaran and Beinroth, 1996). AGENDA 21 of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, 1992) emphasizes the need to and proposes a wide range of activities to address land degradation in general and desertification in particular. Although much has been said and written about land degradation there is still much conjecture about the information due to the fact that few countries have really developed the techniques to measure degradation and subsequently develop spatial or other databases which enables the quantification of the process. Some of the immediate needs include:

Improved procedures to address degradation at different scales-global, national, and local,

evaluation of resilience capacities of land and methods to implement the concept, and

development of indicators of land degradation for use at all planning levels.

From an agricultural standpoint of view, land use is a major cause of declining soil quality. Many countries around the world, due to population pressure, are stressing their limited land resources. It should be emphasized that, land degradation is not only merely an agricultural problem but has ramifications in all aspects of society. Food security is directly related to the ability of land to support the population. A recent International Conference organized in Adana, Turkey (June 10-14' 1996), expressed the need to evaluate the science of land degradation. This was in response to the very high amounts of donor funds allocated to address desertification without adequate information of the kinds, degree, and extent of the degradation problem prevailing in the country. In some instances, as the causes of degradation are not well appreciated, corrective measures through such bi-lateral projects have minimal impact.

Land degradation science is the domain of soil scientists. However, the processes are human induced and consequently social sciences and the understanding of socioeconomic factors causing the degradation is an important factor in developing mitigating technologies. There are also examples of situations where poor land use policies have accelerated erosion and decline in quality of the soil. Land degradation science is, thus, an excellent example of the need to integrate, not only sub-disciplines of soil science but also other disciplines including the policy arena. However, to enable land users and policy makers to pay more attention to land degradation, it is necessary to make assessments on the monetary value of degradation (Eswaran and Dumanski, 1994). Soil scientists have traditionally shunned away from the economics of their technology and this has to change.

Soil Quality and Sustainable Agriculture

Soil quality has been difficult to define and quantify (Doran et al. 1994). Soil quality may be considered to be the enduring capability of a soil to function effectively within an ecosystem, by accepting, storing and recycling water, energy, and nutrients. Functions of a soil include not only those related to crop productions, but others such as partitioning of precipitation into runoff, stored moisture, and ground water, and acting as environmental buffer (Warkentin, 1994). Concepts such as these may help to bridge the gap separating the more practical, production related concepts of soil health (Acton and Gregorich, 1995) and more broadly based concepts of ecosystem health.

A recent publication, entitled the Health of our Soils, is a comprehensive treatment of the current state of Canada's soil and related resources, and illustrates the work of long-term monitoring, comprehensive assessments and simulation models in that endeavour (Acton and Gregorich, 1995). Pedology has made and will continue to make significant contribution to sustainable land management (Bouma, 1994b; Dumanski et al. 1992).

Agronomy News (1996) has published answers to 57 questions asked by the USA Congressional Agricultural Committee. The article indicates that "the USA Federal Government has the responsibility in managing the nation's natural resources, ensuring an adequate food supply and maintaining the general health and safety of its citizenry". This means clearly that soil scientists now have new opportunities to develop strategies. This is a declaration of society's role as steward of the natural resources and the commitment of society to fund this role. The participation of soil scientists in this challenge is evident and the two major areas in which soil science provides the leadership are:

1. The generation, mobilization and integration of environmental data and process knowledge for scientific land-use planning that takes full advantage of the latest advances in information science, indigenous knowledge, and digital information technology;

2. A shift in research imperatives to future-oriented issues, such as the identification of indices of sustainable land management, and the long term on-site and off-site consequences of agricultural practices.

Environmental Pollution

The majority of pollutants (heavy metals and persistent organic pesticides-POPs) that are added to air, water and land ultimately reaches the soil; some may reach the oceans. Therefore, all environmental studies need fundamental understanding of soil system, from atomic to global levels. The soil science community has made major inroads in this area of research, particularly in collaboration with organic chemists (Sawhney and Brown, 1989). The increasing environmental consciousness and the willingness of society to reduce such pollution and/or fund clean-up activities suggests important funding for research and development activities. The ability of soils to retain, alter, and transmit such pollutants needs quantification and with the variety of pollutants coming on line, there will considerable work to be conducted in this area.

Trace elements, some of which are toxic above the threshold levels, may be added to the soil, inadvertently in chemicals such as fertilizers, or intentionally in the case of land application of sewage sludge. The ultimate fate of these pollutants, and the interactions with the food chains are not well known (Mermut et al. 1996). The current levels of pollutant trace metals have become stressful to a large number of sensitive flora and fauna (Nriagu, 1990). The safety levels are not applicable universally and most of them are valid only for specific sites. It should be realized that soils are dynamic and changes are rapid.

We should look more closely to the development of methods to alter the soil colloidal-behaviour to neutralize the organic pollutants entering the soil system (Boyd and Janes, 1994). The fate of organic wastes, namely degradation, movement to aquatic systems, and their influence on plant health and quality need to be closely studied. We need to develop methods regarding toxic cleanup. Bioremediation appears to be one of the interesting research directions to clean organic and metal pollutants from the soil (Moffat, 1995; Skipper and Turco, 1995).

A large number of methodologies have been made available with respect to treatment of contaminated soils (Noyes Data Corporation, 1991). Success of these technologies depends on how much is known about the soil system and interaction of soil colloids with specific pollutants. The United States budget highlights, as published in the March 22 issue of Science 1996 (p. 1658), show big increases for the Environmental Protection Agency. This may be a good news for soil scientists interested in environmental research.

Carbon - agronomic and environmental significance

Carbon is a basic component of life and has very important functions in the soil. Management of soil organic matter and interaction with minerals and living components of soils are not only important for agriculture, but also for quality of the environment. Though farmers value it, society in general has not been willing to pay for its conservation. We need to determine the monetary value of a unit quantity of soil organic carbon. This will aid considerably not only the development of appropriate sequestration policies but also create the necessary awareness among policy makers regarding the benefits of funding such research.

In the last decade, increasing realization of the CO₂ build-up in the atmosphere and the threat of global warming has instigated society to find means to reduce the atmospheric CO₂ content. One way to overcome this problem is the sequestration of carbon in soils and funds are being released for research with this objective. Mitigation technologies to sequester carbon in soils has beneficial effect in both agronomic and environmental aspects. There is an urgent need to enhance research to increase below-ground biomass and this is an example of a research area with multiple benefits. As a consequence, research on crop residue management is now considered a legitimate research area under the framework of global climate change studies.

The importance of soil carbon in the earth's carbon cycle has involved soil scientists in several climate change reports and discussions. It is important that soil scientists assume their rightful place in research of this kind, working closely with others representing the atmospheric, earth, and biological sciences. If soil scientists do not participate in such work and contribute the soil's component to solve the puzzle, someone else will.

There have been attempts to estimate global organic carbon and its cycle (Buringh, 1984). More accurate estimation of global carbon pools need to be established (Eswaran et al. 1993) to control atmospheric CO₂. It has been recently established that, in addition to other factors, the nature of soil minerals play a significant role in oxidizing soil organic matter. The equilibrium of carbon on earth, with respect to food production and the greenhouse effect, requires management of organic matter in soils. A better understanding of terrestrial carbon reservoirs has benefits in areas other than in soil conservation and fertility alone. Studies of carbon should include the role of microbial processes and basic research on microbial populations.

The use of new technologies such as stable isotopes, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), pyrolysis mass spectrometry, Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry, gas-liquid chromatography, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and others provide tremendous opportunity to study and widen our understanding on organic matter. Under the umbrella of global climate change research, soil scientists have an opportunity to use these and other tools to better understand the carbon cycle.

Pedology

Daniels (1988) has written that "until the field relations are known, a soil sample is just a bag of dirt". Pedology, that branch of soil science which deals with soil in its natural setting and as a product of its environment over the ages, must contribute to this knowledge of soils. As mentioned above, pedology is essential to define quality and sustainable land management system. Pedologists, however, must draw upon the experience and expertise of other earth scientists, contributing to that complete knowledge so essential to understanding the complex and interconnected system of which soils are an integral part.

Restriction of our study to one or two meter soil profile will isolate soil science from other associated sciences. To understand the complex soil system, soil scientists must go beyond this self-imposed limit to better understand the vertical and horizontal processes taking place on the landscape. Salinization is an example that shows how geology and hydrology influence the formation of saline and sodic soils. Soil scientists should be proactive in their research work yielding unique and valuable information to interdisciplinary initiatives. Soil scientists, in cooperation with others, should look to deep ocean floors to establish the pattern of sediment transport from terrestrial land with time. We should remember that we are not only agricultural scientists, but we are also earth scientists (Nielsen, 1987; Wild 1989).

Soil resource assessment and monitoring is entering a new era, due to changing needs of users information, costs, and especially quality of information. The soil science community has now an unique opportunity to respond to these changing demands (Eswaran and Dumanski, 1994). Arnold (1966) believes that a major role of resource assessment will be to minimize the risk for persons using soil survey information and that this becomes the undertaking of new joint ventures in a search for relevancy. Arnold suggests that estimates of accuracy and precision with indication of levels of confidence be included, as additional information in resource assessments to minimize consumer risks and improve acceptance of information.

Weiss et al. (1993) provide a very good example how information on soil stratigraphy can assist to reconstruct the paleoenvironment of human civilization and land use systems. Many articles demonstrate how paleosols can be interpreted in the context of environmental change (Arnold et al. 1990). This once again supports the view that we need to give more attention to interdisciplinary research to accomplish our task as soil scientists.

Plant Nutrients

A large body of information is now available on plant nutrients in soils. However, we need to continue to understand nutrient cycles, including micronutrients, at global levels. For example, the lack of Ca and PO₄ in many leached tropical soils has, in addition to the nutrient limiting effects on crop growth, also implications on water use efficiency. The scarcity of large mammals in tropical America is attributed to the lack of these two nutrients (Sanchez and Buol, 1975) and biotic composition of the soils is controlled by the presence or absence of certain nutrients. While there are large resources of N and K on earth, however, the amount of P in nature is very restricted and many soils are naturally deficient. Nutrients are becoming recognized as capital and the World Bank is embarking on a new program to "Re-capitalize soil fertility" in Africa. This belated recognition that makes it good economic sense to finance fertilizers for the poor farmers of Africa is a recognition of the message of soil fertility experts for more than two decades.

Processes of diffusion and mass flow of the nutrients in the rhizosphere are well established (Barber, 1984). However, it is now established that each plant has its own influence on the immediate root environment, suggesting further research for understanding of root rhizosphere. Physiological factors of plants related various environmental stress conditions, such as nutrient deficiency and toxicity, drought, salinity, and high light and temperature, are not well established and deserve further research. There is still a lot of room for development of methodology. Recent developments to measure ion supply rate, using ion exchange resin membrane is interesting (Qian and Schoenau, 1995). This approach represents a unique and promising tool for use in soil fertility and soil quality-related research.

In spite of the successes of the "green revolution" a major gap still exist between the genetic potential of crops and yield levels (although a major effort has been made, and is continuing to increase the genetic potential of crops for both favourable and less favourable environments) there is little evidence that the gap is closing. Frequently the yields are below the potential of traditional varieties and certainly below those of improved varieties. Poor soil, water, and nutrient management (SWNM) is frequently the cause of this (Greenland et al, 1994). The problems of SWNM are not only the most general limitations to food production, they are also the most serious source of environmental degradation. The report on the expansion of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research states (TAC 1993, p.11), "the past neglect of research on conservation and management of natural resources must be addressed and higher priority given to both technical and socioeconomic aspects of sustainability."

It is evident that manipulating the plant should go hand-in-hand with manipulating the soil for enhanced performance. Soil fertility research is an integral part of the quest for sustainable agriculture, but the classical "rate and date" research must be supplemented by innovative work complementing soil-weather-crop simulation models. Sustainablity also calls for stability of production and like many aspects of agricultural research, long term experiments where all factors are monitored and analyzed is central to future research. Designing such experiments and convincing decision makers to commit funds for extended periods are challenges and obstacles to be overcome.

Conclusion

The current funding constraints to agriculture in general and soil science in particular, is expected to continue into the new millennia even though there were valid reasons for the kinds of research conducted in soil science during the last few decades. Such research has also contributed to food surpluses in many countries, which in turn enabled these countries to transfer their efforts to building up industries and all of which has cumulatively contributed to a general better quality of life. However, much of this was also achieved at significant environmental costs which has forced society to move away from productivity to the more rational goal of sustainability.

This paradigm shift was given the political impetus by the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, 1992) and resulting document, AGENDA 21. Within the short span of five years since UNCED, a quite revolution propelled by funding restrictions is focusing research institutions and scientists to re-evaluate their research priorities and frame them under new vision and mission statements. Those who made the efforts have benefited from the re-invention/re-engineering efforts that have taken place in particularly all countries.

In this paper an attempt is made to highlight some issues and show where soil scientists can exploit the situation and make positive contributions. The explosion of information technology has provided additional tools for soil scientists to use and benefit from. Soil scientists are uniquely placed to use Geographic Information Systems and simulation models (Wang et al. 1990), if they will make an effort to become conversant with these technologies.

The soil scientists of the world, in response to urgent questions of environmental sustainability, ecosystem health, and global change, have embarked on an exciting period of integrated science to which soil is central. Soil scientists must take their rightful place in contributing to that integrated science, tapping into the funding opportunities that are becoming available. To benefit from these opportunities, soil science must also better package their outputs so that the customers appreciate the value of the goods and services being provided.

As the world will eventually have to feed 10 billion people, much of the as yet underutilized land in the tropics (where much of the population increases will take place) and a few other parts of the world will have to be brought under cultivation. Can there be sustainable agriculture on these lands? The four basic causes of land degradation -- overgrazing on rangeland, over-cultivation of cropland, water-logging and salinization of irrigated land, and deforestation-- all result from poor management of the land and can, therefore, at least in principle, be controlled. The record to date, however, is quite poor. The alternative to sustainable agriculture is degradation of the resource base, loss of biodiversity, environmental pollution, reduction of the population supporting capacity for man or beast, and a general decrease in the quality of life for all living things on this planet. The choice is apparent; we have an obligation to be innovative and proactive.

In conclusion, we believe that the future of soil science is stronger than before and the demand for soil scientists will be grater than before. However, for this to happen, soil science must make some fundamental changes in its approach and emphasis. This can be achieved without compromising the science and the credibility of the scientist.

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READER's VIEWS

It was a pleasant surprise to receive the Newsletter. I did not think that the Task Force could produce one in such a short time.

Talal Darwish
Beirut, Lebanon

This Newsletter is long overdue. If at all there is one subject that needs urgent attention, it is land degradation and as Chairman of Commission VI of ISSS, I congratulate the Society in creating this Task Force and wish you all every success. I am requesting all Commission VI members to contribute to this effort.

Surender Virmani
ICRISAT, Hyderabad, India

This Task Force and the Newsletter compliments our work on Land Quality Indicators. We will look forward to continued contributions from you.

Julian Dumanski
World Bank, Washington DC

The Newsletter is an excellent vehicle to rally the scientific community to work towards this scourge of mankind. Despite the handicaps, please continue with the good work.

SA Tahoun
University of El-Zagazig, Egypt

We compliment you for undertaking this task. Billions of dollars are being spent to address desertification and every activity to reduce the impacts of this process can be considered humanitarian.

Elizabeth Shelton
State Department, Washington DC

MEETINGS, WORKSHOPS ETC.

Development of Guidelines for the Selection of Indicators for Sustainable Land Management: Summary of the International Workshop⁽³⁾

Wilhelm-Kempf-Haus, Naurod, Germany

May 13 - 15 1997

BACKGROUND

Sustainable land management (SLM) is a key element of AGENDA 21's goal of sustainable development. The promotion of SLM has, therefore, become a prime task of development co-operation and figures amongst the set of objectives of most agricultural and resource management projects. The claim for SLM calls for appropriate indicators and monitoring & evaluation instruments. Without operational definitions and indicators of project impact SLM is not more than an attractive but empty phrase.

The problem which project managers are facing is not the lack of indicators, but the difficulty to select an appropriate set of indicators reflecting changes in land quality without complicated, expensive and time consuming monitoring and evaluation procedures. Data generated should assist in decision making, i.e., provide information required by project managers or government officials. For this purpose guidelines for the selection of appropriate indicators and monitoring methods manageable with the available human and financial resources could be helpful. Wherever possible, land users should participate in the process, bringing in their local knowledge. The impact of project activities or land management methods on land quality becomes manifest, often, only after the phasing out of the project. That is why monitoring needs to be continued by the partner organizations or the land users. This is, however, only possible, if relatively simple and cost-efficient monitoring methods are applied.

World-wide, development agencies are working on topics related to SLM. The idea to gather a critical mass of SLM experts came out of the inter-institutional link between GTZ and CDE. Both partners are, together with Swiss NGOs and GOs, involved in a working group for the elaboration of tools for the assessment of impacts of project activities on SLM. Apparently this is an issues of interest for many development agencies, as quite a number of agencies and consultants were prepared to participate in a common workshop.

ORGANIZATION AND OBJECTIVES

The workshop was organized by GTZ and the Swiss Development Co-operation (SDC) through the Sustainable Soil Management Pilot-project and the Center for Development and Environment, respectively. The organizers aimed at opening a joint GTZ and SDC initiative for other interested institutions. The overall objective of this initiative is to provide the management of development projects with guidelines on how to monitor and evaluate both short and long-term impacts of development activities an the livelihood of local people and their environment.

Objectives of this first workshop were to elaborate a framework for the guidelines and to plan the follow-up process of editing and testing the guidelines. It was not intended to define new indicators, but to make use of the existing knowledge and experience of indicators and appropriate monitoring methods.

WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS

Roland Bunch (COSECHA, Honduras); Ingo Binnewerg (GTZ, Germany); Anôr Fiorini de Carvalho (Fed. Univ. of Vicosa, Departamento de Solos, BRAZIL), Malcolm Douglas (Consultant, ENGLAND), Julian Dumanski (The World Bank, USA), Hari Eswaran (World Soil Resources, USDA - Natural Resources Conservation Service, USA), Eckehard Fleischhauer (Federal Ministry for Environment, GERMANY), Anna Haering (Institute of Agricultural Economics, University of Hohenheim, GERMANY), Olivier Heiniger (Institute of Geography, University of Bern, SWITZERLAND), Karl Herweg (Centre for Development and Environment, University of Bern, SWITZERLAND), Thea Hilhorst (Royal Tropical Institute, THE NETHERLANDS), Rod Lefroy (International Board for Soil Research and Management, THAILAND), Constance Neely (SANREM CRSP, USA), Cordula Ott (Centre for Development and Environment, University of Bern, SWITZERLAND), Joep Slaats (Centre for Development and Environment, University of Bern, SWITZERLAND), Charles Sloger (USAID, USA), Kurt Steiner (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit - GTZ- Sustainable Soil Management, GERMANY), Steffen Weidner (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit - GTZ- Sustainable Soil Management; GERMANY), Anneke Trux (OSS, FRANCE).

WORKSHOP OUTPUTS

The workshop proceeded in three phases. The first phase aimed at finding a common understanding of impact assessment and impact indicators, simple and cost-efficient" monitoring methods and users of the planned guidelines and monitoring methods. The second phase concentrated on the development of a framework for the guidelines and the third phase on the planning of the process of editing and testing the guidelines. Based on an intensive exchange of experience, the participants produced three main outputs:

1. Clarification of key issues and elaboration of a conceptual frame of the guidelines

Emphasis was given to discuss and define key principles for the elaboration and final use of the guidelines. The workshop participants agreed on a number of key principles. Main users of the guidelines are project and task managers and levels of application range from the farm plot to household and community up to the district. Partner organizations should continue the monitoring process after the phasing out of the project, therefore, monitoring methods should be simple and cost-efficient, and generic indicators must always be combined with local indicators to encourage local stakeholders to engage in monitoring as early as possible.

2. Development of the structure;

The participants discussed and elaborated a detailed structure for the guidelines on the basis of a proposal by the organizers. Main chapters are:

Setting the stage; including an introduction why to carry out monitoring, how to use the guidelines, concepts and principles, how to find hypotheses, etc.;

Process of monitoring; describing who is involved, what to monitor, how to select generic and local indicators, how to select corresponding monitoring methods;

Outputs; defining the clientele for the information, trends and changes, impacts, assistance to interpret the results, lessons learned, post-project activities, and a general assessment if land management has moved to a higher or lower degree of sustainability:

Storage and dissemination of information; suggesting how to screen, store and share the data.

An inventory of simple and cost-efficient monitoring methods will be attached as annex.

3. Planning of the follow-up activities for a concerted development of the guidelines

A core group of experts, coordinated by the Center for Development and Environment, was assigned to develop a first draft of the guidelines until October 31, 1997. A substantial number of participants agreed to provide relevant literature and materials for this task within the coming weeks. The draft will be reviewed by an editorial board (extended core group)* and, if required by other international experts, underrepresented in the workshop. A second and revised version will be ready by end of February, 1998. The elaboration of the two versions will be largely financed by GTZ and SDC. Other institutions reserve time for contributions and the revision of the draft.

The workshop participants recommended the preparation of a second phase. Main activities should be training of experts in the use of the guidelines (including the elaboration of training materials), field testing, and edition of a final version of the guidelines.

* Extended core group: Steiner, Herweg, Ott, Slaats, Sloger, Eswaran, Dumanski, Lefroy (or Bechstein), Neely (or SANREM staff), Holden (to be invited).

Concluding remarks:

The workshop was considered a success by the participants, as a common agenda was developed within the three days. Representatives of development agencies consider the guidelines an important tool for the quality control of development activities. It is worthwhile to stress, that the Land Quality Indicator Initiative, co-ordinated by the Worldbank, is joining and thus strengthening the process, initiated by the workshop.

INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF SOIL SCIENCE

AGENDA 21 of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development emphasizes the need and proposes a wide range of activities to address land degradation in general and desertification in particular. As a response to this challenge, more than 100 countries have signed the Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD) in 1997. A key point of the CCD deals with scientific and technical cooperation on investigation, collection, evaluation of the processes and factors involved in land degradation leading to desertification. At the conclusion of the Conference on Land Degradation at Adana, an International Task Force on Land Degradation, to be formed under the auspices of the International Society of Soil Science (ISSS), was proposed and unanimously adopted.

The Soil Science Department of the University of Çukurova, Adana, has agreed to provide an interim Secretariat. An interim Committee to coordinate the work of the Task Force was formed with the following members:

Charges to the Task Force

1. Develop a science-based procedure for the identification and documentation of land degradation;

2. Develop manuals and/or guidelines for standardizing approaches, methods of assessment and monitoring, and interpretation of data;

3. Initiate efforts to develop appropriate Decision Support Systems to evaluate degree and extent of land degradation, assess potential impacts of land management practices, and research leading to mitigating technologies;

4. Initiate efforts to develop global, regional, and national databases and GIS maps depicting land degradation; and

5. Catalyze efforts to enhance the science of land degradation and the utilization of resource information for the assessment, monitoring, and prediction of land degradation at regional and local levels.

Desired products/outputs of Task Force

1. Basic concepts and definitions of land degradation; methods, threshold values etc.;

2. Scientific concept papers - approaches to problem solving; reliability and accurancy of assessments; aspects of time and space dimensions;

3. Internationally accepted language for describing processes, states, and tension zones; standards for databases and database management systems, and minimum datasets;

4. Manual on assessment and monitoring of land degradation;

5. Decision Support Systems for evaluation, estimation, and impact of land degradation; and

6. Global, regional, and national maps depicting kinds of stresses, tension zones, potential for degradation etc.



Address of Secretary:
Dr. Selim KAPUR
Faculty of Agriculture, Çukurova University
Department of Soil Science
01330 Adana, TURKEY
Fax: ++ 90 322 338 66 43

Address of Chairman:
Dr. Hari ESWARAN
World Soil Resources
USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service
P. O. Box 2890, Washington DC 20013, USA
Fax: ++ 1 202 720 4593

PROGRESS REPORT OF THE TASK FORCE

The International Task Force on Land Degradation (ITFLD) is more than a year old and a formal body of the ISSS. The 1^st issue of the bi-annual Newsletter was published in FEB 1997 with the financial and logistic supports from the British Council Office at Ankara, Chamber of Agricultural Engineers at Adana and University of Çukurova Faculty of Agriculture. The Newsletter reached more than a 1000 addresses throughout the world. The Newsletter is now temporarily on the website of the World Soil Resources of USDA NRCS (http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/). We intend to develop a dedicated website for the Task Force.

Members of the ITFLD met twice in Adana, Turkey in January and May '97. The first meeting was devoted to the initial preparations of the Newsletter. We have received few but complimentary letters from our readers. We thank those who wrote in as this is the only indication of the utility of the Newsletter. The second meeting was again held at Adana, Turkey on May 18 to 23. The meeting comprised of three days of discussions and a field trip from Adana to Plovdiv, Bulgaria. The meeting was attended by the Task Force Committee (Hari Eswaran, Selim Kapur. Ahmet Mermut, Erhan Akça) and several observers ­ Russell Almaraz (USDA NRCS), Dr. Naci Öztürk, Prof. Ural Dinc, and Prof. Suat Þenol (Çukarova University).

Dr. Kapur briefed the Committee on the progress being made with respect to developing the monograph, "Guidelines for assessing and monitoring land degradation". He indicated that the British Council was interested to support the effort. Dr. Peter Bullock from Silsoe, England was unable to join the meeting and so discussions on the subject was postponed to a later date. The next item on the agenda was the 2^nd Newsletter. Both Drs. Kapur and Eswaran reported on the complimentary letters on the 1^st. Newsletter that were being received. There is good indication of keen interest from the scientific community. A major concern was that there were insufficient articles or contributions being submitted. This is the frustration of many newsletter editors and particularly for the first few newsletters. It was agreed that the Committee use their judgement to include as many relevant material as possible until the time that the readership responds.

Mr. Akça suggested that the Task Force would be served well by a Website. Currently the information of the Task Force was included on the USDA NRCS website and there was unanimous agreement that a dedicated website be established at Çukurova University. Initial discussions were held with the local Webmaster and plans were developed. Mr. Allmaraz agreed to help develop the website.

Drs. Eswaran and Mermut reported on the efforts to obtain supporting funds for the Task Force. There was no indication of success and few possibilities were available. One hope was the Desertification Convention, when it is ratified by member countries of the United Nations. It is clear that without some kind of political support, the Land Degradation Task Force will be subject to desertification and fade away into oblivion. The Secretary, Dr. Kapur, promised not to let this happen. As an initial effort, the Committee Members have agreed to put in their own money to keep the effort alive. Dr. Selim Kapur has opened a bank account for this purpose. A bank account: 6010 52236 ITFLD/Selim KAPUR at the Is Bankasi, University of Çukurova Branch is opened for donations to the ITFLD. Readers who wish to contribute can send a check in US dollars to Dr. Kapur. The money will be used to mail the Newsletter to persons in developing countries and if sufficient funds become available, will be used to off-set the cost of printing.

Dr. Saiffudin, from Kerala Agricultural University, Kerala, India, had inquired about developing a land degradation map of his State. The Task Force agreed that this is an area for international cooperation to have an agreed-to legend, procedures, and quality assurance mechanisms. One whole day was used to discuss this and the discussions were continued during the field trip to Central and Nortwestern Anatolia as well as Southeastern Bulgaria. Interesting profiles with genetic and paleoenvironmental significance were studied together with profiles at sample sites of erosion, land stripping for raw materials and urbanisation. The most striking features of LD were observed in Kütahya with a total amount of land completely stripped and deforested by the ceramic and porcelain industries which have been functioning since the Byzantine & Ottoman periods. The human as well as geologically induced erosion surfaces in Cappodocia, in spite of the natural beauties, was the messenger for the future the desertification of parts of Central Anatolia. However, Andisols developed on andesitic ashes seemed to be the refuge of vineyards of historical tradition together with apricot orchards. The surface of an ancient Hellenistic grave between Kütahya and Afyon towns revealed the development of a mollic epipedon with similar morphology to adjacent undisturbed surfaces. The urbanization of the past productive soils of Bursa town proved to be an excellent example for the Los Angeles syndrome.

State farms of Gözlü (Central Anatolia) and Türkgeldi (Thrace) were also visited for the study of Mollisols, Alfisols with calcretes and Vertisols developed on marine Miocene sediments respectively. The tree-curtains planted for the conservation of the soil to withstand the well-known Anatolian winds together with the follow-wheat rotation system of the former and the highly wheat producing black Vertisols (app. 8-10 tonnes/ha) of the latter highlighted the essence of the Turkish State Farm system. However, the mismanagement and degradation of the pastures throughout the state farms was striking in spite of the large number of small and large ruminant breeding programs undertaken by the Ministry of Agriculture. Members of the ITFLD suggested gradual conversion programs of some of the large pasture parcels (parcel sizes are to be determined accordingly to the size, climate, soils & income levels of the State Farms) to areas devoted to biodiversity as previously done at some other International Research Centers. Thus, recovery of the endemic plants together with the innumerable natural forage crops characteristic for the area would be apt to breeding and selection for scientists to work on the improvement of the degraded pastures. This suggestion is planned to be offered to the General Directorate of State Farms of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs to be undertaken in the whole of 36 State Farms scattered all over the 7 agro-ecological regions of Turkey.

The 4^th Red Mediterranean Soils Meeting in Plovdiv, Bulgaria (27 May -01 June 1997, attended by the ITFLD members following the field trip) dealt with problems of land-use and degradation of the soils of the region with some studies dealing with genesis and classification. The Chairman and the Secretary of the ITFLD presented plenary papers at the meeting titled "IMPACTS OF LAND DEGRADATION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION" and "PRESERVING OUR HERITAGE: A CASE STUDY FROM SOUTHERN TURKEY" respectively. The former paper summoned messages on the drastic processes of desertification, such as "endoreisation" which create present and future problems for all large scale irrigation projects throughout the world, and especially in the Mediterranean region and the Middle East. The latter concentrated on a biocultural sustainability concept involving an interdisciplinary approach of archaeometry, archaeology, geology, geomorphology, biology, agriculture and soil science. A similar approach to archaeological site studies related to the construction of paleo-environmental models is followed by Dr. Marie-Agnes Courty (CNRS-Paris, France).

In conclusion, during the short span of less than one year of the formation of the Task Force, much has been accomplished. Dr. Mermut recommended that the Task Force request ISSS to upgrade it to a Working Group. Dr. Eswaran thought that it was a bit premature but concurred that the Society could be approached in the near future. The Committee recorded its indebtedness to Dr. Selim Kapur and Mr. Erhan Akca for the effort they put to ensure the publication and distribution of the Newsletter. The Committee also requested Dr. Kapur to formally thank all the institutions and persons who provided funds (directly or indirectly) for the Newsletter.

SURFING THE WEB

>Now that you have your own computer and have access to World Wide Web and your boss is giving you a hard time or you are getting bored, it is time to surf the web. There is an increasing number of websites on soils; a few have information on land degradation. Surfing can become tedious. Many of the sites are for self glorification. These particularly apply to sites of institutions which tell you who the director and his/her secretary is, sometimes they include their pictures (which was taken ten years before). At some sites, you have to dig deep to find out what they have and if there is anything useful to you. I usually save the useful ones on my 'bookmark'.

If you have good search engines, use keywords such as "desertification, degradation, soil science, etc." and this will give you a few interesting hits. At this time, do not expect too much as most of them are information poor.

In this and future issues, we will try to list a few websites. If you have one, let us know and we will include it. One of the better sites is that called "SCIENCES of SOILS ­ SOIL SCIENCE ON THE WEB ­ http://www.hintze-online/sos/soil-online.html". This gives a lot of information on soil science journals, electronic discussion groups, and even an electronic journal. Visit it. The next best one, is of course, that of the Task Force on Land Degradation ­ http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/.

GLOBAL SLIDE SET ON SOILS

The World Soil Resources of USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service is compiling a slide set to illustrate the soil resources of the world. They expect to assemble between 3,000 to 5,000 slides on CD ROM and on the Website. The hope is to be able to depict the major soils of each country of the world. Slides of soils, landscape, land use, land degradation, and land management are requested. Please include your name and country on the slide (in the event that we have to return it to you). On a separate paper, provide additional information about the slide. We are also interested in slides of famous soil scientists. We will acknowledge your support when the set is complete. If you can send some slides to Dr. Hari Eswaran, it will be included in the set if found suitable.

REQUEST FOR PUBLISHED PAPERS

Sara J. Scherr of the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) is preparing a discussion paper on land degradation for the series "A 2020 Vision for Food, Agriculture and the Environment". The paper will include a review of data from recent empirical research linking land degradation or improvement with changes in agricultural productivity, production and/or income, for different types of farming systems and environments in the tropics and sub-tropics. The audience for the paper will be policymakers, rather than technical experts. The objective is to alert them to the scale of potential economic losses from degradation and gains from land quality improvement, in different situations.

If you have any papers which provide such analyses (or drafts that have already been peer-reviewed), she would be grateful to receive a copy. Full attribution will be made to all authors, and all contributors will receive a copy of the published paper. Please send any materials to Sara at:

1200 17th Street, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20036

Fax: (202) 467-4439

E-mail: S.SCHERR@CGNET.COM

INTERDISCIPLINARY PROJECTS UNDERTAKEN BY ITFLD MEMBERS

LOW INPUT SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN THE RIFT VALLEY, CENTRAL ETHIOPIA

This is a five year project supported by Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) as part of the new program called University Partnership in Cooperation and Development (UPCD) and administered by Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada (AUCC).

Population pressures and scarcity of good soils have forced agriculture to expand into marginal lands and wildlife habitats in Ethiopia. Inappropriate land use together with poor soil management practices have resulted in land degradation in many areas. The Rift Valley in Ethiopia is one such region where land management problems are particularly acute. There is a need to monitor and improve the resource base for sustainable food production in Ethiopia, which would reduce pressure on land and match the capability of land to appropriate agricultural use. Knowledge and well trained scientists are critical to long term solutions to land degradation and the development of sustainable land use is a key to ensure food security for the nation. The goal of this project is to enhance the capacity of Ethiopians to contribute to sustainable land use in South-central Ethiopia by upgrading human resources, to address land degradation problems in search for innovative and sustainable technologies which are compatible with local conditions in order to increase food production on drylands.

For more information, contact: A. R. Mermut¹), F. Itanna ²), S. Sertsu³), and I. Urage⁴)

1) University of Saskatchewan, Department of Soil Science, Saskatoon Sask., S7N 5A8, Canada, 2) University of Addis Ababa, Department of Biology, Ethiopia, 3) National Soil Service laboratory, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 4) Institute of Agricultural research, Awassa, Ethiopia.

LATE QUATERNARY SEDIMENTS OF THE MARMARA SEA AND THEIR PALEOENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE

This is a one year project supported by the Turkish Scientific and Technical Council (TÜBÝTAK). The study involves the collection of deep sea cores and surface sediments of the Marmara Sea by an interdisciplinary approach of Soil Scientists (S. Kapur, E. Akça, C. Karaman; Univ. of Çukurova, Dept. of Soil Science, Adana, Turkey and A. R. Mermut, Saskatchewan Univ., Dept. of Soil Science, Saskatoon, Canada), Sedimentologists (G. Kelling OBE, Univ. of Keele, Dept. of Earth Sciences, Staffordshire UK; M. Ergin, B. Varol, Univ. of Ankara, Dept. of Geology, Ankara, Turkey), Chemists & Meteorologists (C. Saydam, METU, Inst. of Marine Sciences, Erdemli, Turkey; F. Y. Eryýlmaz, the Hydrography and Oceanography Dept. of the Turkish Navy).

The deep sea sediments collected from transects as well as present and probable paleoriver mouthes will be analysed for minerals (clay & primary minerals by XRD & thin sections; determination of weathering indices by XRD peak intensities and sharpness vs Thermoluminescence efficiencies), minor elements and isotopes. The results obtained from laboratory analyses of the sea floor will be compared with terrestrial samples of soils and rocks collected by the use of Soil and Geological maps as well as satellite images of the land. Analogies for paleoenvironmental interpretations (especially erosion potentials) will be produced together with data to be utilised by Marine Scientists working on the sustainable exploitation of the fish populations of the Marmara Sea.

BASALTIC TEPHRA: A NEW SOURCE MATERIAL FOR INDUSTRIAL USE

The project foresees the use of basaltic tephra in ceramic bodies as well as the purification of the industrial wastes. Determination of the appropriate basaltic tephra source for use in the fields mentioned above will be accomplished by an interdisciplinary group of Volcanologists (F. Ýþler, Univ. of Çukurova, Dept. of Geology, Adana, Turkey), Sedimentalogists (G. Kelling OBE, Univ. of Keele, Dept. of Erath Sciences, Staffordshire UK), Chemists (O. Erbatur, Univ. of Çukurova, Dept. of Chemistry, Adana, Turkey), Soil Scientists (S. Kapur and his team, Univ. of Çukurova, Dept. of Soil Science, Adana, Turkey; A. R. Mermut, , Saskatchewan Univ., Dept. of Soil Science, Saskatoon, Canada), Environmentalists & Ceramicists (N. Sakarya, Univ. of Çukurova, Dept. of Ceramics, Osmaniye, Turkey). Soil Scientists have a major role in the application part of the project for the environmental friendly exploitation of the tephra deposits as well as the physical properties suitable for each field of use to be determined in laboratory analyses1 together with tests and microscopy of different levels. On the other hand the stratigraphy of the consecutive paleosols developed on different tephra layers together with CO₃ accumulation zones observed in preliminary field studies is most probably expected to yield valuable hints for Plio-Pleistocene climatic fluctuations and especially addition of wind-blown materials from probable remote sources such as the Sahara.

A PROGRAM TO DEVELOP LAND QUALITY INDICATORS AT SUB-NATIONAL, NATIONAL AND GLOBAL SCALES

PROGRAM GOAL: DEVELOPMENT OF LAND QUALITY INDICATORS (LQIs) FOR THE EVALUATION AND MONITORING OF LAND USE PRESSURES, CHANGES OF THE STATE OF LAND RESOURCES AND RESPONSES OF SOCIETY.

BACKGROUND:

The LQI program is being developed to better harmonize the combined objectives of production and environmental management, and to ensure more sustainable use of land, water and biological resources. It is one of several important responses to the major challenges put forward by UNCED in Agenda 21. Although the program is being initiated through a coalition of international agencies including the World Bank, FAO, UNDP and UNEP, the task is too important for any one agency or group. Additional partners are actively being solicited for the program.

LQIs are needed to address major land-related issues of national and global significance, such as land use pressures, land degradation, and soil and water conservation, as well as policy related questions on sustainable land management. Once developed and harmonized through international scientific protocols, LQIs will be used for policy and program formulation for district, national and global assessment, environmental impact monitoring, and to promote technologies, policies and programs to ensure better use of natural resources and sustainable land management.

The LQI initiative is similar in concept to previous programs, sponsored by national and international agencies, on indicators of economic and social performance, and on indicators of state-of-the-environment reporting. These programs were initiated by groups of interested parties working together, using an iterative process of indicator development, testing, refinement, and standardisation. This ultimately resulted in the standard economic, social, and some environmental indicators that are now used routinely for monitoring national economic performance, mostly with respect to air and water quality, and for planning. Something similar is planned in the LQI program for development of indicators for land quality. In this context, land refers not just to soil, but to the combined resources of soil, water, vegetation and terrain that provide the basis for land use. Land quality is the condition or health of the land relative to its capacity for sustainable land use and environmental management.

Although the LQI program is still very new (preliminary activities to develop the program started in 1994), much has already been accomplished.

OBJECTIVES:

The program will initially focus on LQIs for developing countries, although some experimental work will be done in other regions. The objectives of the program are:

1. To develop a set of harmonised LQIs for managed ecosystems (agriculture and forestry) in the major Agro-Ecological Zones (AEZs) of tropical, sub-tropical and temperate environments.

2. To identify sources of data and information and develop common methods for analyses, aggregation, and application of the results.

3. To validate and disseminate the findings among the major institutions responsible for collection of LQI data, and to reinforce the institutional capacity needed for setting and implementing land and natural resources priorities, policies and technologies at sub-national and national levels.

OUTPUTS:

The outputs of the program will be:

1. A set of harmonised LQIs to be used by decision-makers and appropriate to major policy related questions on land management in tropical, sub-tropical and temperate regions. LQI Source Tables will be prepared for each country and locally updated.

2. A set of appropriate targets and thresholds for the state LQIs to provide guidance towards more sustainable land management for the different eco-regions.

3. A metadata information system on land related information set up on the World Wide Web, and to be available as stand-alone systems as well. Such a metadata system will provide documentation on what data are stored with which agencies, the quality and reliability of the data, and how the data can be accessed. Emphasis will be on land suitable for cultivation and forestry, biological production potentials, current land management technologies, and other related information necessary to monitor changes in land quality.

4. Assessments of trends in land quality for various AEZs for use at sub-national and national level, leading to global assessment of the condition of land as a function of its use.

PROGRAM ACTIVITIES:

The major activities in the LQI program are the following:

1. Information management and development of a metadata information system on land related data. This will involve i) development of a catalogue on land related data currently being stored by various international and national agencies, ii) analyses of data quality, compatibility, voids in information, and what additional data are needed, iii) use of the data to develop some national level LQIs, and iv) development of the meta-data base, including documentation and set up on the World Wide Web, as well as on stand-alone systems such as the prototype for the GRID/UNEP catalogue.

2. Development of sub-national and national level LQIs through case studies in representative AEZs. Tentatively about six AEZ case studies are being planned with varying data quality. The studies will be developed according to the matrix AEZ x land use intensity x data availability, as presented in the Discussion Paper. The case studies will follow common guidelines, and take place over a two year period. They will involve collation and analyses of available data for the AEZ, but also some field work to test and validate the LQIs. Each case study will culminate with a workshop involving other scientists, technologists and administrators, to discuss the methodologies and results and to effect the transfer of LQI technology to national agencies.

3. National capacity building: This activity will take place through incorporation of LQI initiatives into ongoing capacity building activities being conducted by agencies such as UNDP, UNEP, FAO, the CG centres and others. Major activities will be training on geo-referenced data acquisition, training on PC based data management, and training on the use of local farmer knowledge and the development of quantitative indicators from farmer knowledge.

POLICY APPLICATIONS OF LQI:

The results of this program will be used as follows:

1. To assist policy-makers, planners and project managers to incorporate land quality considerations in their national and sub-national development programmes;

2. To strengthen human and institutional capacity to monitor, evaluate and manage land quality (i.e. condition of soil, water, forest and biological resources) based upon organised sets of data and information collected at national and sub-national levels (community and district);

3. To develop and test decision-support tools at sub-national and national level that promote cost-effective allocation of human and financial resources based on conditions of land quality and its vital role in sustainable agriculture and rural development;

4. To contribute to global assessment of land quality as a function of major land cover and land use systems , and farmer practices. Farmers and land managers are the ultimate land use decision makers. Although the practices of any one individual may appear to be insignifiant, the practices are repeated many times on the landscape and ultimatlty may have global impact.

To contribute to this effort, contact: Dr. Julian Dumanski, World Bank, Washington DC. (Fax: 1-202-522 3306; email: jdumanski@worldbank.org)

CONSERVATION AND BIODIVERSITY IN BRITAIN

Dr. Julian Edwards

First Secretary for Science and Technology, The British Council and Cultural Affairs, Ankara, Turkey.

The United Kingdom (UK) is made up of a group of temperate islands off the coast of continental Europe. The position of these islands, in the north-east Atlantic Ocean, mean that they are bathed by the waters of the Gulf Stream, ensuring mild climatic conditions in comparison with mainland Europe. The oceanic climate, also, brings a high average rainfall to the western coastal regions.

The main UK habitats can be described as woodlands, heathlands, lower grasslands, coastal areas (cliffs, estuaries, saltmarshes, sand dunes and shingle shorelines), marine, freshwater habitats (lakes and ponds, rivers and streams, canals and grazing marsh ditches), peatlands, uplands, farmland and urban areas. The two principal features that characterise this assemblage of habitats are the kaleidoscope of change over relatively small geographic areas, and the all-encompassing influence of man's activities on biodiversity. In relation to the latter, perhaps the only habitat type not radically changed by man, in Britain, is the littoral ecotype.

Before looking at how one conserves this biodiversity and, indeed, how one approaches this problem in such a man-influenced environment it is worthwhile to look briefly at the development of the conservation movement in Britain. Its origins can be found in the long tradition of natural history observation and study, often carried forward by gifted amateurs -Gilbert White's "The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne" is a fine example of this genre. To these early naturalists Britain was a beautiful pastoral island rich in wildlife and habitats which was perceived as being substantially unchanging. The jolt to the system was, of course, the industrial Revolution. The British economy was the first to be industrialised, and the effects were rapid and in many cases ecologically catastrophic. The population more than tripled, huge urban centres developed, containing a high proportion of the total population, and heavy and uncontrolled environmental degradation and pollution became a commonplace of life.

The reaction to this 'down-side' to increased wealth and affluence was the introduction of legislation and the establishment of 'pressure groups' (we could now call them non-governmental organisations - NGOs) to alleviate some of the problems. Early legislation had at first centred directly on people's quality of life (e.g. clean air and water), but rapidly moved towards a realisation that preservation of biodiversity and conservation of natural resources was not just a luxury. It was an economic necessity. Also, a political necessity, as the electorate (who determined government) demanded a more 'environmental friendly' approach to development. The UK now has some of the largest and most vociferous environmental NGOs in the world, and conservation and sustainable development is high on the political agenda. This should really be no surprise when one considers that Britain is one of the most urbanised societies in the world and has the third largest global population density. It is salutary to note that in the present British Government, the environment portfolio is held by the Deputy Prime Minister.

Given that so much of the habitat structure of Britain is determined by man's activities, and can be even be described as 'artificial' how does one develop a logical conservation policy especially given the rapid pace of change in modern society? In Michael Usher's pioneering book "Biological Management and Conservation" he gives a definition of the word 'conservation' as:

"Biological conservation is essentially concerned with the interaction between man and the environment.

Fulfilment of conservation objectives, for a biological resource requires the resource's management in perpetuity on the basis of a sustained production of the resource or biotic component of the environment and a sustained demand on the resource or environment by man".

Over much of the UK forest habitats would predominate if human influence had not intervened. At the present date, however, 77% of the UK is farmed and agricultural practises will continue to have a significant effect on the landscape and on biodiversity.

The principle of conservation, in Britain, is therefore, to preserve examples of characteristic native habitat and landscape (respectively the network of natural reserves and national parks) and to manage the 'man-made' environments so as to preserve examples of characteristic native habitat and landscape (respectively the network of national nature reserves and national parks) and to manage the 'man-made' environments so as to preserve and enhance biodiversity indices. The latter can include the rehabilitation of land and natural resources (e.g. reclamation of mine waste-tips or the cleaning up of the River Thames) to the encouragement of practices which promote biodiversity (e.g. sheep grazing on southern downland produces sward containing over 50 species per square metre).

A key element of this policy of conservation and biodiversity enhancement is not only to produce a legislative system which is realistic and, crucially, is enforced, but to integrate environmentally-sound policies in to all aspects of economic development. On a small island no construction project or proposed land-use change should be envisaged without through environmental impact assessment procedures being followed and recommendations implemented. The economic costs and deleterious effects of a motorway driven through an area of outstanding natural beauty or a factory discharging toxic waste in to a river (to give but two examples) are incalculable.

In summary, I would like to end on a positive note. The world is, indeed, becoming smaller as the process of 'globalisation' continues and peoples, countries and economies become more interdependent and reliant on each other. Major international events, such as the Rio Earth Conference, complemented by a ground-swell of public opinion has pushed concern for the environment to the forefront of the political agenda. Human pressures will still increase (both in Britain and other countries) and more and more of the world will come under the direct influence of man's activities. However, the crucial difference from, say 100 years ago, is that the concept of the dependency of human civilisation on planetary life-support systems is firmly embedded in mainstream political and popular thought.

DETERMINANTS OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE IN THE SOUTHERN COASTAL PLAINS OF ALBANIA⁽⁴⁾

Pandi Zdruli and Hari Eswaran

International Fertilizer Development Center, Muscle Shoals, Alabama, and USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Washington DC

The Southern Coastal Plains consist of flat to undulating land bordered on the eastern side by low hills. On the seaward side, depressions with swamps and marshes which have been drained and reclaimed in the past, are present. This is the major agricultural area of the country endowed with good soils and climate and with a tradition of good land use. Since the beginning of this decade, the centrally controlled system of agriculture has been transformed to private ownership of land. Economics of production now govern land use and quality of management rests solely on the land manager.

The premise of this study is that sustainable agriculture depends on a good match between land quality and land use, with socioeconomic and political factors of the region and the country largely determining the latter. Degradation and unsustainability results when there is a mismatch. This major land resource area is examined in the context of this paradigm and some of the major determinants of sustainable agriculture are examined. A pressure-state-response matrix is used in this evaluation. The socioeconomic and biophysical pressures are the major determinants which affect the state of the agricultural system. The society responds to these pressures and the elasticity of the response is a measure of the progress towards equity and sustainability. The basic conclusion of the study is that from a biophysical point of view, productivity can be doubled in the region. However, current socioeconomic and political forces play a negative role retarding the change. In conclusion, the over-riding determinant of unsustainability of the agricultural sector in the country is the political and economic stability.

IMPACTS OF LAND DEGRADATION IN THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION⁽⁵⁾

Hari Eswaran and Paul Reich

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Washington DC

Of the 131 million km² of global land resources, soils with xeric soil moisture regimes occupy about 3% of the land mass, with the greatest extent around the Mediterranean. The subdued climate has always attracted human populations and so many civilizations have flourished. The ability of the land to feed and clothe the people is increasingly being stressed due to population pressure and the demands of this burgeoning population. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the factors of land degradation and to make some initial assessment of impact.

Having been the hub of civilization during the last two millennia, the human impact on land resources has been intense and continuous. Beginning with the Phoenicians and continuing to modern times, mountain slopes were deforested to provide timber for ships, construction and melting ores. More than 1,500 years of poor irrigation practices on the lower valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates has resulted in salinization and water-logging. Erosion by wind and water, exacerbated by reduced land cover, silts irrigation conduits and water reservoirs. The nations in the region have paid a tremendous price for the on-site and off-site damages resulting from land degradation. More recently, to meet the demands of increased human and animal populations, larger and more ambitious irrigation projects are being implemented. The GAP project of Eastern Turkey is an example. Other countries are damming rivers to use the maximum amount of water. One of the consequences of these activities is a significant reduction of net flow of water (carrying sediments and nutrients) to the delta and sea. Aquatic biodiversity is threatened ­ desertification of the sea? On the land, the intensive irrigation with little or no drainage results in a process called, "endoreisation", by which all the leached salts of the land are concentrated at shallow depths in the soil. This anthropic process is one of the principal causes of desertification in the Mediterranean region.

Costs of land degradation and desertification in the regions have yet to be assessed. Costs attributed to reduction in productivity of the land and other on-site damages is probably of the order of tens of billions of dollars (this does not include loss of biodiversity and other environmental damages). Off-site costs, such as siltation of irrigation canals and reduction in the economic life of dams and other water storage facilities, are usually about 100 to 500 times more. The off-site costs also do not include damage to deltas and the sea. Land degradation must be taken more seriously by earth scientists working in the region. The quality of human life hinges on it.

SOME ASPECTS OF LAND DEGRADATION IN THE CENTRAL ZAGROS REGION, IRAN

M.K. Eghbal^a and M.H. Farpour^b

^aIsfahan University of Technology, College of Agriculture, Isfahan, Iran

^bVali-Asr University, College of Agriculture, Rafsanjan, Iran

Land degradation in the Zagros Mountains of Iran has been expanding rapidly. Detailed studies are needed to understand factors involved in land degradation in this area. An attempt is made to study some factors influencing the land degradation in Central Zagros Mountains. Uplifting, due to the collision of the Arabian and Iranian plates, together with the existence of highly erodable materials in the region have created high potential for natural erosion and massmovement. Increase in human activities such as deforestation, over grazing, cultivation, mining and road building have accelerated the land degradation and destruction. Landslides are found in all geomorphic provinces in the region, especially in the last few decades. A thick marl series interbedded between massive sedimentary rocks, created ideal conditions for large-scale landslides.

Cultivation on steep slopes, especially when plowed parallel to the slope direction, has caused very severe soil erosion. In the Imam Gheis region, erosion due to cultivation for crop production has influenced soils occurring on different positions on hillslopes. Comparison of soil characteristics on natural and eroded sites shows as much as 1 m of soil loss in some areas. Erosion from the higher surface and deposition on the lower parts has created young and less developed soils (Xerochrepts and Calcixererts). Overall, clay and organic matter increases toward the downslope. In this paper, in addition to soil quality changes, comparing soils data on a hillslope sequence will be presented. Because the area is sensitive to erosion, cultivation on steep slopes is not recommended. In areas with moderate slope, plowing vertical to the slope direction should be employed. Socio-economic factors influencing the land degradation were found very serious, but considered outside the scope of this work. However, as important contributing factors to land degradation, they require special attention.

MONITORING OF SOIL FERTILITY AS A PROTECTIVE MEASURE AGAINST DEGRADATION

M. Yousry and F.B. Labib

Soil and Water Use Department, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt

The agricultural land is considered one of the important natural and renewable resources. In the last decades, attention has been paid, all over the World to soil conservation against improper human activities that use partial of complicate degradation of the soil and consequently decrease its fertility and capability for crop production.

Towards this objective about 250 profiles were studies from seven governorates, which cover an area of over approximately 2.000.000 acres. These profiles represent the main agricultural rotations followed in Egypt, namely: cotton, rice and sugar cane. The soil samples were reanalyzed, following the same techniques and methods of the previous analyses, to determine the main soil parameters to assess the productivity order. The intervals between the two analyses ranged between 25-30 years.

The obtained results showed positive and negative changes with regard to soil fertility and consequently their productivity order. Many cases of soil degradation has been recorded in various sites. The negative change happened mainly in the first soil productivity order, while the positive one mainly occurred in the third and fourth soil productivity order. The main parameters associated negative changes are the increase in soil salinity, exchangeable sodium percentage and pH values. Excess of irrigation water table are imperfect drainage conditions led to fluctuation of ground water table are main factors in soil deterioration. On the other hand, the proper management and adequate fertilization are the main reasons for optimization of soil fertility.

Regular monitoring of the measures of soil fertility, at reasonable intervals is recommended for suitable conservation of the agricultural land.

LAND DEGRADATION PROBLEMS IN THE INDIAN ARID ZONE AND STRATEGIES FOR THEIR AMELIORATION

J. P. Gupta and R. K. Goyal

Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhour, India

Land degradation is one of the major environmental problems faced by the Indian arid zone which constitutes about 13% of the India's total geographical area. Accelerated soil erosion by wind and water, loss of vegetative cover, use of saline and industrial effluent water, cultivation on sand dune and their movement, degradation of pasture lands by over grazing and deforestation, tractorization, rocky stony waste lands and depletion of surface and ground water resources are some of the major factors responsible for the degradation and desertification of arid lands. Though the problem of land degradation is triggered and even exacerbated by low (100-300 mm) and erratic (CV>50%) rainfall, high evapotranspiration (1840 mm), but the real cause of land degradation is exploitative use and mismanagement of natural resources often dictated by a high biotic pressure and inadequate concern to the long term productivity of the resources. To meet the ever increasing demand for food and fodder it has become essential not only to manage the degraded land but also to use the land according to its capability for sustained and improved productivity. The results of the studies conducted over two decades show that enhanced and sustained productivity is directly proportionate to resource base upgradiation maintenance, it is therefore imperative that the root cause of resource degradation should be treated at the resource itself. Based on resource availability of the technologies like watershed management, pasture development, alternate land use systems, sand dune stabilization, afforestation, water harvesting and its efficient recycling and judicious use of saline water etc. developed by this department is envisaged to improve the productivity and impart sustainability in the production system even in this fragile eco-system.

LAND DEGRADATION IN AGRI BASIN - SOUTHERN ITALY

M. Pisante, F. Basso and B. Basso

Dipartimento di Produzione Vegetale, Universita degli Studi della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy

The Agri hydrographic basin, from a physical-environmental point of view is partially or totally delimited by the 29 municipalities and can be divided into three large areas: Upper Val d'Agri, Middle Val d'Agri, Lower Val d'Agri.

The three areas are characterized by climatic, pedologic and consequently different agronomic and social conditions that have determined a different sensibility to degradation. In particular, the evolution of agricultural land on slope started in the past with the occupation of state land in the middle Val d'Agri and continued with deforestation that took place in the middle of the century, which pushed horsebean for seed ploughing cultivation higher up on the mountains, on forest land and on soils whose natural destination was grazing.

The effects of hydrological disorder as well as the insufficient protection of the soil is considerably and permanently felt by agricultural land and production. Often the disasters caused by flooding, landslides and superficial runoff erosion represent the principle disintegrating factor of the hilly and mountainous area economy and favours rural population exodus. Therefore, a stable soil order is a priority to any innovative culture intervention and makes up one of the fundamental means to preserve the environment and for the physical and economical equilibrium of the mountainous, hilly and plain areas. Agronomic interventions that limit the erosion action of rainfall reduce the loss of fertile soil and increase slope stability. These interventions are: soil water control, adequate cultivation techniques (soil tillage, manuring, weed control, irrigation) and most of all a more rational agronomic use of sloping soil.

Seasonal trend of vegetation cover on three 10 km long transects orthogonal to the Sauro river (Agri sub-basin), in 30 permanent sample areas have been individualized where surveys and samples have been taken. The following work plan has been followed:

Areas assigned to agriculture have been sampled on plot scale, areas surface of 1 ha each. The following parameters have been assessed:

Type of soil: physical and chemical characteristics;
Type of culture in progress;
Phenological stage of the culture;
Biomass.

Furthermore, areas assigned to set-aside and those subject to fires have been individualized inside the transects.

AMELIORATIVE MEASURES FOR SALT-EFFECTED DEGRADED SOILS OF PAKISTAN

M. Qadir, N. Ahmad and A. Ghafoor

Department of Soil Science, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan

Land degradation resulting from soil salinity, sodicity or combination of these is a major impediment to the optimal utilization of land resources of the world including Pakistan. The world as a whole is loosing about 3 hectares of arable land every minute due to an increase in soil salination/sodication resulting from unscientific land and water management practises, particularly under arid and semiarid climates. Pakistan having a similar climate contains 6.3 million hectares of salt effected soils with a majority having a saline-sodic nature problem.

The ameliorative procedure for saline-sodic (gypsum, calcium chloride, etc. to supply soluble Ca⁺² to replace exchangeable Na⁺) soils by chemical means has become cost intensive. Many saline-sodic soils contain lime (CaCO₃) having negligible solubility. Cultivation of plants tolerant to salinity and sodicity may mobilize the native CaCO₃ through their root action to supply soluble Ca⁺², i. e. biological amelioration. A number of salt-tolerant plant species including millet rice (Echinochloa colona), sesbania (Sesbania aculeata), finger millet (Eleusine coracana), kallar grass (Leptochloa fusca) and a hybrid, sordan (Sorghum bicolor x Sorghum sudanese) were planted on calcareous saline-sodic fields. Ameliorative effectiveness of these species was compared with the traditional gypsum application method. The biological amelioration was comparable to the chemical approach. Among the plant species tested, sesbania and kallar grass were found as the most suitable biotic material for cultivation on salt-effected soils to produce good quality and quantity forage, and to reduce soil salinization and sodication processes. Biomass production by the plant species was found to be directly proportional to their ameliorative effectiveness.

MISUSE OF THE MEDITERRANEAN COASTAL AREAS IN TURKEY

O. Erol

Istanbul, Turkey

There is a law controlling the management activities on the coastline of Turkey. In spite of this, the coastal problems are increasing because of misuse. Some of these problems are: building big apartments and hotels on active or even stabilized coastal dunes and sandy beaches: thus blocking the approach of the people to the coastline by a thick wall of these hotels, houses etc.; intensive sand and gravel extraction from the dune, beach and even underwater sandbars at along the coastline; destroying the vegetation cover or beach-rocks which are protecting the dunes and sandy beaches against the wind or wave erosion along this belt. In addition to these, due to the extraction of sand and gravel from the inland river beds, irrigation projects or great dams on the river beds are causing decrease of the amount of sediments which are transported by the rivers into the coastal strip and distributed by the longshore currents along the beaches, and blown by the sea breezes on coastal dunes in order to establish the natural coastal balance of rivers, beaches, dune, vegetation and wildlife interactions. The recently growing intensive cover of touristic and private buildings, walls and jetties etc. are now gradually blocking the natural evolution of the coastline. As an obvious result of these negative influences, there is an increasing coastal erosion and water pollution at along the sandy beaches since about the last 5-10 years, and this may cause also land degradation in the deltaic coastal plains at along the Mediterranean shorelines of Turkey. Some examples from Datça, Kemer, Belek beaches, Göksu and the Orontes delta coastal will be explained in the main text.

FARMER-USER PARTICIPATION IN SOIL CONSERVATION: THE PHILIPPINE EXPERIENCE

E.B. Cruz

Watershed Management Specialist, Pulangi IV HE Plant, Maramag, Bukidnon, Philippines

The Upper Catchment of the Pulangi River Basin is about 4,000.00 sq. km. It is located in the province of Bukidnon, Mindanao Islands of the Philippines. Sixty percent of the basin is largely cultivated. The 80 km Pulangi River System drains into the Pulangi IV reservoir which supports the generation of 255-MW power. The system contributes twenty five percent power requirement of Mindanao Grid. The downstream of the river is the site for 388 - MW hydroplant to be constructed very soon.

The Pulangi river basin, being basically sloping, is prevalently devoted to upland farming for corn and rice. Rolling hills are tractored for sugar cane plantation. These farming systems result in serious erosion and sediments drain into the Pulangi IV reservoir, where siltation is estimated to be 20 million cubic meters.

In view of the magnitude of the problem, the National Power Corporation, user of water for energy generation develop a soil and water conservation program involving farmers. Field activities include soil conservation education / awareness campaign, cross-farm visit, farmers' training, personalized technical assistance on the establishment of hedgerow farm system using legumes, Desmodium renzonii, Flemengia macrophylla, Leucena leucocepala, soil binding grasses and vetiver grass. Agroforestry, rockwalling/stonewalling and utilization of available materials to construct silt traps were also introduced to address the growing threat of the erosion problem.

Results indicate farmers' acceptance of the program as the economics of soil conservation were realized. Hundreds of farmers are involved as the technologies were adopted.

PRESERVING OUR HERITAGE: A CASE STUDY FROM SOUTHERN TURKEY

S. Kapur¹, E. Gültekin², O. Erol³, G. Akverdi¹, S. Þenol¹, C. Yetiþ⁴, C. Darýcý⁵, N. Öztürk¹, H. Özbek¹, E. Akça¹, A. Everest⁶, H. Yücesoy¹, A. D. Öcal¹

¹University of Çukurova, Departments of Archaeometry and Soil Science, Adana, Turkey

²University of Çukurova, Department of Landscape Architecture, Adana, Turkey

³10. Kýsým, B. 18/3, Ataköy, Ýstanbul, Turkey

⁴University of Çukurova, Department of Geology, Adana, Turkey

⁵University of Çukurova, Department of Biology, Adana, Turkey

⁶University of Mersin, Department of Biology, Mersin, Turkey

The study area covers the pericoastal lands towards the north of the concrete masses-buildings curtaining the immediate coastline of the Eastern Mediterranean between Anamur and Mersin towns. The treasures of the past -the Roman and Byzantine settlements/towns- along with the nonrenewable resources of biodiversity will be evaluated by an interdisciplinary approach. Concepts and measures represented as thematic maps of geomorphology-surfaces, geology-karstic terraces, pedology-Red Mediterranean Soils, biology-biodiversity will be superimposed on archaeological maps (1:25.000) prepared earlier by experts of the Ministry of Development and Housing for the preservation of historical sites.

Preparation of various combinations of the maps mentioned above, which will serve the ultimate purpose of landscape planning, oriented towards the creation of an open-air museum together with an area of conservation of biodiversity, is the objective of this study. Thus, the information obtained from combined database will help to develop a sustainable model for policy makers for the use of such sites.

BOOK REVIEWS

ACLEP NEWSLETTER

The Australian Collaborative Land Evaluation Program (ACLEP) Newsletter is a product of the National Landcare Program and the CSIRO Land and Water Division. Of the many Newsletters crossing my table, I enjoy reading this one as it provides a wealth of information on concerns, methods, and recent technologies. Those interested to receive this should contact the Editor (ACLEP Newsletter, CSIRO Land and Water, GPO Box 639, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia). Their next Newsletter is to feature tertiary training for land resource assessment and this should interest most of our readers.

They have established an electronic forum to discuss land resource issues and to know more about this contact Dr. Chris Malouf (email: chris.malouf@cbr.clw.csiro.au).

DESERTIFICATION CONTROL BULLETIN

This is published by the United Nations Environment Program (PO Box 30552, Nairobi, Kenya) in a bi-annual basis. It provides information on the desertification program of UNEP and they welcome articles on the subject matter from anyone. The most recent issue has a number of articles on the upcoming Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD).

The CCD was formally adopted on June 17, 1994 and takes an innovative approach in recognizing the physical, biological, and socioeconomic aspects of desertification, the importance of redirecting technology transfer so that it is demand driven, and the involvement of local populations in the development of national action programs. To date, the Convention has 115 signatories and has been ratified by 47 countries.

This bulletin is very useful to those interested in desertification and land degradation.

INTENSIFIED SYSTEMS OF FARMING IN THE TROPICS AND SUBTROPICS

World Bank Discussion Paper no: 364

The book is about eight representative farming systems with a wide range of geographic and resource features with contrasting sociological conditions in Africa, Europe, Asia and Latin America. The study concluded the need for in-depth research on socio-economic variables and consequently the realization of improved use of natural resources which have been poorly understood by policymakers.

ANNOUNCEMENTS

INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ARID REGION SOILS (YISARS)

21-25 September 1988, Izmir, Turkey

The purpose of YSIARS is to share experiences and research results on arid and semi-arid region soils among scientists all over the world. The Symposium is organised to honour Prof. Dr. M. Þ. Yeþilsoy, who through his illustrious career, made major contributions to the study of the physics, soil-water relationships and management in general "arid soils". He has contributed to our better understanding and management of the soils of Central and Southern Anatolia. His pioneering contribution is the basis of all current work on the sustainability of agriculture .

Participants are requested to present new research results or provide new information through appropriate reviews.

Major Topics

• Genesis, classification and survey,
• Assessment and monitoring of land degradation
• Management and land use
• Technologies for sustainable use
• Efficient water use
• Biodiversity and ecosystem management
• Impacts of global climate change
  

Tentative Symposium Programme: The YISARS symposium will consist of five days of session including half-day excursion. Contributing papers are invited for oral or poster presentation. The official language of the symposium is English and Turkish.

Dates and Location: The symposium will be held from 21 to 25 September, 1998 at the International Agro-Hydrology Research and Training Centre (THAEM) in Menemen, Ýzmir. THAEM has been built to international standards providing a very comfortable scientific meeting environment. Menemen Town is app. 35km far from Ýzmir which is the 3^rd largest city in Turkey. Accommodation facilities are available on the THAEM campus (single and double air-conditioned rooms) as well as hotels of various standards in Ýzmir. The location of the symposium is very close to the major historical sites along the Aegean Sea cost such as Pergamon, Ephesus, The House of Virgin Mary at Western Turkey.

Address for all correspondence concerning the symposium to:

Prof. Suat Þenol (YISARS Secretary)

Çukurova University, Dept. of Soil Science

01330 Balcalý, Adana, Turkey. Fax & Tel: + 90 322 338 67 47, Fax: + 90 322 338 66 43

10^th INTERNATIONAL SOIL CONSERVATION ORGANIZATION CONFERENCE

May 23-28, 1999. Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana

The United States, in cooperation with other North American partners, is pleased to offer land and water conservation professionals throughout the world an invitation to participate in the 10^th International Soil Conservation Organization (ISCO) Conference, May 23-28, 1999, at Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana. ISCO is an independent organization that promotes international exchange on the science, technology, policy, and application of land and water conservation.

Soil and water are critical natural resources that sustain human life and the lives of all other creatures on our planet. The careful husbandry of these natural resources is essential to world food security and environmental protection. When used in sustainable ways, soil and water produce the food, forestry, and fiber products that we all depend upon, and they will do so indefinitely. Sustainable use of these resources also is essential to socially, economically, and ecologically viable communities. It is imperative, therefore, that we invest adequately in research, the development of new technologies, and the effective transfer of those technologies. These are the roots of sound science on which the sustainable use of soil and water resources is based. Sound science also supports sound conservation policy, which is the basis for local action. It is the local action, either at the community, farm or ranch level, that yields land stewardship that will sustain our "global farm". Thus, the theme of the 10^th ISCO is "SUSTAINING THE GLOBAL FARM: Local Action for Land Stewardship".

The Meeting Focus

The defining characteristic of ISCO is its "inclusiveness." Thus, the scope of the Conference may encompass, but is not limited to, the following:

• Science and technology for conservation planning and assessment;
• Soil survey and natural resource assessment for environmental protection;
• Socioeconomic elements of land and water conservation;
• Conservation policy: a basis for action;
• Conservation action: sustaining our land and water;

There will be oral and poster presentations. One page abstracts are required by September 1, 1998. Guidelines for preparing the abstracts and papers will be sent to those who express their interest in participation.

Several tours are being planned and details will be made available to those who register. For more information and to register, consult the ISCO website

(http://soils.ecn.purdue.edu/~isco99) or contact:

ISCO99
Purdue University, 1196 SOIL Building
West Lafayette, Indiana 47907-1196, USA
Tel.: 1-765-494 8683, Fax: 1-765-494 5948, e-mail: isco99@ecn.purdue.edu

2^nd INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON LAND DEGRADATION: MEETING THE CHALLENGES OF LAND DEGRADATION IN THE 21ST CENTURY

KHON KAEN, THAILAND JANUARY 22-31, 1999

Land degradation, either natural or induced by humans, is an important concern affecting the wealth of nations, food security, and the quality of life. AGENDA 21 of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED 1992) emphasized the need for and proposes a wide range of activities to address land degradation in general and desertification in particular. Although much has been said and written about land degradation, there is still much conjecture on the subject as few countries have developed the techniques to measure degradation and subsequently develop spatial or other databases which enable the quantification of the process. Some of the immediate needs include:

• improved procedures to assess degradation at different scales- global, national, and local;
• evaluation of resilience capacities of land and methods to implement the concept;
• development of indicators of land degradation for use at all planning levels;
• development of mitigating technologies, and
• assisting development and implementation of appropriate national policies.

The First International Conference organized in Adana, Turkey (June 10-14, 1996), expressed the need to evaluate the science of land degradation. This was in response to the very high amounts of donor funds allocated to address land degradation without adequate information of the kinds, degree, and extent of the degradation problem prevailing in the country. In some instances, as the causes of degradation are not well appreciated, corrective measures through such bi-lateral projects have minimal impact. Land Degradation science is the domain of soil scientists. However, the processes are human induced and consequently social sciences and the understanding of socioeconomic factors causing the degradation is an important factor in developing mitigating technologies. There are also examples of situations where poor national land use policies have accelerated erosion and decline in quality of the soil. Land degradation science is thus an excellent example of the need to integrate, not only the sub-disciplines of soil science but also other disciplines including the policy arena. The 2nd International Conference is organized to address some or all of these issues.

The purpose of the conference stems from the fact that:

Sustainable development requires an active national program of natural resource conservation and management;

Sustainable land management, of which soil, water, and nutrient management are the most critical components, contributes to food security and income generation;

A partial solution to the problem of addressing land degradation includes providing information to decision makers which enables them to make assessments on locations and rates of degradation and target appropriate technology;

Through the collection of vital quantitative data on all aspects of degradation and their use in information technology, a powerful tool becomes available for decision making;

The larger goal of making agriculture friendly to the environment, is only attained by appropriate land management.

The conference will be organized around technical presentations, poster sessions, and working group discussions on the following topics:

• identification
• processes, resilience characteristics of land systems
• use of information technologies - application of system models

• deforestation, shifting cultivation
• urban and peri-urban linkages
• soil pollution
• mismatch between agricultural systems and ecosystems conditions

• economics of land degradation
• societal role
• indigenous knowledge

• ecosystem based management
• water quantity and quality

• quality of life
• environmentally friendly agriculture

• soil conditions

• early warning indicators
• monitoring networks

To obtain subsequent circular letters and further information on the conference, contact

Mr. Charoen Charoenchamratcheep

Department of Land Development

Phaholyothin Road, Chatuchak, Bangkok, 10900, THAILAND

Fax: + 662-579 2902, email: VEARASIL@mozart.inet.co.th

Acknowledgment

This newsletter was made possible through the financial and logistical support of the Turkish Soil Science Society. The Task Force wishes to express our appreciation and gratitude.⁽⁶⁾

Editors

Dr. Hari ESWARAN

Dr. Selim KAPUR

For information and contributions to the newsletter, contact managing editor:

Mr. Erhan AKÇA

Department of Soil Science

University of Çukurova

01330 Balcali, Adana, TURKEY

Fax: + 90 322 338 66 43

e-mail: gulbur@pamuk.cu.edu.tr

Please send this form to the managing editor for receiving the Land Degradation Newsletters

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Surname
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1. Costanza, R. et al. 1997. The value of the World's ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387: 253-260
2. Citation: Mermut, A.R. and H. Eswaran. 1997. Opportunities for soil science in a milieu of reduced funds. Can. J. Soil Sci. 77:1-7. Email of authors: mermut@sask.usask.ca, and heswaran@usda.gov.
3. The preparatory work and the event has been promoted by Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC) and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ).
4. Paper presented at the 4^th International Meeting on Red Mediterranean Soils, Plovdiv, Bulgaria, May 27-30, 1997.
5. Paper presented at the 4^th International Meeting on Red Mediterranean Soils, Plovdiv, Bulgaria, May 27-30, 1997.
6. * Printed in the University of Çukurova, Faculty of Agriculture press, Adana, Turkey

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