The Prison Journal
Crime and Delinquency
REVIEWED BY SAM TORRES
"Exploring the Effects of Childhood Sexual Abuse and Its Impact on HIV/AIDS Risk-Taking Behavior Among Women Prisoners," by J.L. Mullings, James W. Marquart, and D.J. Hartley (Vol. 83, No. 4, December 2003), pp. 442–463.
This article focuses on the various elements of childhood sexual abuse and their relationship to HIV/AIDS risk behaviors, using a sample of approximately 1,200 newly admitted female prisoners in 1998-1999. Consistent with a myriad of prior studies, the authors found that sexually abused prisoners were more likely to have experienced childhood neglect, come from one-parent families, and had parents with drug and/or alcohol and psychiatric problems. Female prisoners who had been sexually abused reportedly engaged in more high-risk drug and sexual activities than their non-abused counterparts.
Mullings et al. begin by noting that the estimates of the prevalence of adult-child sexual abuse reveal that 28 percent of women and 16 percent of men have been sexually abused before the age of 16 (p. 442). That childhood sexual abuse has wide-ranging and long-term effects is hardly open to question—it can result in such disorders as post-traumatic stress, depression, anxiety attacks, and sexual dysfunction. An additional and critical negative effect is the association between childhood abuse and adult substance abuse. The rate of childhood sexual abuse among female substance abusers is twice as high as that found in the general population (p. 443). A study of women who were abused as children revealed that approximately 8 percent became criminal offenders in adulthood. Women who have been abused as children may later abuse alcohol or drugs in an effort to self-medicate or reduce the negative symptoms associated with the abuse. The article also cites research linking childhood sexual abuse with adult prostitution, sexual compulsivity, early consensual sex, and a greater than average number of sexual partners than non-abused peers.
Thus, childhood sexual abuse has been linked to high-risk sexual and drug-taking behavior and HIV/AIDS, particularly among women. Women who have been sexually abused are more likely to engage in behavior placing them at risk for HIV/AIDS infection, such as trading sex for drugs, inconsistent condom use, and multiple partners. Other "risky behaviors" involve the sharing of needles, and drug use by injection. Mullings et al. emphasize that the research examining the relationship between childhood sexual victimization and subsequent high-risk behavior and drug-related activities among female prisoners is important for several reasons. First, the number of female prisoners has been increasing steadily. Second, arrest trends between 1984 to 1997 reveal that women are increasingly arrested for drug-related crimes. Forty-six percent of female prisoners in one study committed their crimes under the influence of drugs, and 80 percent used drugs on a regular basis (p.444). Third, the incidence of HIV among women is increasing at a faster rate than for other populations. Three percent of female prisoners are HIV positive, compared to 2 percent of male prisoners. Furthermore, the rate of HIV infection among female prisoners has increased by almost 90 percent, compared to 28 percent for males. According to studies cited in this article, it appears that the high prevalence of HIV infection among female inmates is directly related to risky drug activities.
Fourth, 43 percent of female inmates nationwide were sexually or physically abused prior to incarceration, compared to 12 percent of the males. Given these, it would appear that the prison is in a unique position to provide special treatment programs to address the underlying causes of the substance-abusing behavior which frequently results in criminal activity and incarceration.
The data used for this study were obtained from the Texas Commission on Alcohol and Drug Abuse by Texas A & M University through face-to-face interviews with a sample of women prisoners incarcerated between May 1998 and March 1999. Respondents were interviewed upon admission at the intake process at two separate facilities. The interview and questionnaire averaged 70 minutes. Two dependent variables were identified (HIV drug risks & HIV sexual risks), and a single item measured the independent variable—whether the inmate had ever been sexually abused, mistreated, or raped prior to age 18.
The results of the study found that women who had been sexually abused younger than the age 18 were significantly younger at admission to prison and more likely to be white than the non-abused comparison group. Furthermore, sexually abused prisoners reported a wide variety of unstable family characteristics. Overall, the sexually abused group experienced all measures of child neglect at greater frequencies than non-abused women. For example, sexually abused women were three times more likely to be unsupervised or left alone when too young, a situation conducive to sexual exploitation. Generally, women in the abused group grew up in environments fraught with chaos, dysfunction, and lack of care. The findings of this study support previous research that suggests sexually abused girls engage in early onset of substance abuse to self-medicate in dealing with the trauma. Given the large number of women in prison who abuse drugs, the authors conclude that these women were significantly more likely to be involved in behavior that places them at risk for HIV infection.
Female inmates who were sexually abused as children may require special prison-based interventions to reduce their HIV risk, particularly with regard to sexual risk taking. Identifying those at greatest risk for HIV is only a first step in treatment and education, according to the authors. Because of their unique needs, female prisoners require gender-specific and responsive interventions. "One-size-fits-all" treatment programs may not be in the best interest of female inmates. Mullings et al. suggest that programs for women prisoners must include substance abuse treatment, physical and mental health care, job skills training, parenting and reunification services, child visitation, and child and adult victimization services. Policy implications from the study include improved intake screening for female inmates that would identify issues such as a history of childhood maltreatment, as well as substance abuse and risky sexual behavior.
The study replicates and reinforces a multitude of prior research that highlights the relationship between childhood sexual abuse and adult substance abuse and criminality. While other studies focus on the childhood abuse/drug abuse/crime relationship, this study expands the analysis to address the high-risk activities that place the female prisoner at significantly greater risk for HIV/ AIDS infection. Needless to say, the implications of this high risk are of considerable importance when examining HIV transmission to the general population, transmission of HIV to the fetus during pregnancy, and treatment and costs associated if the inmate becomes symptomatic. Again, most of what has been reported in this article is already known in the discipline and also known to correctional policymakers. What may be needed is an in-depth cost analysis to demonstrate to what extent improved classification and effective treatment programs would reduce HIV transmission and recidivism and, in the long run, be more cost-effective than current strategies.
Crime and Delinquency
REVIEWED BY CHRISTINE J. SUTTON
"Opening the Manager's Door: State Probation Officer Stress and Perceptions of Participation in Workplace Decision Making" by Risdon N. Slate, Terry L. Wells, and W. Wesley Johnson (2003).
The old Carnation Milk commercial, "contented cows give better milk," is essentially the conclusion of this study, which looked at state probation officer stress and how it affects performance and the officer's well being. The authors concluded employees perform better with the development and use of participatory management schemes within probation organizations. This is the key to better balance and performance. Through a review of the literature, the authors identified probation as a people business, oftentimes requiring intense, stressful confrontations with recalcitrant offenders. Additionally, due to budget constraints, more felons are receiving probation. Probation officers have more contact with offenders than any other criminal justice practitioner and caseloads have continued to increase at unprecedented levels.
The majority of the studies done on job stress and burnout in criminal justice have focused on police and correctional officers. Furthermore, researchers have neglected the Federal probation officer, who supervises parolees as well. Stress was denied as a nonspecific response of the body to any demand. Stress can result in both positive and negative circumstances. Prolonged and extreme stress can manifest itself in withdrawal from work, emotional exhaustion and burnout. The stress levels of probation officers have been found to be higher than those of the general population. The dangers inherent to the job and having to make recommendations that result in custodial sentences were identified as two significant potential stressors for probation officers.
The authors used a 61-question questionnaire, sent electronically to 636 probation officers in a southern state to collect data, measuring contributors of stress and how stress can manifest into the deterioration of physical health of the probation officer. The sample population consisted of 52 percent women, 48 percent male officers, with 61 percent married, a median age of 36.2 years, an average of two years prior experience and a mean amount of time on the job of 8.5 years. The survey was divided into components measuring the level of external, internal job or task, personal and physical stressed experienced by the respondents. Questions distinguished managers from line officers, determined caseload size, identified officers with specialized caseloads, allowed officers to specify what function is the primary focus of their job, as well as the number of sick days used in the last year.
As identified by the respondent officers, the most influential stressors were found to be inadequate salary, courts being too lenient on offenders, lack of promotional opportunities, frustration with the criminal justice system, excessive paperwork, ineffectiveness of the judicial system, expectations to do too much in too little time, lack of recognition for good work, ineffectiveness of the correctional system, inadequate support from the agency and lack of community resources.
The authors recognized that not all the stressors are within the control of probation administrators, but several could be combated through organizational means. The result of the findings indicated employees who perceive they have input into workplace decision making are more likely to express higher opinions of their job and less likely to report physical symptoms of stress, which translates into greater productivity and morale, with less absenteeism and employee turnover. Empowering employees by giving them a voice in running the organization lets them know they are valued and serves to instill a sense of worth, resulting in dedicated employees.
Participatory management strategies were found to be critical to maximizing the functioning of human capital. As probation agencies continue to be pushed beyond their designed "hull speed," they are asked to do more with less and public safety demands the probation managers and policy makers stay in tune and remain responsive to front line officers.
The authors conclude the results suggest participatory management can be a critical factor in the process of addressing and reducing employee stress. Although the government usually lags behind the private sector in a number of ways, the use of participatory management styles in probation agencies should be an exception.