ACF OPRE: Celebrating Cultural and Linguistic Diversity in Head Start

5 – Classroom

The classroom had posters of leaders of different ethnicities, pictures of families from different ethnic groups wearing traditional clothes, and labels in several languages. In the house area, they had lots of items such as a mocajate (a butter making utensil from Mexico), a tortilla warmer, a dim sum warmer, chopsticks, and Vietnamese bowls and cups. They had lots of multicultural books and tapes in Spanish, English and Vietnamese. This classroom included many multicultural materials for the children to play with. This was a nice classroom where they respect and encourage the use of the children's home language. The teaching staff was affectionate, attentive and warm toward the children. The children seemed to get along well and played together. The classroom environment was conducive to learning and playing. The room was filled with materials for the children to play with and it certainly gave a feeling of belonging.

This chapter summarizes findings from site visits. Site visits were conducted with 58 classrooms in 30 programs that serve culturally and linguistically diverse children and families. These site visits provided rich, descriptive data about individual classrooms. Sites were selected through analysis of the PIR and survey data and consultations with the Federal Project Officer, other ACYF staff, and Head Start Regional Offices. Selected sites also included self-reported multicultural programs from the mail survey respondents. Principle among site visit selection criteria was the presence of diversity in both families and staff. Data were collected using qualitative methods, including individual interviews held with staff, focus groups with parents, and structured classroom observations.

Results of site visits indicated that Head Start staff have different understandings of the meaning of and approaches to "multiculturalism." For example, many programs believed that hiring staff that represent the languages and cultures of participant families makes their program "multicultural." Other programs described their multicultural programming efforts almost solely in terms of holidays, cooking, and materials such as books.

Dimensions of Multicultural Approaches

Programs vary widely in their approaches to and degree of integrating multicultural programming in the classroom. Most of the classrooms visited used what is referred to in the literature as a contributions/additive or "tourist curriculum" approach (Banks, 1995; Derman-Sparks & the ABC Task Force, 1989;York, 1992). Fewer Head Start classrooms utilized an anti-bias or activist approach to curricular planning. This is most likely a reflection of the wider availability of multicultural materials but less available training opportunities in multicultural education. In essence, programs purchase multicultural materials for the classroom, but the teachers are unsure of how to plan and implement "multicultural" lessons.

The Contributions / Additive Approach

"Last year on Chinese New Year we made Chinese dragons and ate won-tons. And then on Cinco de Mayo we made quesadillas and played with a pinata. The children love learning about different cultures."

Utilizing the contributions approach, heroes, heroines, holidays, foods, and discrete cultural elements are celebrated only occasionally. The intent is positive: to introduce children to different cultures, so they will learn to respect each other and not develop prejudice. However, deterioration into a "tourist" or "token" curriculum often keeps this approach from accomplishing its constructive intent. The approach emphasizes the "exotic" differences between cultures and makes light of the lives of persons from other cultures by dealing not with the real-life daily problems and experiences of different peoples, but with surface aspects of their celebrations and modes of entertainment. In essence, children "visit" other cultures and then "go home" to the daily classroom, which reflects only the dominant culture. The focus on holidays, while providing fun and excitement for both children and adults, may give the impression that this is all "other" people -- usually people of color -- do (Derman-Sparks & The ABC Task Force, 1989; Banks, 1995).

The Action / Anti-Bias Approach

"At the beginning of the year there was a lot of prejudice, but the Persona Dolls have helped, along with stories from the library. The doll with a prosthetic limb was introduced to the children through storytelling and telling the children that the girl (doll) is embarrassed because of a difference she has -- when the children found out why, they told her (the doll) that it was nothing to be embarrassed about-- it has helped with the idea of disability and the children interact better with a boy in a wheelchair in the school program."

Anti-bias curriculum incorporates the positive intent of the contribution/additive approach and uses some similar activities, while seeking to avoid the dangers of a tourist curriculum. Children learn about and help make decisions on important personal, social and civic problems. The children also take actions to help solve them. An anti-bias/activist approach teaches children to challenge prejudice, stereotypes, bias, and the "isms," while affirming a child's sense of self and ethnic identity. Children in classrooms that utilize an anti-bias approach are challenged to think about racism and prejudice in a developmentally appropriate context. For example, the children might learn about Rosa Parks and the circumstances of the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the ensuing struggle for justice. This would not be taught only on or around Martin Luther King's birthday, but would be taught early on in the year and revisited throughout the year.

Curricula

Several published and locally designed bilingual and/or multicultural curricula were used in Head Start classrooms visited. When asked what curricula they utilized, program responses varied. Some programs reported using the Spanish versions of curricula such as High/Scope or the Creative Curriculum. Additional curricula programs used are listed below. This list is not exhaustive of all multicultural curricula, but instead only reflects curricula programs claimed to use.

Nuevas Fronteras is a bilingual/bicultural curriculum based on the assumption that a child's cultural background is reflected in his or her learning process. This curriculum emphasizes use of the "most appropriate cognitive style" while enabling the child to develop a new learning style. Sites using this curriculum tend to display an "all-inclusive" approach towards learning. For example, staff might use examples from different cultures when narrating a story through the use of pictures or music.
Roots and Wings is based on the idea that a child must feel pride in his or her cultural background in order to learn about other cultures. This curriculum focuses on the child's home culture and introduces other cultures later. Programs using Roots and Wings incorporate songs, dances, and other activities from the children's home culture. One education coordinator explained the philosophy behind selection of this curriculum: "First you are interested in their development as human beings and then about multiculturalism."
Amanecer, which means "the dawning of a new day," is based on the philosophy that past and future experiences impact a child's learning process. This curriculum emphasizes new experiences that are consistent with the child's past experiences and stresses learning concepts and ideas in the home language. The second language is introduced only after the child has demonstrated competence in the first language. However, it is unclear how and by whom a child's competence in the first language is assessed.
Living Together Peacefully began as a pilot study at one of the Head Start centers visited. It uses a four-step approach to cover each unit: (1) doing, (2) sharing, (3) processing, and (4) transferring/applying. It includes activities to be done at home as well as in the classroom. Although this curriculum was originally developed in English, a Head Start teacher has translated it into Spanish and Hmong.
One American Indian program has developed its own curriculum in cooperation with the local Native Advisory Committee and a nearby university. The curriculum includes stories about animals and characters from traditional American Indian stories, such as the coyote and the spider. One aspect of this curriculum is to demonstrate to children that other cultures have similar kinds of stories.
NAEYC's Anti-Bias Curriculum is one of the most widely used. Typically, programs use this curriculum to supplement other curricula in an effort to teach children, parents, and staff not to consider color, gender, or other characteristics in judging people.
Several sites use Afrocentric curricula, which emphasize African culture, intergenerational support, and a holistic worldview. Teachers employ a "language enhancement" teaching model which "instills confidence by promoting acceptance of the way each child expresses him or herself." In this model, the teachers are trained to adopt forms of expression used by the child in order to teach about the surrounding environment. One site uses an Afrocentric curriculum that emphasizes the principles of Kwanzaa, including unity (Umoja), self-determination (Kujichagulia), cooperative economics (Ujima), collective work and responsibility (Ujamaa), creativity (Kuumba), purpose (Nia), and faith (Imani).

Multicultural Materials

Most sites have some materials that represent both mainstream and ethnic or racial minority communities. Survey results (n=1,424) found most programs had books, dolls, and music representing different ethnic groups (See Exhibit 5.1). Survey respondents indicated that the African American culture was the most frequently represented in their materials, followed by Hispanic. Staff reported that these multicultural materials are now easier to find than in the past.

"I remember years trying to find pictures of black families for my classes years ago and I could not find them. Now I can find these things anywhere."

The site visits verified that programs more often than not have materials that represent various cultures. Most sites offer materials that include books, dolls, music, posters, and traditional dress-up clothes. Materials featuring children with visible disabilities, however, were found in less than one-third of the classrooms visited.

Exhibit 5.1 Head Start Multicultural Classroom Curricular Materials

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Results as indicated in the graph

Number of Programs For Each Material:
Curriculum: 170
Puppets: 160
Arts Media: 190
Clothes: 200
Food: 240
Posters: 580
Music: 1000+
Books: 1000+
Dolls: 1000+

Source: Survey ‘93

A description of multicultural materials commonly seen during site visits by classroom area follows:

Visual Displays

Almost all Head Start classrooms display posters showing different ethnic groups interacting with each other. The posters portray ethnically diverse children, children with disabilities, children engaging in nontraditional gender activities, and different family constellations.

Many teachers display pictures of the children from their class around the room. This practice of featuring photos and artwork of the children in the class naturally reflects the diversity of the class. One classroom had a pictorial representation of the daily schedule using pictures of the children in the classroom actually doing the activities. Another classroom had parents decorate their child's cubby with pictures and drawings of their family.

Dramatic Display

The housekeeping area in most Head Start classrooms provides for the greatest amount of multicultural activity. Most classrooms were attractively decorated with ornaments and tableware from mostly Asian and Hispanic cultures. Many parents donate these items from their homes; examples included: Oriental woks, different types of chopsticks, tortilla baskets, a mortar and pestle, Asian plates, teapots, washboards, and place mats depicting the Chinese zodiac. The kitchens contain diverse plastic foods such as pita bread, tacos, sushi, and a bowl of rice.

The "dress-up" clothes seen in the classrooms represent various community helpers such as doctors, firefighters, policeman, mail carriers, and everyday dress. Some classrooms offer traditional "multicultural" dress up clothes including American Indian tribal clothing, Mexican dresses, Guatemalan jackets, Hawaiian skirts, hats made from African fabric, and Chinese dresses and shoes. When playing "dress-up", the children were typically observed dressing in mainstream clothing versus in "multicultural" clothing. However, one teacher explained that the children in her class were more likely to dress up in the "multicultural" clothing if they had talked about it in class, or the children had seen a character in a story dressed in a similar manner.

A few classrooms have a "market" or "grocery" prop box with empty boxes of food products such as an empty can of refried beans, a bag of lentils, and cans of beans printed in Chinese. One predominantly Asian-American classroom has brooms from different Asian countries. The "multicultural kits" at one site have items such as play bread from around the world or musical instruments from around the world. One kit, labeled "Everybody Eats", contains plastic replicas of breads and cooking utensils from various cultures with explanatory material about each item.

Head Start classrooms contain an assortment of dolls from several ethnic groups. As observed, most classrooms have dolls that represent the classroom's ethnic composition and dolls from other ethnic groups as well. Dolls represent Asians, Europeans, blacks, Latinos, and American Indians.

Blocks

Some classrooms add multicultural materials to the block area. One popular set of dolls is the Block Play People. Block Play People are about 5 inches tall and portray a range of ethnic groups, ages, professions, genders and disabilities. Examples include a grandmother wearing pants, a black female doctor, and an American Indian dressed in contemporary clothing. Many children seem to enjoy playing with the Block Play People and often play with them as multi-ethnic families and neighborhoods.

Books

Books abound in the Head Start classrooms, and most, but not all, classrooms have bilingual and multicultural books. Books in English and Spanish are in abundance, as well as books about African-American culture. Book topics include multicultural tales and themes relating to traditional hats, ethnically diverse faces, skin color, countries such as Vietnam and China, ethnic foods, Kwanza celebrations, and American Indian traditions. Most bilingual books are in English and Spanish. Common titles include Tortillas para Mama, a nursery rhyme book; The Red Hen; All the Colors of Our Skin; and a book on Latin American folklore. There are few books written in Vietnamese or Chinese; however, some books have pictures of Asian children.

Another strategy to have books that represent the diversity of the class is to create them. One teacher makes "class books" representing all the diversity in the classroom. The books are made up of photos of the children in the class. They show many classroom events such as celebrations of Kwanzaa, children dressed up as community workers, field trips and other special happenings. One book is called "Alike and Different." In the "Alike and Different" book, each page features a child's drawing of two children in the classroom. There is a dictation of the child explaining how the two are both alike and different. A Polaroid photo of the two friends is glued to the same page. Another book is titled "My Family is Special." In this book, a child's family completes each page. There is a self-portrait of each family, complete with a photo. Each family has completed the sentence: "My family is special because…"

Manipulatives

The manipulative areas in Head Start classrooms typically have toys and activities for children to exercise their fine motor skills. Items such as puzzles, legos, peg boards, geo-boards and small dolls to dress up are included. Some classrooms have added multicultural materials to this area.

A few Head Start classrooms have small, flannel, multiethnic figures with traditional clothes. Children are free to dress them in any costume they wish. The children can mix and match the ethnicities of the figures and the origin of the costumes. Some classrooms also have collectible ethnic dolls in traditional dress displayed across the room, primarily for decorative purposes.

Other classrooms also present multicultural puzzles in the table toy areas. These puzzles illustrate children from around the world dressed in traditional clothing, men and women in non-traditional roles, and heroes of color such as Martin Luther King Jr.

Art

Art areas typically have a multitude of art media but not necessarily multicultural materials. Most art areas have easels, paper, paints and collage materials such as feathers, shells, noodles and confetti. A few classrooms, though, have added multicultural materials. Multicultural art materials included different color skin tone paints, paper, markers, colored pencils and crayons. One classroom had precut paper dolls of different skin colors for the children to decorate with a variety of materials. One classroom had mirrors in the art area for children to look at while making "self-portraits." The self-portraits were displayed around the room.

Music and Movement

Head Start classrooms have a diversity of instruments from around the world in their music and movement centers. Many classrooms sing and play instruments to music from around the world. One classroom uses a large African Gathering Drum to call the children to circle.

Around the music areas, some classrooms had posters with famous musicians from around the world. One classroom near the Mexican border displayed a bulletin board featuring the late Selena.

Many classrooms also have record and tape players with a variety of music. One classroom chose a class "DJ" every day at lunchtime. The DJ selected the music the children would listen to at lunch. There was a diverse collection of music from all over the world, including Big Band jazz, classical, flute music from the Sierra Madres, reggae and Afro-Cuban jazz and children's music. While the music was playing, the teacher would engage the children in a conversation about what the type of music was called and what country it came from.

Computer / Audiovisual

Head Start classrooms have computers for children to use to varying degrees. Some have brand new computers and new software, others have out-dated models of computers with limited software and some do not have computers at all. Classrooms with newer computers also tend to have software available in a variety of languages. Most CD-ROM games have optional settings for language.

Parent Areas

Almost all Head Start classrooms have parent areas or bulletin boards inside the classroom. Information on these boards was typically available in English and Spanish. The following types of informational flyers were printed in many languages, including English, Spanish, Vietnamese and Cambodian:

A parent volunteer hand book
Head Start family services
Policy Council meeting minutes

However, many flyers were available in English only. Some programs limited the text of informational flyers and had the information represented pictorially instead. One program produced the class newsletter in English but utilized parent and community volunteers to translate the material on to a cassette tape. The tapes were sent home with small tape recorders for the parents to listen to along with the newsletter.

Bilingual and Multicultural Materials

The site visits revealed that while materials were often available in the classrooms, teachers did not often use them in their daily activities. Teachers said that they struggled to find multicultural materials best suited to the children served, but when they had them, they did not always know what to do with them.

When activities were presented, they included cooking and eating different foods, singing songs, dancing, watching presentations, and going on field trips.

Cooking

In some programs, staff incorporate food preparation and eating into their multicultural activities. For example, they might prepare Chinese wontons or American Indian fry bread. During this time teachers label food items in different languages. One teacher described the manner in which a cooking activity seemed to "bring out" a seemingly shy and withdrawn Spanish speaking girl:

"I was introducing the cooking activity at circle time. The children were watching me closely as I pulled the ingredients out of the grocery bag one at a time. We were going to make a tortilla soup. I got the recipe from Ana's grandmother. As I pulled items out, the children would shout out the names. But when I pulled out the jalpeno, it was silent. I waited a little while and then shy, little Ana, who until then never spoke at circle -- in fact she rarely spoke at all -- almost jumped through the roof as she shouted, "jalapeno, jalapeno." In the little Spanish that I knew, I said, "Si, Ana. Es verdad. Es uno jalapeno. Muy bueno, Ana!" After tha,t Ana led the cooking activity with confidence and excitement. I realized then how important it was to validate each child's culture in my classroom, how much confidence it gave them."

Meals

Visited Head Start programs had menus with foods typical to a U.S. diet -- for example, chicken nuggets, mashed potatoes, gravy, bread, apples, and milk. Even when nutrition coordinators say that their programs prepare "multicultural meals," closer observation reveals that these meals consist of only slight variations from the mainstream American diet, such as tacos, pizza, or "Chinese chicken salad." During one site visit, it was noted that programs serving predominantly Chinese children, for example, are more likely to serve Chinese food for meals and snacks. Some program staff explain that they prefer to offer "an American menu" to familiarize children with typical American foods so that they will have already acquired a taste for them when they transition to public elementary schools.

At some sites, staff report that they attempt to implement new cooking styles, but that their cooks do not know how to prepare different foods. Moreover, parents and children are both reluctant to eat unfamiliar foods. Program staff often encourage children to try new foods by tasting them first and then modeling their enthusiasm to the children. In other cases, staff encourage parents to diversify their diets to improve children's health.

Singing

Although surveys show that children sing songs in Spanish, Creole, Chinese, Vietnamese, and Hmong, during site visits it was noted that children were singing predominantly in English or Spanish. In some classrooms, they may sing a song in one language, and then repeat it in a second language. For example, in one classroom children sang "Las Manañitas" for a non-Hispanic black girl's birthday and then sang the birthday song in English. The Spanish song, "Los pollitos dicen pio, pio, pio" (i.e., "The chicks say, pi, pi, pi") is another popular choice. In another classroom, children learn to sing a song before lunchtime in Spanish, Vietnamese, and English. Children and teachers seem to be well versed in the lyrics in each language. Many songs focus on respecting children from different ethnic groups and on celebrating diversity.

Many sites play a variety of American Indian, Spanish, and/or African-American songs. One teacher plays songs recorded by the late Selena, mariachi music, and other Mexican folk music. In another classroom, observers noted that the classrooms possess a selection of music ranging from "earth-tribe" rhythms to Japanese and Hawaiian folk music. Sometimes, children do folk and limbo dancing; on other occasions, they follow along with the music using instruments such as cymbals, maracas and American Indian drums. Although many teachers report playing a wide assortment of music, multicultural music activities during the researchers' brief visits were rarely observed.

Children sing songs at the beginning and end of the class, at meal times, and at circle times. Across the Head Start sites, the most popular songs heard in the classrooms are based on nursery rhymes, the alphabet, colors, animals, and caring about one another. Examples of such songs include "The Red Hen," "The ABC Song," "The Barney Song," "La Cucaracha," "Frère Jacques" and "Pio, Pio, Pio." In some classrooms, the children have the opportunity to pick their favorite songs. In the more diverse classrooms, children sing in different languages including Spanish, Hmong, and Chinese. In one class, children were singing a song in both Spanish and Tagalog. Most children are actively involved in the singing. However, in classrooms where the majority of children are English speaking, they sing only in English.

Music also accompanies some small group activities. One teacher plays American Indian music while children make colorful masks, and another plays nursery rhymes while the children are working with arts and crafts materials.

Dancing

Dance is important in many Head Start classrooms. During site visits, some children were dancing an Afro-Cuban salsa, others were doing a Caribbean limbo, and still others were dancing to Jamaican music. A teacher taught children the zapateado, a popular Mexican dance, which many seemed to enjoy. Music and dance also serve as a sign to start or end an activity. In most classrooms, specific songs signal a transition from one activity to another and the children recognize it as such. For example, when children in one classroom hear calypso music, they know that it is time to clean up.

Classroom Staff

Ratio of Staff to Children

Survey data from the 1,424 programs responding in 1993 indicate that, overall, there are more white staff than white children. There is an even ratio of American Indian/Alaskan Native staff to children in Head Start programs. Other racial and ethnic groups have slightly fewer staff than children:

29% of staff are black, and 31% of children are black;
22% of staff are Hispanic, while 28% of children are Hispanic; and
2% of staff are Asian/Pacific Islander, and 3% of children are Asian/Pacific Islander.

Exhibit 5.2 shows these overall national staff-to-child ratios.

Exhibit 5.2 Ethnicity of Head Start Staff and Children

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Across the country, when there are more than 10 children of a particular race or ethnicity in a program, they are represented by a staff member with similar racial or ethnic backgrounds.

Large numbers of Hmong (1,666), Haitian (1,744), and Vietnamese (1,065) children have fewer staff members representing their ethnicity than do black or Hispanic children. Although their overall numbers are lower, families originally from El Salvador, Ecuador, Honduras, and Chad have proportionally fewer representative Head Start staff members. Programs serving speakers of low prevalence languages, such as Quiche speakers from Guatemala or speakers of certain Chinese dialects, often had difficulty finding Head Start staff who spoke these language.

Research staff, using checklists to record their observations about language use in the 58 Head Start classrooms visited, found that more than half (50%) of program administers use the children's home language other than English. Additionally, about three-quarters of teachers (70%) and assistant teachers (68%) use the children's home language, including English. However, surveys point out that there are about 14,000 children who attend programs in which there are no staff available who speak their home language.

While some surveyed programs (23%) were hiring bilingual staff, others noted that it was a challenge to recruit and hire well-trained bilingual staff. Not only were trained and certified bilingual staff difficult to locate, but many required higher salaries because of their language skills. Programs had a particularly difficult time finding staff who spoke Hmong, Cantonese, Mandarin, Vietnamese, Laotian, and Creole. When they could not hire new staff, some programs hired translators.

Teachers' Background and Training in Multi-Culturalism

Staff explained the origins of their perspectives on multicultural education for preschoolers. Some used lessons from their own childhood, and others read books and took college courses or workshops at national Head Start conferences on multicultural issues.

According to the survey, training in multicultural sensitivity was not only the most frequently requested training topic, but was also ranked as an important type of training of the training topics listed on the survey. The site visit data, however, indicated that not all staff participated in such training. Further, none of the programs visited included parents in training efforts.

The right corner of the room has several hangings of kente (African) cloths that the children created with paper towels folded once length-wise and curly, wavy wire stamps. As I interviewed the teacher, Ms. R., she said she had learned about the kente cloths only recently through a culture awareness workshop, something she'd like to participate in more often.

In interviews, many staff credited the education coordinators with making Head Start services more multilingual and multicultural. Education coordinators ensure that centers are equipped with materials and they encourage training on new programs and curricula. Some education coordinators develop new curricula to share with classroom staff.

Parent's Contributions to Classrooms

Head Start teachers encourage parents to assist in the classroom, primarily with translation. In some classrooms where teachers are monolingual, they rely heavily upon the parents to translate.

The children were separated in three different groups and an adult read a book in their home language. Nine children were in the music area with the assistant teacher reading "The Very Hungry Caterpillar" in Vietnamese. She was showing them the pictures from the book. In the house area, the male Hispanic parent was with two children reading the same book in Spanish. The head teacher was in the block area with four children reading the same book. She read in English and pointed at the pictures in the book.

Parents often provide a valuable source of information about their own culture. Teachers and coordinators report that parents share their cultural traditions by bringing items from their home to use in the classrooms or to guide activities. For example, one parent brought a bronze tea set from Lebanon; others brought traditional musical instruments and clothing. At times, parents are invited to explain the significance of cultural traditions to the children. Parents also cook and taste traditional foods with the children. These cooking events usually accompany celebrations such as Cinco de Mayo, Chinese New Year, or Hanukkah. A parent might also make a particular dish, such as dim sum, a traditional Chinese tea-time food consisting of many small dishes, to celebrate the Chinese New Year.

In interviews and focus groups, parents explained that they feel a loss of control when they cannot communicate with the children. In classroom observations, non-English-speaking parents appear to be most comfortable working with the children who speak their home language.

Language in the Classroom

Inconsistent with survey data to a broader set of Head Start programs, research staff observed that in most classrooms visited, the head teacher speaks primarily in English while the assistant teacher speaks English and a second language. Usually, the bilingual assistant teacher plays a critical role in the communications between and among children and teachers. The assistant teacher often talks to the monolingual (non-English) children and translates for the teacher and the other children. A few Head Start classrooms have a team of three teachers; however, these three-person teams rarely provide the optimum linguistic-ethnic/racial match with children. For example, in one classroom with Asian and Hispanic children speaking Chinese, Vietnamese, Spanish, and varying degrees of English, the teachers are Laotian, Hispanic, and Black, and do not speak Chinese or Vietnamese.

In contrast, in some classrooms, both the teacher and the assistant speak several languages. In one classroom, teachers were using English, Spanish, and Creole. Children were very adept at code-switching. For example, when teachers speak Spanish to Spanish-speaking children, the children respond in Spanish; yet when the children need to communicate something to an English-speaking teacher, the children speak in English. Most often, teachers communicate in English, while children are speaking a range of languages, including Spanish, Chinese (including Mandarin and Cantonese), Vietnamese, Cambodian, and Creole.

Further, in the classrooms with monolingual English staff, teachers and assistants communicate with children using memorized phrases in the children's home language, such as "sit here," "listen to me," or "stop doing that." When more complicated messages need to be conveyed, the monolingual teachers rely on bilingual children.

Teachers note that although many children enter Head Start speaking little or no English, nearly all children are functional in conversational English by the time they leave Head Start. Teachers marvel at the pace at which children acquire English skills. In many cases, bilingual children become their teachers' intermediaries, translating instructions, activities, and other concepts to their monolingual peers. Furthermore, bilingual children often act as social liaisons between and among the other children.

Language preference can be an important criterion for choosing play partners. Some Head Start children may socialize exclusively with peers and teachers who speak their language, particularly if they are not fluent English speakers. In interviews, teachers and education coordinators said that throughout the year, as children gain more English vocabulary, their play patterns change. Typically, at the beginning of the year, the children speak only in their home language; about mid-year, they become less talkative and interact less with their peers as they observe language and communicative interactions from afar. Finally, towards the end of the year, the children interact more and more often, "trying out" English words with their English speaking peers and teachers.

Parent Perspectives on Multicultural Curricululm

"I think teaching about different cultures is important so that the kids can make new friends. Through the program my kids learned that you do not judge people by how they look but by who they are. We are in the same world."

Parents report that they are pleased with program attempts to respond to the linguistic and cultural uniqueness of their children. They like their children's teachers and the materials used in the classroom. Parents agree that learning about other cultures is good for their children:

"I think teaching about different cultures is important so that the kids can make new friends. We are in the same world."

One Hispanic parent praised her program's bilingual approach:

"I like that they are Latino and speak Spanish; in other schools they speak English and I want my child to learn both."

Most immigrant parents stated firmly that although they value their home language, they want their children to speak fluent English so that they will succeed in school.

Issues for Further Consideration

Analysis of the classroom observations and staff and parent interviews illuminated several unresolved issues in Head Start programs as well as in the field of early childhood education. English only or bilingual programming, representation of other cultures, segregated programs and holiday celebrations are issues on which programs differ widely and need further guidance.

English-Only or Bilingual Programming

English-only or bilingual programming remains an issue unresolved in Head Start programs. Many Head Start staff believe that children should be exposed to and continue to learn both their home language and English. Conversely, other staff are outspoken in their belief that Head Start must help children and families become Americans by using only English in the classroom, despite the child's level of English comprehension or his or her home language.

Like staff, parents report dissimilar opinions on the issue as well. Most immigrant parents state firmly that although they value their home language, they want their children to speak fluent English so that they will succeed in school. Some parents explicitly ask that their child speak only English in school so that they will learn the language to succeed in school. Other parents remark that their children refuse to speak their home language with them any more. For families with grandparents who know little to no English, there is a growing communication gap between the generations.

Representation of Other Cultures

The issue of which groups to represent in a multicultural classroom is controversial among programs. While one program may emphasize linguistic and cultural diversity across many cultures, including those not represented by program families, another program may focus on the languages and cultures represented by participant families, with the goal of building families' self-esteem vis-à-vis their own ethnic background. One grantee operates separate centers that target different ethnic groups; however, some staff disagree with this practice, asserting that it further segregates these families. At other programs, staff debate whether it is appropriate for individuals who are not members of a particular ethnic group to teach about that group's heritage and traditions.

Holidays

The celebration of cultural and religious holidays is a controversial topic at several Head Start sites. Those in support of celebrating these holidays believe that this is a way to bring different cultures into the classroom. Those who oppose such activities feel that these celebrations cannot, and do not, accurately and properly represent the cultures. These two conflicting views seem to shape the holiday policy of many Head Start programs.

Programs that celebrate holidays tend to concentrate on one specific culture during the holiday season. Such sites introduce aspects of that culture only during that time. For example, during Chinese New Year, teachers include Chinese culture, but throughout the remainder of the year, teachers make minimal reference to it.

In classrooms where holidays are celebrated, parents bring traditional items to reflect the specific holiday and/or they cook traditional dishes for the children. One site reported that, during Chinese New Year, the children learn about the Dragon Dance, fireworks, Chinese foods, and the meaning of the New Year. That program stresses the celebration of cultural holidays as an integral part of the program's being multicultural.

On the other hand, "no-holiday" sites refrain from celebrating commercial or religious holidays, and replace them with seasonal activities or general celebrations to teach common underlying concepts believed to be age appropriate, open-ended, and relevant. Proponents of this approach argue that this practice does not discriminate against any culture or religion because it does not select which cultural holidays to celebrate. For example, instead of Christmas, they celebrate the "Winter Festival," attaching no association to Christianity.

Continuing Challenges for Head Start Program

Finding Materials

Staff members find that some bilingual and multicultural materials can be difficult to locate. Among the most difficult items to find are age-appropriate books in languages used by Southeast Asian children. There is also a need to acquire materials or translations of materials into Chinese, Creole, Hmong, Russian, and Vietnamese.

Adapting Curricula

Education coordinators report that their greatest challenge is in finding, adapting, and/or developing multicultural/bilingual curricula appropriate to the populations they serve. This task often involves educating the entire staff as well as the families. Many of the sites are in the process of introducing an anti-bias curriculum or developing a curriculum to reflect the uniqueness of the families in their community. One education coordinator has created "multi-ethnic" kits containing different activities and lessons, such as multicultural celebrations. Most of the sites conduct multicultural lessons using dance, songs, stories, workshops, pictures, and foods. As one education coordinator concluded: "The education component stresses the importance of understanding the children's family background and individual experiences." Materials need to be translated accurately so that information can be distributed to non-English-speaking parents in an efficient manner.

Communicating with Parents

Parents find it very difficult to communicate with teachers and other staff in English. Several programs report communication problems between staff and parents, due primarily to language difficulty. Staff emphasize the need for more planning, increased translation of materials, better communication with parents and staff, and consciousness-raising to teach staff and parents how to view different cultures with more openness. For example, a black parent stated that her Policy Council is composed primarily of white parents, and she is concerned about being outnumbered by persons who do not value her opinions.

Screening Assessment and Disability Services

Language constraints prevent some sites from using specific developmental assessment instruments. Head Start staff (usually the health and disabilities coordinator, the social service coordinator, or the nurse) conduct the initial developmental screening and the teachers conduct follow-ups throughout the school year. Some programs select instruments that minimize verbal communication between the test administrator and the child. The most popular developmental assessment instruments used are the Dial-R, the High/Scope Child Observation Record (COR), and a speech and language screen, the Fluharty.

There are few developmental and health screening and assessment instruments that can be administered to non-English-speaking children; most of the available tools have not been validated with minority or non-English-speaking populations. Head Start staff report difficulty in finding bilingual technicians trained to provide speech and language services to non-English-speaking children with disabilities.

Key Findings

Multicultural Classroom Practices

Most programs describe their multicultural programming efforts almost solely in terms of holidays, cooking, and materials (such as books).

Most sites have some materials, mainly posters and pictures, that represent both mainstream and ethnic or racial minority communities. While multicultural materials were plentiful in classrooms, teachers did not often use them in their daily activities.

Most head or lead teachers speak primarily English and the assistant teachers or aides speak a second language. Several programs report communication problems between staff and parents, due primarily to language difficulty.

Many immigrant parents want their children to learn English so that they will succeed in school. Teachers report that although many children enter Head Start speaking little or no English, nearly all children are fluent in conversational English by the time they graduate from Head Start.

Parents provide a valuable role in multicultural classroom programming by bringing items from home that represent their culture, giving presentations on cultural traditions, cooking ethnic foods, and teaching ethnic songs and dances to teachers and children.

Parents are pleased with program attempts to respond to the linguistic and cultural uniqueness of their children and agree that learning about other cultures is good for their children

The celebration of holidays is a controversial topic at several Head Start sites. Those in support of celebrating holidays believe that different cultures can be included in the classroom through the celebration of cultural holidays. Those who oppose such activities feel that these celebrations cannot, and do not, accurately and properly represent the cultures.

Education coordinators report that their greatest challenge is in finding, adapting, and/or developing multicultural/bilingual curricula appropriate to the populations they serve.

There are few developmental and health screening and assessment instruments that can be administered to non-English-speaking children; most of the available tools have not been normed with minority or non-English-speaking populations.

Training in multicultural sensitivity was ranked by Head Start programs as an important type of training.

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