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Preface xix 1 Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems 1 1.1 Evolution of Mobile Radio Communications 1 1.2 Mobile Radiotelephony in the U.S. 4 1.3 Mobile Radio Systems Around the World 6 1.4 Examples of Wireless Communication Systems 9 1.4.1 Paging Systems 11 1.4.2 Cordless Telephone Systems 12 1.4.3 Cellular Telephone Systems 13 1.4.3.1 How a Cellular Telephone Call is Made 15 1.4.4 Comparison of Common Wireless Communication Systems 18 1.5 Trends in Cellular Radio and Personal Communications 20 1.6 Problems 22 2 Modern Wireless Communication Systems 25 2.1 Second Generation (2G) Cellular Networks 26 2.1.1 Evolution to 2.5G Wireless Networks 29 2.1.2 Evolution for 2.5G TDMA Standards 30 2.1.2.1 HSCSD for 2.5G GSM 30 2.1.2.2 GPRS for 2.5G GSM and IS-136 31 2.1.2.3 EDGE for 2.5G GSM and IS-136 33 2.1.3 IS-95B for 2.5G CDMA 34 2.2 Third Generation (3G) Wireless Networks 34 2.2.1 3G W-CDMA (UMTS) 37 2.2.2 3G cdma2000 38 2.2.3 3G TD-SCDMA 39 2.3 Wireless Local Loop (WLL) and LMDS 40 2.4 Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) 46 2.5 Bluetooth and Personal Area Networks (PANs) 52 2.6 Summary 54 2.7 Problems 55 3 The Cellular Concept-System Design Fundamentals 57 3.1 Introduction 57 3.2 Frequency Reuse 58 3.3 Channel Assignment Strategies 62 3.4 Handoff Strategies 62 3.4.1 Prioritizing Handoffs 65 3.4.2 Practical Handoff Considerations 66 3.5 Interference and System Capacity 67 3.5.1 Co-channel Interference and System Capacity 68 3.5.2 Channel Planning for Wireless Systems 72 3.5.3 Adjacent Channel Interference 74 3.5.4 Power Control for Reducing Interference 76 3.6 Trunking and Grade of Service 77 3.7 Improving Coverage & Capacity in Cellular Systems 86 3.7.1 Cell Splitting 86 3.7.2 Sectoring 90 3.7.3 Repeaters for Range Extension 93 3.7.4 A Microcell Zone Concept 93 3.8 Summary 96 3.9 Problems 97 4 Mobile Radio Propagation: Large-Scale Path Loss 105 4.1 Introduction to Radio Wave Propagation 105 4.2 Free Space Propagation Model 107 4.3 Relating Power to Electric Field 110 4.4 The Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms 113 4.5 Reflection 114 4.5.1 Reflection from Dielectrics 114 4.5.2 Brewster Angle 119 4.5.3 Reflection from Perfect Conductors 120 4.6 Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model 120 4.7 Diffraction 126 4.7.1 Fresnel Zone Geometry 126 4.7.2 Knife-edge Diffraction Model 129 4.7.3 Multiple Knife-edge Diffraction 134 4.8 Scattering 135 4.8.1 Radar Cross Section Model 136 4.9 Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Models 138 4.9.1 Log-distance Path Loss Model 138 4.9.2 Log-normal Shadowing 139 4.9.3 Determination of Percentage of Coverage Area 141 4.10 Outdoor Propagation Models 145 4.10.1 Longley-Rice Model 145 4.10.2 Durkin's Model-A Case Study 146 4.10.3 Okumura Model 150 4.10.4 Hata Model 153 4.10.5 PCS Extension to Hata Model 154 4.10.6 Walfisch and Bertoni Model 155 4.10.7 Wideband PCS Microcell Model 155 4.11 Indoor Propagation Models 157 4.11.1 Partition Losses (same floor) 157 4.11.2 Partition Losses between Floors 160 4.11.3 Log-distance Path Loss Model 161 4.11.4 Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint Model 161 4.11.5 Attenuation Factor Model 163 4.12 Signal Penetration into Buildings 166 4.13 Ray Tracing and Site Specific Modeling 167 4.14 Problems 168 5 Mobile Radio Propagation: Small-Scale Fading and Multipath 177 5.1 Small-Scale Multipath Propagation 177 5.1.1 Factors Influencing Small-Scale Fading 178 5.1.2 Doppler Shift 179 5.2 Impulse Response Model of a Multipath Channel 181 5.2.1 Relationship Between Bandwidth and Received Power 185 5.3 Small-Scale Multipath Measurements 192 5.3.1 Direct RF Pulse System 192 5.3.2 Spread Spectrum Sliding Correlator Channel Sounding 193 5.3.3 Frequency Domain Channel Sounding 196 5.4 Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels 197 5.4.1 Time Dispersion Parameters 199 5.4.2 Coherence Bandwidth 202 5.4.3 Doppler Spread and Coherence Time 203 5.5 Types of Small-Scale Fading 205 5.5.1 Fading Effects Due to Multipath Time Delay Spread 205 5.5.1.1 Flat fading 205 5.5.1.2 Frequency Selective Fading 207 5.5.2 Fading Effects Due to Doppler Spread 208 5.5.2.1 Fast Fading 208 5.5.2.2 Slow Fading 209 5.6 Rayleigh and Ricean Distributions 210 5.6.1 Rayleigh Fading Distribution 210 5.6.2 Ricean Fading Distribution 212 5.7 Statistical Models for Multipath Fading Channels 214 5.7.1 Clarke's Model for Flat Fading 214 5.7.1.1 Spectral Shape Due to Doppler Spread in Clarke's Model 217 5.7.2 Simulation of Clarke and Gans Fading Model 220 5.7.3 Level Crossing and Fading Statistics 223 5.7.4 Two-ray Rayleigh Fading Model 226 5.7.5 Saleh and Valenzuela Indoor Statistical Model 227 5.7.6 SIRCIM and SMRCIM Indoor and Outdoor Statistical Models 227 5.8 Theory of Multipath Shape Factors for Small-Scale Fading Wireless Channels 229 5.8.1 Introduction to Shape Factors 230 5.8.1.1 Multipath Shape Factors 232 Angular Spread, A 232 Angular Constriction, y 233 Azimuthal Direction of Maximum Fading, 0max 233 5.8.1.2 Fading Rate Variance Relationships 233 Complex Received Voltage, V(r) 233 Received Power, P(r) 234 Received Envelope, R(r) 234 5.8.1.3 Comparison to Omnidirectional Propagation 234 5.8.2 Examples of Fading Behavior 236 5.8.2.1 Sector Channel Model 236 5.8.2.2 Double Sector Channel Model 239 5.8.2.3 Ricean Channel Model 240 5.8.3 Second-Order Statistics Using Shape Factors 240 5.8.3.1 Level-Crossing Rates and Average Fade Duration 242 5.8.3.2 Spatial Autocovariance 242 5.8.3.3 Coherence Distance 243 5.8.4 Applying Shape Factors to Wideband Channels 243 5.8.5 Revisiting Classical Channel Models with Shape Factors 244 5.9 Summary 247 5.10 Problems 248 6 Modulation Techniques for Mobile Radio 255 6.1 Frequency Modulation vs. Amplitude Modulation 256 6.2 Amplitude Modulation 257 6.2.1 Single Sideband AM 260 6.2.2 Pilot Tone SSB 261 6.2.3 Demodulation of AM signals 262 6.3 Angle Modulation 264 6.3.1 Spectra and Bandwidth of FM Signals 266 6.3.2 FM Modulation Methods 267 6.3.3 FM Detection Techniques 268 6.3.4 Tradeoff Between SNR and Bandwidth in an FM Signal 276 6.4 Digital Modulation-an Overview 277 6.4.1 Factors That Influence the Choice of Digital Modulation 278 6.4:2 Bandwidth and Power Spectral Density of Digital Signals 281 6.5 Line Coding 282 6.6 Pulse Shaping Techniques 282 6.6.1 Nyquist Criterion for ISI Cancellation 282 6.6.2 Raised Cosine Rolloff Filter 287 6.6.3 Gaussian Pulse-Shaping Filter 290 6.7 Geometric Representation of Modulation Signals 291 6.8 Linear Modulation Techniques 294 6.8.1 Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) 295 6.8.2 Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK) 298 6.8.3 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) 300 6.8.4 QPSK Transmission and Detection Techniques 301 6.8.5 Offset QPSK 303 6.8.6 in/4 QPSK 305 6.8.7 7c/4 QPSK Transmission Techniques 305 6.8.8 t7/4 QPSK Detection Techniques 308 6.9 Constant Envelope Modulation 311 6.9.1 Binary Frequency Shift Keying 312 6.9.2 Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) 314 6.9.3 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK) 318 6.10 Combined Linear and Constant Envelope Modulation Techniques 322 6.10.1 M-ary Phase Shift Keying (MPSK) 323 6.10.2 M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) 325 6.10.3 M-ary Frequency Shift Keying (MFSK) and OFDM 328 6.11 Spread Spectrum Modulation Techniques 329 6.11.1 Pseudo-Noise (PN) Sequences 330 6.11.2 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS-SS) 331 6.11.3 Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FH-SS) 334 6.11.4 Performance of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum 335 6.11.5 Performance of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum 338 6.12 Modulation Performance in Fading and Multipath Channels 339 6.12.1 Performance of Digital Modulation in Slow Flat-Fading Channels 340 6.12.2 Digital Modulation in Frequency Selective Mobile Channels 344 6.12.3 Performance of n/4 DQPSK in Fading and Interference 346 6.13 Problems 350 7 Equalization, Diversity, and Channel Coding 355 7.1 Introduction 355 7.2 Fundamentals of Equalization 356 7.3 Training A Generic Adaptive Equalizer 359 7.4 Equalizers in a Communications Receiver 363 7.5 Survey of Equalization Techniques 364 7.6 Linear Equalizers 366 7.7 Nonlinear Equalization 368 7.7.1 Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE) 369 7.7.2 Maximum Likelihood Sequence Estimation (MLSE) Equalizer 370 7.8 Algorithms for Adaptive Equalization 372 7.8.1 Zero Forcing Algorithm 374 7.8.2 Least Mean Square Algorithm 374 7.8.3 Recursive Least Squares Algorithm 376 7.8.4 Summary of Algorithms 379 7.9 Fractionally Spaced Equalizers 380 7.10 Diversity Techniques 380 7.10.1 Derivation of Selection Diversity Improvement 381 7.10.2 Derivation of Maximal Ratio Combining Improvement 384 7.10.3 Practical Space Diversity Considerations 385 7.10.3.1 Selection Diversity 386 7.10.3.2 Feedback or Scanning Diversity 386 7.10.3.3 Maximal Ratio Combining 387 7.10.3.4 Equal Gain Combining 387 7.10.4 Polarization Diversity 387 7.10.5 Frequency Diversity 390 7.10.6 Time Diversity 390 7.11 RAKE Receiver 391 7.12 Interleaving 393 7.13 Fundamentals of Channel Coding 394 7.14 Block Codes and Finite Fields 395 7.14.1 Examples of Block Codes 399 7.14.2 Case Study: Reed-Solomon Codes for CDPD 400 7.14.2.1 Reed-Solomon Encoding 401 7.14.2.2 Reed-Solomon Decoding 404 7.15 Convolutional Codes 407 7.15.1 Decoding of Convolutional Codes 409 7.15.1.1 The Viterbi Algorithm 409 7.15.1.2 Other Decoding Algorithms for Convolutional Codes 410 7.16 Coding Gain 411 7.17 Trellis Coded Modulation 412 7.18 Turbo Codes 412 7.19 Problems 412 8 Speech Coding 415 8.1 Introduction 415 8.2 Characteristics of Speech Signals 417 8.3 Quantization Techniques 418 8.3.1 Uniform Quantization 418 8.3.2 Nonuniform Quantization 419 8.3.3 Adaptive Quantization 421 8.3,.4 Vector Quantization 422 8.4 Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation (ADPCM) 423 8.5 Frequency Domain Coding of Speech 425 8.5.1 Sub-band Coding 425 8.5.2 Adaptive Transform Coding 428 8.6 Vocoders 429 8.6.1 Channel Vocoders 429 8.6.2 Formant Vocoders 430 8.6.3 Cepstrum Vocoders 430 8.6.4 Voice-Excited Vocoder 431 8.7 Linear Predictive Coders 431 8.7.1 LPC Vocoders 431 8.7.2 Multipulse Excited LPC 434 8.7.3 Code-Excited LPC 434 8.7.4 Residual Excited LPC 436 8.8 Choosing Speech Codecs for Mobile Communications 436 8.9 The GSM Codec 440 8.10 The USDC Codec 442 8.11 Performance Evaluation of Speech Coders 442 8.12 Problems 445 9 Multiple Access Techniques for Wireless Communications 447 9.1 Introduction 447 9.1.1 Introduction to Multiple Access 448 9.2 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) 449 9.3 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) 453 9.4 Spread Spectrum Multiple Access 456 9.4.1 Frequency Hopped Multiple Access (FHMA) 457 9.4.2 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 458 9.4.3 Hybrid Spread Spectrum Techniques 459 9.5 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) 461 9.6 Packet Radio 462 9.6.1 Packet Radio Protocols 463 9.6.1.1 Pure ALOHA 464 9.6.1.2 Slotted ALOHA 465 9.6.2 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) Protocols 466 9.6.3 Reservation Protocols 467 9.6.3.1 Reservation ALOHA 467 9.6.3.2 Packet Reservation Multiple Access (PRMA) 468 9.6.4 Capture Effect in Packet Radio 468 9.7 Capacity of Cellular Systems 469 9.7.1 Capacity of Cellular CDMA 474 9.7.2 Capacity of CDMA with Multiple Cells 477 9.7.3 Capacity of Space Division Multiple Access 484 9.8 Problems 488 10 Wireless Networking 491 10.1 Introduction to Wireless Networks 491 10.2 Differences Between Wireless and Fixed Telephone Networks 493 10.2.1 The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) 493 10.2.2 Limitations in Wireless Networking 495 10.2.3 Merging Wireless Networks and the PSTN 496 10.3 Development of Wireless Networks 497 10.3.1 First Generation Wireless Networks 497 10.3.2 Second Generation Wireless Networks 499 10.3.3 Third Generation Wireless Networks 500 10.4 Fixed Network Transmission Hierarchy 501 10.5 Traffic Routing in Wireless Networks 502 10.5.1 Circuit Switching 503 10.5.2 Packet Switching 504 10.5.3 The X.25 Protocol 505 10.6 Wireless Data Services 506 10.6.1 Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) 506 10.6.2 Advanced Radio Data Information Systems (ARDIS) 508 10.6.3 RAM Mobile Data (RMD) 508 10.7 Common Channel Signaling (CCS) 510 10.7.1 The Distributed Central Switching Office for CCS 510 10.8 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) 512 10.8.1 Broadband ISDN and ATM 513 10.9 Signaling System No. 7 (SS7) 514 10.9.1 Network Services Part (NSP) of SS7 515 10.9.1.1 Message Transfer Part (MTP) of SS7 516 10.9.1.2 Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) of SS7 517 10.9.2 The SS7 User Part 517 10.9.2.1 Integrated Services Digital Network User Part (ISUP) 517 10.9.2.2 Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP) 518 10.9.2.3 Operation Maintenance and Administration Part (OMAP) 518 10.9.3 Signaling Traffic in SS7 518 10.9.4 SS7 Services 519 10.9.5 Performance of SS7 519 10.10 An Example of SS7-Global Cellular Network Interoperability 520 10.11 Personal Communication Services/Networks (PCS/PCNs) 522 10.11.1 Packet vs. Circuit Switching for PCN 523 10.11.2 Cellular Packet-Switched Architecture 523 10.11.2.1 Network Functionality in Cellular Packet-Switched Architecture 527 10.12 Protocols for Network Access 527 10.12.1 Packet Reservation Multiple Access (PRMA) 528 10,13 Network Databases 529 10.13.1 Distributed Database for Mobility Management 529 10.14 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS) 530 10.15 Summary 531 11 Wireless Systems and Standards 533 11.1 AMPS and ETACS 533 11.1.1 AMPS and ETACS System Overview 534 11.1.2 Call Handling in AMPS and ETACS 535 11.1.3 AMPS and ETACS Air Interface 537 11.1.4 N-AMPS 540 11.2 United States Digital Cellular (IS-54 and IS-136) 541 11.2.1 USDC Radio Interface 542 11.2.2 United States Digital Cellular Derivatives (IS-94 and IS-136) 548 11.3 Global System for Mobile (GSM) 549 11.3.1 GSM Services and Features 550 11.3.2 GSM System Architecture 551 11.3.3 GSM Radio Subsystem 553 11.3.4 GSM Channel Types 555 11.3.4.1 GSM Traffic Channels (TCHs) 555 11.3.4.2 GSM Control Channels (CCH) 557 11.3.5 Example of a GSM Call 560 11.3.6 Frame Structure for GSM 561 11.3.7 Signal Processing in GSM 563 11.4 CDMA Digital Cellular Standard (IS-95) 567 11.4.1 Frequency and Channel Specifications 567 11.4.2 Forward CDMA Channel 569 11.4.2.1 Convolutional Encoder and Repetition Circuit 569 11.4.2.2 Block Interleaver 571 11.4.2.3 Long PN Sequence 571 11.4.2.4 Data Scrambler 572 11.4.2.5 Power Control Subchannel 572 11.4.2.6 Orthogonal Covering 573 11.4.2.7 Quadrature Modulation 574 11.4.3 Reverse CDMA Channel 575 11.4.3.1 Convolutional Encoder and Symbol Repetition 576 11.4.3.2 Block Interleaver 576 11.4.3.3 Orthogonal Modulation 576 11.4.3.4 Variable Data Rate Transmission 576 11.4.3.5 Direct Sequence Spreading 578 11.4.3.6 Quadrature Modulation 580 11.4.4 IS-95 with 14.4 kbps Speech Coder [ANS95] 580 11.5 CT2 Standard for Cordless Telephones 580 11.5.1 CT2 Services and Features 580 11.5.2 The CT2 Standard 581 11.6 Digital European Cordless Telephone (DECT) 582 11.6.1 Features and Characteristics 582 11.6.2 DECT Architecture 582 11.6.3 DECT Functional Concept 584 11.6.4 DECT Radio Link 584 11.7 PACS - Personal Access Communication Systems 587 11.7.1 PACS System Architecture 587 11.7.2 PACS Radio Interface 587 11.8 Pacific Digital Cellular (PDC) 590 11.9 Personal Handyphone System (PHS) 590 11.10 US PCS and ISM Bands 591 11.11 US Wireless Cable Television 593 11.12 Summary of Standards Throughout the World 594 11.13 Problems 597 APPENDICES A Trunking Theory 601 A.1 Erlang B 602 A.1.1 Derivation of Erlang B 602 A.2 Erlang C 607 A.2.1 Derivation of Erlang C 607 B Noise Figure Calculations for Link Budgets 611 C Rate Variance Relationships for Shape Factor Theory 615 C. Rate Variance for Complex Voltage 615 C.2 Rate Variance for Power 617 C.3 Rate Variance for Envelope 617 D Approximate Spatial Autocovariance Function for Shape Factor Theory 619 E Gaussian Approximations for Spread Spectrum CDMA 621 E.1 The Gaussian Approximation 629 E.2 The Improved Gaussian Approximation (IGA) 635 E.3 A Simplified Expression for the Improved Gaussian Approximation (SEIGA) 637