Colleagues: In preparing for a possible discussion on embedded instruction
the following note provides background information that you may wish to
consult. Embedded, integrated,  contextualized  education, situated
learning all rely to a large extent for their effectiveness upon one or
more of the principles of Functional Context  Education (FCE) that became
the basis for the National Workplace Literacy Program of the federal
government. FCE is the only theoretical approach to adult education that is
supported by a century of professional wisdom and a set of "silver
standard", quasi-experimental studies. The following note provides a
summary of FCE principles, some of the studies that support FCE, references
and resources about embedded instruction. Tom Sticht


Celebrating 20 Years of Functional Context Education: 1987-2007

April 3, 2007

Functional Context Education Principles Show "What Works" in ABE and ESOL
Instruction

Tom Sticht
International Consultant in Adult Education


The year 2007 is the twentieth anniversary of the formulation of Functional
Context Education principles (Sticht, Armstrong, Hickey, & Caylor, 1987).
These principles were based on extensive research on how the U. S. military
could annually enlist tens of thousands of young adults with literacy skills
below the 30th percentile, about the 6th grade, with little or no work
experience, and in a matter of just a few weeks transform them into
automobile mechanics, medical corpsmen, clerical staff, commercial cooks,
and other skilled and semi-skilled workers.

The review lead to the formulation of six principles that facilitate
learning on entry into a course, learning throughout the course, and
transfer into the contexts for which the learning is meant to apply.

o1. Make sure students understand the purpose of the program and the
usefulness of the knowledge and skills to be learned.

o2. Consider the knowledge that students bring with them and build new
knowledge on the basis of this old knowledge.

o3. Develop and sequence new lessons so they build on prior knowledge gained
in previous lessons.

o4. Integrate instruction in basic skills (reading, math) into programs as
the course poses demands for these skills that potential students may not
possess.

o5. Derive objectives from careful analysis of the realistic knowledge and
skill needed in the work, home, or other community contexts in which the
learner lives.

o6. Use, to the extent possible, learning contexts, tasks, materials, and
procedures taken from the future situation in which the learner will be
functioning.

Since 1987 some "silver standard," quasi-experimental studies have been
found that provide evidence for the usefulness of the six FCE principles in
civilian programs of Adult Basic Education (ABE) and English for Speakers of
Other Languages (ESOL).

Research on Integrated Vocational and ESOL Instruction

Sticht, McDonald, & Erickson, (1998) compared an Electronics Assembly
Vocational English as a Second Language (VESL) class which integrated
vocational and ESOL together, a Vocational class in Electronics Assembly
(no ESOL instruction) and a conventional ESOL class, not vocationally
related. In all three courses pre- and post-test data were obtained on a
vocational vocabulary test related to electronics training and a general
literacy test (the Adult Basic Learning Exam-ABLE). The data showed that
the integrated VOCED+VESL program had greater gains on the vocational
vocabulary test than either of the comparison groups, as well as a gain
rate per 100 hours of instruction some 65 percent higher for general
reading (ABLE) than the general ESL program, and over 300 percent greater
than the VOCED program.

Altogether, the data on the FCE VESL+ VOCED program indicated that it
produced greater retention, greater course completion, and higher gains in
learning than did the comparison courses of general ESL or a conventional
electronics vocational education course. Other data also indicated that
placements of students in the VOCED+ESOL program into electronics jobs was
high, almost 100 percent, and many were placed by the ninth week of the
course. This reflects the importance of FCE principles 5 and 6 in helping
students transfer new knowledge and skills from the classroom to the world
of work.

United Kingdom Research on Embedded Language, Literacy, Numeracy (LLN) in
Vocational Courses

Casey, et. al (2006) reported research with 1,916 learners in 79 vocational
courses with varying amounts of embedded language, literacy or numeracy
(LLN) (FCE principle #4). Using a four point scale courses were rated as
non-embedded, partly embedded, mostly embedded, and fully embedded. This
provides a form of quasi-experimental design with a treatment group (fully
embedded) and three comparison groups.

The authors reported that, "On the embedded courses retention was 16 per
cent higher. The embedded courses also had higher success rates than the
non-embedded courses.

For learners on the fully-embedded courses, 93 per cent of those with an
identified literacy need achieved a literacy/ESOL qualification, compared
to only 50 per cent for those on non-embedded courses.

On the fully embedded courses, 43 per cent more learners achieved
literacy qualifications.

For learners on the fully-embedded courses, 93 per cent of those with an
identified numeracy need achieved a numeracy/maths qualification, compared
to 70 per cent for those on non-embedded courses.

On the fully embedded courses, 23 per cent more learners achieved numeracy
qualifications." (p. 5)

The United States' What Works Study For Adult ESL Literacy Students

Condelli & Wrigley (2004) discuss research for the U. S. Department of
Education to identify effective instructional practices ("what works") for
adults needing basic literacy instruction along with ESOL. Among other
findings, they reported two major instructional factors related to
achievement in literacy and oral language that are consistent with FCE
principles.

First, in what the authors called"connection to the outside," they found
that "students in classes where teachers made connections to the "outside"
or real world, had more growth in reading development measured both by
general reading and "real world" reading. This is consistent with FCE
principles because it makes the purpose of the learning apparent, it
supports learning in the functional context of "real world" materials, and
it shows how the learning relates to the person's life outside the
classroom.

A second major finding was that, "students in classes where teachers used
students’ native language for clarification during instruction (e.g., to
explain concepts and provide instructions on class work) had faster growth
in reading comprehension and oral communication skills." This is consistent
with FCE principles because it helps the teacher explain the purposes of
what is being learned and it makes it possible to draw upon the learner's
prior knowledge of the native language as a means of learning new knowledge
of the English language.

In summary, at the present time, the Functional Context Education principles
are supported by the largest body of scientific, quasi-experimental research
on adult vocational, English language, literacy and numeracy instruction in
the field of adult education. They provide a solid foundation for
evidence-based instruction in the Adult Education and Literacy System of
the United States and other English-speaking industrialized nations.

References:

Note: For Functional Context Education reports go to
www.nald.ca/fulltext/fce/cover.htm and see Functional Context Education:
Making Learning Relevant in the 21st Century. Chapter 2 in this report
provides information about integrated/embedded/contextualized literacy in
six industrialized/informationalized nations. The NALD site also includes
Functional Context Education: Making learning relevant (1997)." This
document is the notebook used in FCE workshops in 1997. In 2005-2007 it was
downloaded over 15,000 times. It includes extensive discussions of the
constructivist and sociocultural aspects of FCE. For integrated literacy in
New Zealand go to www.workbase.org.nz and search publications for a guide
to integrating literacy into other courses. For embedded literacy in the
United Kingdom go to www.nrdc.org.uk

Casey, H. et. al (2006, November). "You wouldn't expect a maths teacher to
teach plastering " online at www.nrdc.org.uk.

Condelli, L. & Wrigley, H. (2004) Real World Research: Combining
Qualitative and Quantitative Research for Adult ESL. Paper presented at the
National Research and Development Centre (NRDC) Second International
Conference for Adult Literacy and Numeracy, Loughborough, England.
Downloaded from the internet April 3, 2007 from
http://www.nifl.gov/pipermail/professionaldevelopment/attachments/20070401/dea5b0a7/attachment-0002.doc

Sticht, T., McDonald, B., & Erickson, P. (1998). Passports to Paradise: The
Struggle To Teach and To Learn on the Margins of Adult Education. El Cajon,
CA: Applied Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences, Inc., (this was available
online at www.searchERIC.org, I don't know if it still is).

Sticht, T., Armstrong, W., Hickey, D., & Caylor, J. (1987). Cast-off youth:
policies and training methods from the military experience. NY: Praeger.

For additional online resources see:
For NALA's resources on integrating literacy go to www.nala.ie and click on
Projects to find a report entitled: Integrating Literacy into Further
Education and Vocational Training; under NALA's  Publications search for
Integrating Literacy Guidelines. For Functional Context Education  reports
go to www.nald.ca/fulltext/fce/cover.htm and see Functional Context
Education:  Making Learning Relevant in the 21st Century. Chapter 2 in this
report provides  information about integrated/embedded/ contextualized
literacy in six industrialized/informationalized nations. For integrated
literacy in New Zealand go to www.workbase.org.nz and search publications
for a guide to integrating literacy into other courses. The New Zealand
literacy portal also has a section on Embedded instruction, Google the
portal for access. For embedded literacy in the United Kingdom go to
www.nrdc.org.uk See also a paper by Deborah D’Amico (2003) Embedded
Literacy: Strengthening the connection between work and learning. Paper
Commissioned for Workplace Learning Conference Advancing Adult Work-Based
Learning: Building a 21st Century Community of Practice December 7-10, 2003
Chicago. Google for an online copy.



Thomas G. Sticht
International Consultant in Adult Education
Email: tsticht at aznet.net