KANSAS
KANSAS AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS
Room 200, 632 S.W. Van Buren, Topeka, KS 66603, USA.
E.J. Thiessen, Sherri Hand, and Ron Sitzman.
Jagger was the leading cultivar of wheat seeded in Kansas for the 2005 crop. Accounting for 28.2 percent of the state's wheat. Jagger decreased 12.7 points from a year ago but was the most popular cultivar in six of the nine districts. Jagalene moved up to second place with 21.2 percent of the acreage. Jagalene increased 18.2 points and ranked in the top five for all nine districts. The KSU-maintained cultivar 2137 came in third, down 2.9 points from last year. TAM 110 moved down to fourth place with 3.3 percent of the acreage. The OSU-maintained cultivar 2174 moved up to fifth place with 3.0 percent of the state's acreage. Trego, a hard white wheat, fell to sixth place with 2.9 percent. The KSU-maintained cultivar 2145 and Overley were both new to the top ten and tied for seventh place with 2.2 percent. Cutter and Thunderbolt also were both new to the top ten and tied for ninth place with 1.7 percent. Acres planted with blended cultivars were not included in the rankings by cultivar. Blends accounted for 11.3 percent of the state's planted acres and were used more extensively in the north-central, northeast, and central areas. Out of the total acres planted with blends, 73.5 percent included Jagger in the blend, and 41.2 percent had 2137. Hard white cultivars accounted for 3.9 percent of the state's acreage. Trego was the leading hard white cultivar, accounting for 74.0 percent of the state's white wheat. The majority of the white wheat was planted in the western third of the state. This wheat cultivar project is funded by the Kansas Wheat Commission.
| Cultivar | % of acreage | Cultivar | % of acreage |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Jagger | 28.2 | 6. Trego-HWWW | 2.9 |
| 2. Jagalene | 21.2 | 7. 2145 | 2.2 |
| 3. 2137 | 5.7 | 7. Overley | 2.2 |
| 4. TAM 110 | 3.3 | 8. Cutter | 1.7 |
| 5. 2174 | 3.0 | 8. Thunderbolt | 1.7 |
| Variety | % of acreage | Variety | % of acreage | Variety | % of acreage |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| District 10 (Northwest) | District 40 (North central) | District 70 (Northeast) | |||
| Jagger | 25.6 | Jagger | 20.7 | 2137 | 16,0 |
| Jagalene | 15.1 | Jagalene | 19.5 | Jagger | 14,7 |
| 2137 | 8.2 | 2145 | 9.7 | 2145 | 13,4 |
| Trego-HWWW | 7.5 | 2137 | 7.1 | Jagalene | 12,6 |
| Thunderbolt | 5.0 | Karl/Karl 92 | 5.0 | Karl/Karl 92 | 8.1 |
| District 20 (West central) | District 50 (Central) | District 80 (East central) | |||
| Jagalene | 13.3 | Jagalene | 28.8 | Jagger | 32.2 |
| TAM 110 | 12.4 | Jagger | 27.1 | 2137 | 16,5 |
| Jagger | 10.8 | 2137 | 7.3 | Jagalene | 14,5 |
| Trego-HWWW | 10.7 | Cutter | 3.6 | Dominator | 8.4 |
| T81 | 6.7 | Overley | 3.3 | 2145 | 5.1 |
| District 30 (Southwest) | District 60 (South central) | District 90 (Southeast) | |||
| Jagger | 23.1 | Jagger | 40.8 | Jagger | 23.8 |
| Jagalene | 15.8 | Jagalene | 25.0 | 2137 | 19.7 |
| TAM 110 | 15.4 | 2174 | 8.0 | Jagalene | 17.4 |
| 2137 | 6.6 | Overley | 4.2 | 2174 | 9.8 |
| Ike | 5.7 | 2137 | 3.3 | Onago | 7.3 |
Publications.
Monthly Crop. Wheat cultivars, percent of acreage devoted to each
cultivar. Wheat quality, test weight, moisture, and protein content
of current harvest. $10.00
Crop-Weather. Issued each Monday, March 1 through November 30 and monthly, December through February. Provides crop and weather information for previous week. $12.00
County Estimates. County data on wheat acreage seeded and harvested, yield, and production on summer fallow, irrigated, and continuous cropped land. December.
Wheat Quality. County data on protein, test weight, moisture, grade, and dockage. Includes milling and baking tests, by cultivar, from a probability sample of Kansas wheat. September.
Each of the above reports is available on the Internet at the
following address: http://www.nass.usda.gov/ks/
KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY
ENVIRONMENTAL PHYSICS GROUP
Department of Agronomy, Waters Hall, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-5501, USA.
M.B. Kirkham is on sabbatical leave with Dr. Brent E. Clothier at the Horticultural and Food Research Institute of New Zealand, Ltd. in Palmerston North between 14 January and 14 April, 2005. Methods to control nitrogen losses from grazed pastures are being studied including inhibitors added directly to urine patches, where most of the nitrogen is concentrated.
James Kingston (Ken) McCarron continues as visiting scholar in the group.
Dr. Kirkham's book has been published. Principles of Soil and Plant Water Relations, M.B. Kirkham. 2005. Elsevier Academic Press, San Diego. xvii + 500 pages. ISBN: 0-12-409751-0. Web page for book: http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/bookdescription.cws_home/703882/description. The book has a chapter on agronomic applications of Poiseuille's law using wheat roots. For a complete description of this book, see page 14 of the volume.
THE WHEAT GENETICS RESOURCE CENTERDepartment of Plant Pathology, Throckmorton Hall, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-5502, USA.
http://www.ksu.edu/wgrc/
B. Friebe, D.L. Wilson, W.J. Raupp, and B.S. Gill, and G.L. Brown-Guedira (USDA-ARS).
KS04WGRC45 hard white winter wheat germ plasm is homogeneous for resistance to leaf rust at the seedling and adult plant stages. KS04WGRC45 is an F3-derived line from the cross 'Heyne*2//TA5586 (Chinese Spring-mono1B/CS DA Elymus trachycaulus 1H^)^. Leaf rust resistance of the germ plasm is derived from E. trachycaulus (Link) Gould ex Shinners accession (TA12052). Chromosome 1H^t^ was transferred from TA12052 to Chinese Spring wheat during the production of a set of wheat-E. trachycaulus chromosome addition lines. The Robertsonian translocation T1H^t^S.1BL consisting of the short arm of the E. trachycaulus chromosome 1H^t^ translocated to the long arm of wheat chromosome 1B was recovered in the offspring of a plant double monosomic for chromosomes 1H^t^ and 1B. This translocation stock, designated TA5586, was crossed twice to the HWWW cultivar Heyne. The BC1 and BC2 progeny were screened for their reaction to leaf rust with race PBJL, which is virulent on the recurrent parent Heyne (infection type (IT) = 4, large uredinia, lacking chlorosis or necrosis). The BC2F2 families derived from resistant plants were again screened for leaf rust resistance and one family was selected with IT = 2 (small to moderate size uredinia with chlorosis). The 12 BC2F3 lines derived from this family were analyzed by GISH, and one line homozygous for the translocation chromosome T1HtS.1BL was selected as KS04WGRC45.
When evaluated in the field under heavy inoculum pressure at Manhattan, KS in the 2003-04 growing season, a trace of leaf rust was detected on adult plants of KS04WGRC45. The recurrent parent Heyne had a susceptible reaction covering approximately 30 % of the leaf area. Intermediate infection types (IT = 2+, moderate size uredinia with chlorosis) were observed on seedlings of KS04WGRC45 and TA5586 when evaluated with P. triticina races MCRL and TNRJ and a collection from the field in Manhattan, KS, in 2003. High infection types of 3-4 (moderate to large uredinia, lacking chlorosis or necrosis) were observed on seedlings of Heyne and Chinese Spring with all the races of leaf rust tested.
G.L. Brown-Guedira (USDA-ARS); W.W. Bockus, M.A. Davis, and B.S. Gill (Department of Plant Pathology); D.A. Van Sanford (Department of Agronomy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY); and J.P. Murphy (Department of Crop Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC).
KS04WGRC46 is a BC2F5-derived hard red winter wheat line from the cross 'Wrangler*3/TA960'. Fusarium head blight resistance of the germ plasm is derived from accession TA960 of T. timopheevii subsp. armeniacum. Significantly less disease was observed on plants of KS04WGRC46 in growth chamber tests with point inoculations of F. graminearum than on the recurrent parent, indicating that KS04WGRC46 has type-II resistance to FHB. A mean of 11.18 % infected spikelets was observed on KS04WGRC46 and the recurrent parent Wrangler had a mean of 38.17 % infected spikelets. Mean disease severity on the resistant and susceptible check cultivars Sumai 3 and Trego were 7.5 and 70.0 % infected spikelets, respectively (LSD = 19.8, P = 0.05). When KS04WGRC46 was evaluated in inoculated field nurseries at Manhattan, KS, in the 2001 and 2003 growing seasons, 11.7 and 5.7 % of spikelets, respectively, had symptoms of FHB infection. These levels were significantly less than those observed on the winter wheat cultivars 2137 (susceptible, 48.2 and 45.0 % infected spikelets in 2001 and 2003, respectively) and Karl 92 (intermediate, 37.4 and 25.6 % infected spikelets in 2001 and 2003, respectively). The resistant hard winter wheat cultivar Heyne had 15.2 and 11.5 % infected spikelets in 2001 and 2003, respectively. Inheritance of resistance to FHB in KS04WGRC46 is not known.
G.L. Brown-Guedira (USDA-ARS); A.K. Fritz (Department of Agronomy); B.S. Gill; and T.S. Cox (Land Institute, Salina, KS).
KS04WGRC47 is a BC3F5-derived line with the pedigree 'Karl 92'*4/TA1836'. Karl 92 is a HRWW cultivar, and TA1836 is a leaf rust-resistant accession of Ae. speltoides. Seedlings of KS04WGRC47 exhibited a low infection type (IT = 0; to ;1, small flecks or small pustules with chlorosis) when inoculated races KDBL, PNMQ, MCDL, MFBL, and TNRJ of P. triticina. Moderate to high infection types (IT= 2 to 4, moderate to large pustules with little or no chlorosis) were observed on seedlings of Karl 92 with all races of leaf rust tested. Adult plants of KS04WGRC47 displayed a low infection type (;) when exposed to moderate to heavy leaf rust inoculum levels in the field at Manhattan and Hutchinson, Kansas in 2002, 2003, and 2004, and under heavy inoculum pressure at Castroville, TX, in 2004. Except for resistance to leaf rust, KS04WGRC47 is similar to Karl 92 in height, heading date, and overall phenotype.
Leaf rust resistance in KS04WGRC47 is due to a single dominant gene from TA1836. The relationship of the leaf rust resistance gene in KS04WGRC47 with the Ae. speltoides-derived leaf rust resistance genes, Lr28, Lr36, Lr47 and Lr51 is not known.
G.L. Brown-Guedira (USDA-ARS); T.S. Cox (Land Institute, Salina, KS); P. D. Chen (Cytogenetics Institute, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P.R. China); D.A. Van Sanford (Department of Agronomy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY); A.K. Fritz (Department of Agronomy, Kansas State University); and B.S. Gill.
KS04WGRC48 is a BC1F5-derived line with the pedigree 'KS94U216*2/92R149'. KS94U216 is a HRWW experimental line developed from a bulk selection having the Ae. tauschii-derived gene Lr21 conferring resistance to leaf rust. 92R149 is a spring wheat line developed at Nanjing Agricultural University having the gene Pm21 conferring resistance to powdery mildew present on the translocation T6VS·6AL consisting of the short arm of the H. villosa chromosome 6V translocated to the long arm of wheat chromosome 6A. KS04WGRC48 was selected for resistance to leaf rust and powdery mildew in field evaluations at Manhattan, KS and at Lexington, KY.
Adult plants of KS04WGRC48 displayed no visible sign of leaf rust infection when exposed to moderate to heavy inoculum levels in the field at Manhattan and Hutchinson, KS, in 2003 and 2004, and small chlorotic flecks under heavy inoculum pressure at Castroville, TX, in 2004. Seedlings of KS04WGRC48 exhibited a low infection type (IT = 0; to ;1, small flecks or small pustules with chlorosis) when inoculated with races KDBL, PNMQ, MCDL, MFBL, and TNRJ of P. triticina. High infection types (IT = 4, large pustules with little or no chlorosis) were observed on seedlings of the susceptible cultivar TAM 107 with all races of leaf rust tested. Presence of the 1.36-Kb fragment amplified by the primer pair KSUD14, which corresponds to a portion of the cloned Lr21 gene, indicates that KS94U216 and KS04WGRC48 have Lr21. This gene provides effective resistance to all races of leaf rust in North America. No evidence of powdery mildew infection was noted on adult plants of KS04WGRC48 when exposed to heavy inoculum levels in the field at Hutchinson, KS, and Lexington, KY, in 2003 and 2004. Homogeneity of T6VS·6AL translocated chromosome in KS04WGRC48 was confirmed by amplification of the 1,265-bp DNA fragment expected with a SCAR marker linked to Pm21 and lack of amplification of two wheat microsatellite markers located on 6AS. The Pm21 gene provides effective resistance to all races of powdery mildew in North America.
G.L. Brown-Guedira (USDA-ARS); M. Guedira, and A.K. Fritz (Department of Agronomy); T.J. Martin (KSU Agricultural Research Center, Hays, KS); O.K. Chung, G.L. Lookhart, and B.W. Seabourn (USDA-ARS Grain Quality and Production Research Unit, Manhattan, KS); B.S. Gill; and T.S. Cox (Land Institute, Salina, KS).
KS04WGRC49 is a BC2F4-derived hard red winter wheat line from the cross 'Karl 92*3/TA2473'. Karl 92 is a HRWW cultivar and TA2473 is an accession of Ae. tauschii. KS04WGRC49 was selected based on the presence of unique Ae. tauschii-derived HMW-gliadin protein subunits and novel HMW-glutenin protein subunits, designated 43 (allele Glu-D1-1j) and 44 (allele Glu-D1-2i). The effects of HMW-glutenin subunits 43 and 44 and the Ae. tauschii- derived gliadin proteins on the milling and baking quality of KS04WGRC49 were determined in experiments grown at Hays and Colby, KS, during the 1999 growing season and at Hays and Hutchinson, KS, during the 2001 growing season. Across locations, mixing time and mixing tolerance score of KS04WGRC49 (4.05 min and 4.47, respectively) were not significantly different (P = 0.05) from that observed for Karl 92 (4.60 min and 4.24, respectively). KS04WGRC49 had significantly greater loaf volume (993 cc) than Karl 92 (946 cc) in these experiments. These data indicate that the novel glutenin and gliadin protein subunits in KS04WGRC49 can have the effects of increasing loaf volume while slightly decreasing mixing time.
Small quantities (3 g) of KS04WGRC45, KS04WGRC46, KS04WGRC47,
KS04WGRC48, and KS04WGRC49 seed, as well as previous releases
(see WGRC web site for information) are available upon written
request. We request that appropriate source be given when this
germ plasm contributes to research or development of new cultivars.
Seed stocks are maintained by the Wheat Genetics Resource Center,
Throckmorton Hall, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506.
Genetic material of this release will be deposited in the National
Plant Germplasm System where it will be available for research
purposes, including the development of new cultivars.
U.S. GRAIN MARKETING AND PRODUCTION RESEARCH CENTER
USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Manhattan, KS 66502, USA.
O.K. Chung, F.E. Dowell, S.H. Park, G.L. Lookhart, M. Tilley, D.L. Brabec, M.S. Ram, L.M. Seitz, S.R. Bean, B.W. Seabourn, T.C. Pearson, D.B. Bechtel, M.E. Casada, J.D. Hubbard, J.D. Downing, E.B. Maghirang, J.D. Wilson, P.R. Armstrong, M.S. Caley, F. Xie, F.H. Arthur, R.K. Lyne, and S.Z. Xiao.
O.K. Chung.
In spite of a lengthy and costly process of 12-13 years, wheat breeders must continue to develop and release new cultivars, as older cultivars tend to lose disease and pest resistance over 3-5 years. Three broad stages of breeding are the 1st stage (years 1 and 2) of mating, the 2nd stage (years 3-7) of inbreeding and selection, and the last stage (years 8-12) of evaluation of breeding lines. Both genotype and wheat-growing environment (soil and climate) greatly influence the growth of plant, seed production, and the end-use quality. Breeding selects lines based on genotypic superiority of agronomic and end-use quality as well as the environmental stability on its growth and end-use quality. Additionally, wheat-exporting countries have to provide wheat with quality traits vital to the importing customers' own unique products. Active breeding programs of public and private sectors, or their corporative entities, share the common objectives: to improve agronomic, disease, and pest resistance so that wheat producers can enjoy high yield, wheat users (milling/baking industry) can have milling and end-use quality traits, while ensuring consumer satisfaction in the final products. Thus, 'breeding for quality, tailored for specific products' is the concerted efforts of all sectors, including cereal chemist/food technologists. The type of quality testing or definition of quality differs somewhat among different countries and it will be discussed in this presentation.
O.K. Chung, C.S. Gaines, C.F. Morris, and G.A. Hareland.
Wheat quality improvement begins with breeding. Important traits targeted in wheat breeding include both agronomic and end-use quality. The current U.S. Standards categorize wheat into eight basic classes based on color, hardness, and growing season. Each wheat class is traditionally grown in a specific region in the U.S. The USDA-ARS Regional Wheat Quality Laboratories (RWQLs) were established by an Act of Congress: the Soft Wheat Quality Lab in 1936, the Hard Winter Wheat Quality Lab in 1937, the Western Wheat Quality Lab in 1946, and the Hard Red Spring and Durum Wheat Quality Lab in 1963. All four RWQLs have common missions: work with breeders to improve U.S. wheat by testing end-use quality of experimental breeding lines, develop reliable small-scale tests for evaluating early generation breeding lines, perform research on the contribution of flour biochemical components to observed differences in end-use quality, conduct research on molecular-genetic bases of quality, and develop rapid and objective prediction models for end-use quality. All four RWQLs focus primarily on the public (university and USDA-ARS) breeding lines and some private breeding lines. Over 95 % of U.S. wheat released cultivars have been evaluated at one of the RWQLs. Therefore, the RWQLs have made paramount contributions to U.S. wheat quality improvements for all wheat classes. This presentation will describe the activity of each RWQL.
O.K. Chung, E.B. Maghirang, S.H. Park, M.S. Caley, F.E. Dowell, and B.W. Seabourn.
Two pure HWW lines, NE98471 and NI98439, harvested in 2002 and entered into the HWW Quality Council Testing in 2003, were graded as mixed wheat by the FGIS classification, using a SKCS 4100. We investigated if there were differences in wheat and flour quality parameters among the fractions with different single kernel hardness index (SK-HI) of the same HWW lines. Each bulk of two lines was singulated and sorted into four fractions by a Perten SK-NIR Sorter. The average SK-HI was 47 for NE98471 (L1) and the sorted fractions (f1, f2, f3, and f4) showed the average SK-HI of 41, 46, 50, and 53, respectively. The average SK-HI was 46 for NI98439 (L2) and the HI values were 34, 40, 46, and 53, respectively, for f1 to f4. The L2-f1 and f2 were classified as soft wheat. Wheat physical parameters, including micro-test weight (TW), SK-weight (WT), SK-size (SZ), and micro-milling yield decreased in the sorted fraction with increasing SK-HI. However, wheat chemical parameters, including protein (PC) and ash contents (AC), increased in the fractions with increasing HI. Accordingly, the flour PC and AC increased. Both mixograph and micro-bake (10-g flour) water absorptions and mix times, as well as bread volumes, increased with increasing SK-HI in sorted fractions. The trends were more pronounced with L2 fractions than with L1 fractions.
O.K. Chung and S.H. Park.
A mixograph (10-g flour) (MIXO) has greatly contributed to the HWW breeding programs in screening early-generation lines based on mixing quality. Although a farinograph provides similar data and is used by industry worldwide, it has not been used for breeding programs, due to its large flour requirement (50 g) and longer testing time. The Farinograph® E (FARINO) can be used with the standard test (63/min) as well as at other variable speeds. In addition, a mini-mixing bowl (10-g flour) is currently available. We investigated mixing quality of 4 HWW (6.9, 12.6, 12.7, and 14.8 % flour protein) with a FARINO at the 63, 75, 88, and 100/min mix speed and a MIXO at the 88/min speed. Water absorption (WA) increased (6.2 % on average) whereas mix-time (MT), stability, and the time to break decreased (36, 60, and 32 %, respectively) with an increased mix speed from 63 to 100/min (59 %). The WA and MT of the 4 flours averaged 64.9 % and 6.84 min for the FARINO (at 88/min), whereas 62.3 % and 3.30 min for the MIXO, respectively. The FARINO-WA was significantly correlated with bake-WA and bread volume at all 4 speeds but better at the higher speed (88 and 100/min), which also was significantly correlated to MIXO-WA. Although the average FARINO-MT was still about 180 % of MIXO-MT even at the 100/min with much thinner curve, the reduction of MT by 36 % shows a potential use for breeding programs.
J.D. Wilson and D.B. Bechtel.
Particle size and shape has long been recognized as an important
variable in a range of processes including predicting rheology
and flow behavior. Wheat, barley, rye, and triticale have starch
populations with multimodal distributions; large A-type granules
lenticular in shape and smaller B- and C-type granules spherical
in shape. A wide range in particle size creates difficulties in
accurately measuring starch populations. Starch, isolated from
flour of four classes of wheat, was analyzed by digital image
analysis (IA) and laser diffraction sizing (LDS) to measure starch
size distributions. IA data was converted to volume percent to
be compared to LDS data. IA errors were detected, corrected, and
compared with size distributions obtained from LDS. LDS resulted
in a ~40 % underestimation of the A-type granule diameter and
a ~50 % underestimation of the B-type granule diameter in comparison
to IA. Laser diffraction data correlated to IA data, with R2 values
ranging from 0.02 (not significant) to 0.55***. A correction factor
was used to adjust LDS and IA data for better correlations. After
the adjustment, correlations improved (R2 = 0.79*** to 0.93***)
depending on the class of wheat starch evaluated. This work represents
a step towards combining IA and LDS technologies to study nonspherical
particles.
D.B. Bechtel and J.D. Wilson.
Predicting wheat quality is an important goal of the grain industry. Laser-diffraction sizing (LDS) was used to measure particle size distributions of wheat flour and isolated starch to determine if the method could be used as a component for predicting end-use quality. Five HRWW and five SRWW were milled into flour from which starch was isolated. Flour particle size distributions were measured using a dry module as well as flour suspended in isopropanol (AACC Method 55-40). Analysis using isopropanol as a suspension fluid caused smaller particles (< 8 Fm in diameter) to be released from flour. Use of isopropanol caused a shift to larger particle sizes between 8 and 400 Fm in comparison to dry analysis. Isopropanol also caused clumping with spurious particles found between 250-400 Fm. LDS of isolated starch showed a separation of A- and B-type granules between 9.8 and 10.8 Fm for the soft wheats and between 8.2 and 9.8 Fm for hard wheats. Hard wheats had a larger volume of starch in the A-type fraction while the soft wheats had more starch in B- and C-type fractions. A demarcation between the B- and C-type starch was only observed for the soft wheats and that was when data was presented as percent surface area. LDS may prove to be a valuable tool in helping predict wheat end-use quality since flour and starch differences were observed between wheat classes as well as among wheats within a class.
S.H. Park, O.K. Chung, and P.A. Seib.
Twelve hard winter wheat flours with protein contents of 11.8-13.6 % (14 % mb) were selected to investigate starch properties associated with the crumb grain score of experimentally baked pup-loaf bread. The 12 flours were classified in four groups depending on the crumb grain scores which ranged from 1 (questionable-unsatisfactory) to 4 (satisfactory). Flours in groups 1, 2, 3, and 4 produced breads with pup-loaf volumes ranging from 910 to 1,035, 1,000 to 1,005, 950 to 1,025, and 955 to 1,010 cm^3^, respectively. Starches were isolated by a dough hand-washing method and purified by washing to give 75-79 % combined yield (dry flour basis) of prime (62-71 %) and tailing (7-16 %) starches. The prime starch was fractionated further into large A-granules and small B-granules by repeated sedimentation in aqueous slurry. All starches were assayed for weight percentage (wt%) of B-granules, swelling power (92.5 C, amylose content, and granular size distribution by quantitative digital image analysis. A positive linear correlation was found between the crumb grain scores and the A-granule sizes (r = 0.65, P < 0.05), and a polynomial relationship (r = 0.67, P < 0.05) occurred between the score and the wt% of B-granule starch. The best crumb grain score was obtained when a flour had a wt% of B-granules from 19.8 to 22.5 %, shown by varietal effects.
S.H. Park, O.K. Chung, and P.A. Seib.
One commercial bread wheat flour with medium strength (11.3
% protein content on 14 % mb) was fractionated into three fractions
(starch, gluten, and water-solubles) by hand-washing. The starch
fraction was further separated into large and small granules (LG
and SG) by repeated sedimentation. Sizes of large (10-40 µm
in diameter) and small (1-15 µm in diameter) starch fractions
were examined. Flour fractions were reconstituted to their original
levels in the flour, using composites of varying weight percentages
of starch granules: SG being 0 % (100 % LG), 30 %, 60 %, and 100
% (0 % LG). A modified straight-dough method was used in an experimental
baking test. Crumb grain and texture were significantly affected:
the bread made from the reconstituted flour with 30 % SG and 70
% LG starch had the highest crumb grain score (4.0, subjective
method), the peak fineness value (1029) and the second highest
elongation ratio (1.55). Inferior crumb grain scores, low fineness
and elongation ratios were observed in breads made from flours
with starch fractions at 100 % SG or 100 % LG. Because the proportion
of SG increased in the reconstituted flour, it yielded bread with
softer texture that was better maintained than the bread made
from the reconstituted reference flour during storage.
J.D. Hubbard, J.D. Downing, M.S. Ram, and O.K. Chung.
Environmental concerns, the disposal cost of hazardous waste, and the time required for extraction in current methods encouraged us to develop an alternate method for analysis of wheat flour lipids. Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) with CO2 has provided that medium and the method is fully automatic. Crude fats or nonstarch free lipids (FL) were extracted from 4-5 g of wheat flour by an SFE system. To develop optimum conditions for SFE, various extraction pressures, temperatures, and modifier volumes were tried to provide a method that would produce an amount of lipids comparable to those extracted by the AACC Approved Soxhlet Method and the AOCS Official Butt Method using petroleum ether as solvent. Using several wheat flour samples, the best conditions were 12.0 vol % ethanol (10.8 mol %) at 7,500 psi and 80°C to extend the amount of FL similar to those by the AACC and AOCS methods. Using solid-phase extraction, lipids were separated into nonpolar lipid (NL), glycolipid (GL), and phospholipid (PL) fractions. The mean value of 5 flours was 1.15 % (flour wt., db) by the SFE method, 1.07% by the Butt method, and 1.01 % by the Soxhlet method. The SFE-extracted lipids contained less NL and more GL than either the Butt or Soxhlet methods. All three methods extracted lipids with quality similar components. The overall benefit for SFE over the Soxhlet or Butt methods was to increase the number of samples analyzed in a given time, reduce the cost of analyze, and reduce exposure to toxic chemicals.
M.S. Ram and O.K. Chung.
Supercritical fluid CO2 (SF-CO2) is a useful system for extracting
nonpolar lipids (NL) from wheat flour. However, a polar modifier,
such as ethanol, is necessary to extract the polar lipids (PoL)
and the amount of lipids extracted by a supercritical fluid extraction
(SFE) system varies with the % modifier used. In our research
the extracted lipids were fractionated on silica solid-phase extraction
cartridges to obtain the NL and PoL composition. Previously, we
have reported that SF-CO2 at 7,500 psi and 80°C with 12 %
(v/v) ethanol as a modifier extracted all the free lipids (FL)
from wheat flour (Hubbard JD et al. Cereal Chem, In press). The
objective of this study was to test the feasibility of sequentially
extracting FL from wheat flour so that we do not have to fractionate
the extracted FL in to the NL and PoL fractions. We have used
four HRWW flours to develop the sequential extraction (SEx) method
for flour FL using SFE. First, the NL fraction of flour FL was
extracted by using SF-CO2 only (1st SEx), and then the PoL fraction
was extracted with the addition of modifier ethanol to SF-CO2
(2nd SEx). Lipids were extracted by SEx and the one-step SFE method
from four flours. The amounts of lipids extracted by 1st and 2nd
SEx were in agreement with the amounts of NL and PoL fractionated
from the FL by the one-step extraction. The success of the sequential
extraction is evidenced by the TLC chromatograms in which the
individual components of NL and PoL could be qualitatively determined.
The 1st SEx contained NL only, and the 2nd SEx contained only
PoL that did not migrate. Extracted by the one-step SFE method,
they contained both NL and PoL. These results indicate that we
succeeded in our goal of fractionating wheat flour lipids using
SEx without the need for a separate fractionation step after the
SFE extraction.
M.S. Ram and O.K. Chung.
Wheat flour free lipids (FL), a minor constituent, play significant
roles in breadmaking and contribute to bread quality prediction
as the secondary quality determinant (QD) with flour protein as
the primary QD. The ratios of nonpolar (NL) to polar lipids (PoL)
in FL of given flours are inversely related to the size of bread
baked from the corresponding flours. To obtain this ratio, we
need to perform two steps, extraction and fractionation. Our objective
was to develop a one-step procedure that will sequentially extract
NL, followed by PoL, using supercritical-fluid extraction (SFE)
by optimizing the pressure (P), temperature (T) and modifier concentration.
Extraction parameters were varied for P (4,500-7,500 psi), T (60-80
C, and modifier (0 or 11% mole fraction, ethanol). Four flour
samples were first extracted with 0% modifier at varying P and
T, followed by one at P = 7,500 psi, T = 80°C and 11 % ethanol
(SFE1). The SFE1 condition alone can extract lipids of 0.63 %
NL and 0.37 % PoL, fractionated by the solid-phase-extraction
cartridges. Those quantities of NL and PoL were matched by that
obtained in sequential SFE conditions (6,500 psi and 60°C
followed by SFE1). The new one-step SFE procedure can perform
the dual steps of extraction and fractionation and determine the
NL/PoL ratios of many samples/day. Thus, it might be able to screen
early generation wheat breeding lines, based on FL composition.
M.S. Caley, S.H. Park, and O.K. Chung.
A microbaking (MB) procedure of 10-g flour is an invaluable analytical tool for special research projects, including some unique germplasm, at the Hard Winter Wheat Quality Laboratory. We use the pup straight dough (PSTD) method of 100-g flour, as a routine method for testing HWW breeding lines. In addition, we have the pound sponge and dough (PS&D) method, most commonly used at the baking industry, of 300-g flour to test wheat breeding lines at the advanced stages, just prior to its release, such as lines entered into the Wheat Quality Council testing. The objective of this study was to investigate the relationships of those three baking methods. We used 51 flours (18 HWW and 33 hard spring wheat) from lines harvested in 2003 and entered into the 2004 Wheat Quality Council testing. Many bake parameters of the MB procedure were highly significantly correlated to that of other two procedures including: the water absorption (WA) of MB to the PSTD-WA (r = 0.99) and PS&D-WA (r = 0.97); the mix time (MT) of MB to the PSTD-MT (r = 0.97) and PS&D-MT (r = 0.70); the loaf volume (LV) of the MB to the PSTD-LV (r = 0.91) and PS&D-LV (r = 0.75); and the crumb grain score (CGS) of MB to the PSTD-CGS (r = 0.58, P < 0.0001) and the PS&D-CGS (r = 0.43, P < 0.005). The MB parameters were related more closely to the pup than to the pound procedures, in part, due to the same straight-dough formula between the MB and the PSTD procedures.
B.W. Seabourn, F. Xie, and O.K. Chung.
The optimum mix time (MT) in a wheat flour-water (dough) system is an important rheological property to wheat breeders in screening germplasm and early generation breeding lines for end-use functionality, i.e., bread quality. The traditional method of choice in the U.S. for screening HWW breeding lines, based on optimum MT, is the mixograph (MIXO), which is largely time-consuming in its method and somewhat subjective in its interpretation, especially with regard to mixing tolerance. In previous work, the authors showed the potential of using FT-HATR mid-IR spectroscopy as an objective measure to estimate wheat flour MT early in the dough mixing cycle. Seventeen HRW wheat flours with varying protein contents (~11-14 %) and MT's (1.63-7.38 min) were used in this preliminary study. Doughs (three replicates each) were scanned in the amide III region of the mid-IR (4,000-700/cm) by FT-HATR immediately after being mixed with a MIXO for 1 min. The ratio of the second derivative band areas at 1,335/cm (helix) and 1,242/cm (sheet) was highly correlated to optimum MT as determined by the MIXO (R2 = 0.81). Results obtained from this study indicated that this method has tremendous potential to rapidly determine optimum MT very early in the mixing process, solely based upon the chemistry of the system, with specific application to screening samples in breeding programs.
Z.S. Xiao, S.H. Park, O.K. Chung, M.S. Caley, and P.A. Seib.
We investigated the suitability of SRC in assessing HWW product quality. We measured the SRC values of 116 HWW samples with 5 % lactic acid (LA), 50 % sucrose (SU), 5 % sodium carbonate (SC), and water. We also tested quality parameters using methods such as SKCS, NIR spectroscopy, mixograph (Mixo), SDS sedimentation (SD), and breadmaking. The SRC values were highly dependent on the wheat/flour protein content, SK weight, diameter, and hardness, and 1,000-kernel weight. Bread loaf volume (LV) was most significantly correlated with the SRC by LA, followed by SU, and least by SC and water. Mixo-mix tolerance was correlated significantly with LA-SRC. The time x-value of Mixo was notably correlated with LA-SRC and bread LV (R squared). SDS-SD volume and LA-SRC were both good indicators of LV. A prediction model for LV (R2) was developed by stepwise multiple regression analysis of the wheat and flour quality parameters plus the LA-SRC values of the 116 samples in the calibration set. An R2 value of 0.78 was observed for the validation set of 41 randomly chosen samples. The inclusion of 5 % LA-SRC value in the prediction model significantly increased R2 of both calibration and validation sets from 0.64 and 0.74, respectively, to 0.78. Among the four solvents, 5 % LA proved best for assessing HWW product quality, LV.
J.N. Alviola, S. Arora, R.K. Lyne, G.L. Lookhart, R.D. Waniska, and O.K. Chung.
Several labs desire to evaluate wheat flours for tortilla quality without using pilot-scale, commercial equipment, and/or trained personnel. We evaluated how procedures using lab-scale equipment with two dough sizes compare to commercial tortillas prepared using pilot-scale commercial equipment. Twelve wheat flours varying in tortilla-making qualities were prepared into tortillas. Three dough-ball, pressing procedures were compared: the tortilla bake test prepared using pilot-scale, commercial equipment (Lawrence equipment) and a lab-scale method using a heated hand-press (Dough Pro 2000) with either Teflon-sheet-covered platens (80oC, 6 sec; DP-Teflon) or with use of an oil spray (74oC, 6 sec; DP-oil). Hand-pressed tortillas were baked on a griddle. A smaller dough size, 25 g instead of 42 g, was also hand-pressed using the Dough-Pro methods. The critical tortilla properties of diameter, opacity and shelf-stability were evaluated. Even though the three procedures (42-g dough) had similar average tortilla diameters and rollability scores at 12 days, the cultivars were not differentiated in the same order by rollability scores using the three procedures. Tortilla opacities were higher when prepared using the DP-oil method (86.6 %) than the DP-Teflon method (83.3 %) or Lawrence method (83.8 %). Specific volumes were higher for Dough-Pro pressed tortillas (25 and 42 g dough) compared to Lawrence-pressed tortillas. Thinner, smaller diameter tortillas with higher rollability scores after 12-days storage were formed using smaller dough size (25 g). These tortillas had opacities similar to DP-oil-pressed tortillas (42-g dough). The smaller dough size (25 g) yielded tortillas with different tortilla properties when compared to lab procedures using 42-g dough. The DP-oil or DP-Teflon method using 42-g dough procedures can be utilized when amount of flour is limited, such as early-generation variety testing.
H. Singh, R.K. Lyne, O.K. Chung, S.H. Park, and G.L. Lookhart.
Protein composition and dough rheology of 15 wheat lines were studied. Total protein content and the ratio of polymeric to monomeric proteins (pk1/pk2) in SE-HPLC chromatograms of SDS extracts were correlated with tortilla-rollability scores (TRS) (R2 = 0.51 and 0.59, respectively). However, the amounts of insoluble and soluble proteins were not significantly correlated to TRS. Stress relaxation (SR) and dough extensibility (DE) tests were conducted using a texture analyzer. Consistent results were obtained at 10 % strain level for doughs mixed for 5 min. Maximum resistance (Rmax) to extension during DE test and k2 (a measure of elasticity) during SR test correlated well with 12th day TRS (R2 = 0.55 and 0.48, respectively). Poor-quality dough was less elastic with lower k2 values. The extensibility of dough was correlated significantly with the pk1/pk2 ratio (R-squared of 0.64), indicating a good relationship between molecular composition of proteins and rheological property of the dough. Multivariate analysis of protein and dough characteristics showed that a combination of Ext, relaxation time and the pk1/pk2 ratio had a highly significant correlation (R2 = 0.94) with TRS.
R.D. Waniska, M. Cepeda, B.S. King, J.L. Adams, L.W. Rooney, P.I. Torres, G.L. Lookhart, S.R. Bean, J.D. Wilson, D.B. Bechtel.
Sixty-one commercial tortilla flours were tested for tortilla properties using a standardized tortilla bake test. Flour, dough, and tortilla properties were evaluated. All flours tested yielded tortillas with acceptable appearance and opacity, attributes important for the tortilla market. Twenty-eight of the tortilla flours yielded tortillas with a larger diameter, longer shelf stability, and higher moisture content, attributes that are desirable for many retail and wholesale markets. Data for the flours tested confirmed the results of previous tortilla research, i.e., more protein or damaged starch in the flour corresponded to smaller diameter tortillas with improved storage stability and intermediate protein content yielded better quality tortillas. Data from the 28 flours yielding good quality tortillas provided more support for the impact of damaged starch and less support for the impact of proteins on tortilla quality: 1) tortilla diameter correlated with A starch granules and negatively with B starch granules and damaged starch measured by enzyme-susceptible starch (ESS); 2) tortilla stability correlated with mixing time and damaged starch measured by ESS and negatively with resistance to mixing; and 3) tortilla moisture content correlated with amounts of insoluble polymeric protein, soluble polymeric protein, and gliadin. The flour qualities needed to yield good quality tortillas are not well defined; however, components should include protein content (10.0-12.0 %), intermediate protein quality, and lower levels of starch damage during milling.
M. Tilley.
DNA-based analyses are highly sensitive and specific. Because processing steps can have profound effects on the proteins and DNA present in foods, this project examined the effects of breadmaking on wheat DNA size and PCR-based detection of sequences. DNA was extracted from wheat kernels, milling fractions, and flour, and from samples taken at various steps during and after the baking process. Kernels contained primarily high molecular weight DNA (>12,000 bp), whereas flour DNA exhibited a broad range of molecular weights from >12,000 bp to <300 bp. A marked reduction in DNA yield and size occurred after the first five minutes of baking. PCR successfully amplified products of both high and low copy number genes, even from DNA extracted from bread loaves five days after baking. However, successful amplification required that the maximum product size be no more than the average molecular weight of the DNA recovered from the source. The data also demonstrate that PCR can be used to detect the presence of yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) a minor ingredient.
A.E. Blechl, O.K. Chung, P.P. Bregitzer, J. Dubcovsky, and P. Sebesta.
In order to understand the structural basis of the functional role played by HMW-glutenin subunits in wheat end-use properties, we used genetic transformation to make wheats containing transgenes expressing natural HMW-glutenin subunits Ax2*, Dx5, and/or Dy10 or variants of subunit Dx5. All the transgenics were derived from the cultivar Bobwhite. In 2002, we grew these lines and their non-transgenic parent in replicated plots at three locations. Samples of sixteen of these wheats from each location were submitted to extensive quality testing. We observed little variation in kernel and milling characteristics among the transgenic wheats and compared to the nontransformed parent. In contrast, flours from these wheats exhibited a wide range of dough and bread-making performance. Mixing and baking variability due to changes in HMW-glutenin content far exceeded variability attributable to the transformation process, environment, or flour protein levels. These results show that using biotechnology to change HMW-glutenin subunits content yields a wide range of flour end-use properties.
M. Tilley and K.A. Tilley.
Dityrosine (DY) is one of several crosslinks found in biological
protein polymer systems, including plants and food matrices. Protein
crosslinking via DY formation is initiated by free-radical oxidation
and/or enzymatic methods. Peroxidase is commonly used to catalyze
DY and related bonds. DY was found recently to form during mixing
and baking of wheat flour. The water-soluble extract (WSE) from
wheat flour, contain several biologically active enzyme systems
and has the ability to catalyze DY formation. The albumin fraction
(water soluble extract, WSE) was fractionated via preparative
isoelectric focusing and resulting fractions were collected and
tested for ability to form DY from free tyrosine. Proteins in
the most reactive fractions were purified by cation exchange chromatography
and subjected to N-terminal amino sequencing. The fraction that
catalyzed the greatest amount of DY contained a predominant 38-kDa
protein that was determined to have the N-terminal sequence: AEPPVARGLSFDFYRRTPRAES.
cDNA libraries from developing wheat kernels and Ae. tauschii
were screened and isolated cDNAs were sequenced. The resulting
cDNAs of 1,197 (T. aestivum subsp. aestivum) and
1191 (Ae. tauschii) nucleotides both have an open reading
frame of 1,077 nucleotides and encode a protein of 358 amino acids
with a 26 amino-acid signal sequence. The sequence has 90.4 %
identity at the nucleotide level and 89 % identity at the amino-acid
level with barley endosperm-specific cationic peroxidase BP1.
Comparison to other peroxidase sequences from non-endosperm tissues
of wheat display 40-45 % similarity, however amino-acid residues
of the active site are highly conserved. The identification of
endogenous components that catalyze DY may provide a means of
predicting and controlling breadmaking quality.
B.L. Jones and G.L. Lookhart.
Two-dimensional IEF x PAGE gels were used to compare the endoproteolytic (gelatinase) activities of germinated barley to those of bread and durum wheats, rye, triticale, oats, rice, buckwheat, and sorghums. Barley was used as the standard of comparison because its endoproteinase complement has been studied in the greatest detail. The characteristics of the grain proteases were appraised from their migration patterns and by how they were affected by pH. All of the germinated grains contained multiple enzyme activities and their separation patterns and pH characteristics were at least similar to those of barley. The proteinases of the bread and durum wheats, ryes, oats, and sorghums were most similar to those of barley, whereas the other grains provided more varied patterns. The rice and buckwheat proteinases developed much more slowly than those of the other grains. The activity patterns of the triticales resembled those of their parents, wheat and rye, but the triticale contained many more activities and higher overall proteolytic activities than any of the other species. These results should be applied to scientific and/or commercial procedures with caution, because grains contain potent endogenous proteinase inhibitors that could inactivate these enzymes in various tissues and/or germination stages.
E. Reamer, M. Tilley, P. Srivarin, and K.A. Tilley.
Five unique wheat cultivars were subjected to control (25/20 C, day/night) and high temperature conditions (32/25 C) during kernel development in order to examine the changes in levels of tyrosine, dityrosine, and phosphotyrosine glutenin proteins. Heat stress conditions during wheat grain-filling period have implicated in contributing to the detrimental effects heat stress has on the bread-making properties of particular flours. Triplicate samples were taken for each cultivar under control and experimental conditions at 30 days post anthesis, which allowed experimental samples to be exposed to the heat stress conditions for approximately 20 to 30 days prior to sample collection. Following a sample preparation procedure in which bran and germ components were removed from the wheat kernels, glutenin proteins were extracted. The glutenin extraction was then followed by acid hydrolysis procedures and derivitization of the reconstituted hydrolysate prior to amino acid analysis with RP-HPLC. Results from the amino-acid analyses were compared with eight-point standard curves prepared from external standards in order to determine the concentrations (ng/µL) of each compound in control and experimental samples. These results showed that experimental samples exposed to the high temperature conditions consistently displayed increases in the concentrations of each of the compounds studied, with the most dramatic increases occurring in phosphotyrosine content.
G.L. Lookhart, S.R. Bean, and C.T. Culbertson.
The ability to identify wheat at all stages of its growth and
use is very important to many people. Quality is in the eye of
the beholder! A farmer might define quality as the amount of grain
produced in the field, a miller might define it as the amount
of flour that can be produced from a given amount of wheat on
a given mill, a baker might define it as the type of consistent
product they can make from a given flour, and a breeder might
define it as the overall the grain yield, which is a function
of the plants' resistance to disease and drought, and the type
of products that can be made from a given line. In each of these
reasonable definitions, genetic, environmental, and 'genetic x
environmental' components are present. Since we cannot control
the environment, it is important to control or identify the genetics.
Wheat gliadins are a genotypic expression of the plant and therefore
characterizing the gliadins can be used to fingerprint wheat genotypes.
Cultivar identification can be accomplished by any of three broad
ways; agronomic, physical, or biochemical.
C. Don, G.L. Lookhart, H. Naeem, F. MacRitchie, and R.J. Hamer.
Wheat quality is governed by both genetic and environmental
factors. The quality of any given variety varies due to growing
conditions and some cultivars are more susceptible than others.
The effects of heat stress on the gluten macropolymers of mature
NILs of Lance C and Lance A varying only in HMWGS 5+10 and 2+12,
respectively, and Warigal A and Warigal C also varying only in
5+10 and 2+12, respectively, were studied. Wheat plants were grown
under controlled conditions, using various temperature regimes
to simulate six different stress levels. Treatment 1, control,
involved growing the plants for the entire cycle at 20 C day/16
C night. Treatment 2 consisted of 30 C day/18 C night temperatures
starting at 16 days after anthesis and continuing for 3 days and
then returning to the control conditions. Treatment 3 was 35 C
day and 20 C night starting at 16 days after anthesis and continuing
for 3 days and then returning to the control conditions. Treatment
4 was 35 C day 20 C night starting at 16 days after anthesis and
continuing until maturity. Treatment 5 was 40 C day and 25 C night
starting at 16 days after anthesis and continuing until maturity.
Heat stress increased going from treatment 1 to 5. SDS-insoluble/SDS-soluble
ratios were least in Treatment 5, indicating that heat stress
mainly affects GMP quantity. Clearly, the quantity of insoluble
glutenin fractions like GMP and UPP, played an important role
in wheat flour dough mixing properties. A Coulter Scanning Laser
Microscope was used to detect GMP particles. The particle size
measurements, for all varieties, indicated that more large particles
are shown in heat stressed samples than in samples grown under
mild conditions and severely heat stressed samples have very large
glutenin particles, > 100 µm. The presence of much larger
amounts of SDS soluble proteins over SDS insoluble proteins in
severely stressed samples was observed.
D.B. Bechtel.
Beer occurs in two basic styles; lagers and ales. The only difference being the type of yeast used to brew the beer. All-grain brewing at home uses whole grain malts (as well as unmalted grain adjuncts) of various types to control flavor and sugar content similar to commercial brewing. Water, barley malt, hops, and yeast are the four main ingredients required for all-grain brewing. All-grain brewing involves a series of steps that convert the cereal starch into sugars that can be fermented by yeast that converts the sweet liquid into beer. Mashing is the process that adds heated water to ground grains, whereby enzymes present in the malted barley convert endosperm starch into fermentable sugars. Following starch conversion, heated water is added to the top of the grain mass and the sugary sweet wort is removed from the bottom (called sparging). The sweet wort is boiled and hops are added to control bitterness, flavor and aroma of the beer. The boiled wort is cooled and yeast is added. Fermentation by the yeast lasts from as short as several days to several months depending on the type of beer. When fermentation is complete the beer is bottled or put into kegs. Varying ingredients, mashing regimes and yeast type controls the type of beer brewed. Equipment for all-grain home brewing is highly variable and primarily dependent upon the monetary resources available to the brewer. All-grain brewing gives the home brewer unlimited control over the beer brewed.
F.E. Dowell, E.B. Maghirang, F. Xie, and O.K. Chung.
The Grain Inspection, Packers and Stockyards Administration (GIPSA) and the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) are conducting a collaborative study to identify quantitative and qualitative tests that predict end-use traits and functionality. We measured about 80 different traits on 100 HRWW and 100 HRSW samples selected to represent the quality range expected in the U.S. The traits measured include traditional grading factors in addition to those that measure milling, dough mixing, and baking traits. Correlation analysis of HRW quality parameters indicated that rapid tests such as protein content by NIR had a high correlation to flour water absorption (0.96), mixograph water absorption (0.96), loaf volume (0.91), farinograph absorption (0.7), kernel dimensional measurements (~ -0.7), and alveograph measurements (0.7-0.85). Test weight had little meaningful correlation to any parameters except to kernel dimensional characteristics (~ 0.6). Kernel damage as measured during grading had no correlation to any parameters, with all correlations being < 0.4. Flour yield and ash content were not well correlated to any measurements. Additional results include how combining multiple measurements improve prediction of end-use traits. This study will define how well current rapid measurement technology can predict end-use traits, and identify where improvements in rapid prediction technology may be needed.
F.E. Dowell, E.B. Maghirang, F. Xie, O.K. Chung, and R.O. Pierce.
Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) is used throughout the grain industry to rapidly measure characteristics of whole grain and flour, and recent research also shows that it can be used to study bread staling. We reported the accuracy of NIR and Fourier Transform (FT) NIR technology for measuring the quality of whole grain, flour, and bread. NIR and FTNIR instruments tested include the Foss 6500, Foss 1241, Perten 7200, Perten DA7000, and Cognis QTA FTNIR spectrometers. For the whole-grain analysis, we reported the accuracy of using the NIR and FTNIR instruments for measuring grain quality. We also reported the correlations of NIR and FTNIR measurements to flour quality measurements conducted on the same samples after milling. The same samples were then baked and we reported the accuracy of predicting bread quality from the NIR and FTNIR spectra collected from the flour and whole grain. The results presented in this paper should provide the grain industry with the potential and limitations of NIR and FTNIR technology for predicting grain, flour, and bread quality.
L.M. Seitz and M.S. Ram.
Many volatile alcohols and ester metabolites of the lesser grain borer (LGB, Rhyzopertha dominica) cultured on wheat grain were identified. Volatiles from infested samples at 80°C were collected on Tenax absorbent, thermally desorbed, and analyzed by gas chromatography (GC) using IR and mass (MS) detectors for component identification. A solid-phase microextraction (SPME) technique was used to analyze selected samples with a GC-MS system set up for obtaining chemical ionization mass spectra. SPME also was used in a synthesis process required to identify ester metabolites. Predominant compounds in LGB-infested grains were 2-pentanol and its esters of 2-methyl-2-pentenoic (A) and 2,4-dimethyl-2-pentenoic (B) acids, which are known aggregation pheromones, dominicalures 1 and 2. 2-Pentanol esters of saturated A, b-keto- and b-hydroxy derivatives of A and B, homologs of A and B, and acid moieties lacking the 2-Me substitution were found. Other straight- and branched-chain secondary alcohols and their esters were also observed. Reexamination of GC-MS-IR data acquired in previous investigations of LGB cultured on sorghum grain samples in a grain odor study showed the presence of many LGB metabolites in addition to the known dominicalures.
M.D. Toews, and T.C. Pearson.
We investigated the use of computed tomography to rapidly detect kernels infested with rice weevil pupae in grain samples. Computed tomography is a medical technology that uses a computer to recreate cross sectional images of a 3-D subject from many individual x-rays. The resulting images, termed slices, were linked together to create a continuous picture of the entire grain sample. We scanned hard red winter wheat infested with rice weevil pupae at densities of 0, 5, and 10 kernels/100-g lot. A computer program was written to quickly analyze the length, width, and pixel intensity of each suspect kernel and then classify the results as number of infested kernels/100-g sample. Computer detections were confirmed by visually inspecting each video frame. The average detection accuracy for the five infested kernels/100 g was 94.4 % with a standard deviation of 7.3 %. Similarly, the average detection accuracy in the 10 infested kernels/100 g was 87.3 ± 7.9 %. Detection accuracy was slightly compromised in samples at the higher density because infested kernels were overlapping in some cases. In the control replicates, an average of 1.2 ± 0.92 kernels was false positives.
T.C. Pearson and D.L. Brabec.
Manual inspection of wheat kernels for insect damage is laborious, requiring approximately 20 min for a 100-g sample. Furthermore, detection of kernels with hidden damage by immature insects, before an emergence hole is created, requires slower and expensive methods, such as x-ray imaging. In this study, a method for detecting insect-damaged wheat kernels has been developed that utilizes the sound a kernel makes when it is dropped onto a steel plate. Most of the acoustic energy emitted by wheat kernels is ultrasonic, above 20 Khz and beyond what most humans can hear. Undamaged kernels tend to resonate near 40 Khz with a high initial amplitude that diminishes very quickly. In contrast, insect-damaged kernels tend to resonate below 30 Khz, have lower initial amplitudes, but resonate longer than undamaged kernels. By using signal processing methods commonly used in voice recognition technology, 90 % of the insect-damaged kernels and over 99 % of the undamaged kernels have been correctly classified. This method offers nondestructive detection and sorting of insect-infested kernels that is fast, over 40 kernels/sec (100 g in 80 sec), relatively inexpensive, accurate, and is able to detect insect-damaged kernels where the insect has not yet emerged, which will lead to more accurate estimates of insect damage in wheat loads, resulting in better flour quality.
T.C. Pearson, E. Cetin, A.H. Tewfik, and R.P. Haff.
A nondestructive, real time device was developed to detect insect damage, sprout damage, and scab damage in kernels of wheat. Kernels are impacted onto a steel plate and the resulting acoustic signal analyzed to detect damage. The acoustic signal was processed using four different methods: modeling of the signal in the time-domain, computing time-domain signal variances and maximums in short-time windows, analysis of the frequency spectra magnitudes, and analysis of a modified cepstrum. Features were used as inputs to a stepwise discriminant analysis routine, which selected the best subset of features for classification using a neural network. For a network presented with only insect damaged kernels (IDK) with exit holes and undamaged kernels, 87 % of the former and 98 % of the latter were correctly classified. It was also possible to distinguish undamaged, IDK, sprout-damaged, and scab-damaged kernels.
Z. Cataltepe, T.C. Pearson, and E. Cetin.
We used transmittance images and different learning algorithms to classify insect damaged and undamaged wheat kernels. Using the histogram of the pixels of the wheat images as the feature, and the linear model as the learning algorithm, we achieved a False Positive Rate (1-specificity) of 0.12 at the True Positive Rate (sensitivity) of 0.8 and an AUROC of 0.90 ± 0.02. Combining the linear model and a Radial Basis Function Network in a committee resulted in a FP Rate of 0.09 at the TP Rate of 0.8 and an AUC of 0.93 ± 0.03.
S.R. Delwiche, and T.C. Pearson.
Fusarium head blight (FHB), also known as scab, is a fungal disease that occurs in small grains. Scab results in depressed yields and can also adversely affect grain quality. Because of the potential for production of deoxynivalenol (DON), FHB is also a food safety concern. A study was conducted which examined the potential of NIR reflectance for detection of scab-damaged wheat kernels. More than 5,000 kernels from commercial releases and breeders lines of HRSW, equally divided between infected and healthy categories, were examined by single kernel reflectance (1,000-1,700 nm). Using statistical classification techniques, such as linear discriminant analysis and nonparametric (k-nearest-neighbor) classification, an upper level for accuracy of NIR-based classification schemes at approximately 97 % was established. An exhaustive search of the most suitable wavelength pairs for the spectral difference, log(1/R at wavelength 1) minus log(1/R at wavelength 2), revealed that the low-wavelength region of a broad carbohydrate-absorption band (centered around 1,200 nm) was very effective at discriminating between healthy and scab-damaged kernels, with approximate accuracies of 95 %. Such accuracies were deemed sufficient for development of the technology for a two-wavelength high-speed commercial sorter. Ongoing research is aimed at demonstrating the reduction in DON concentration that is achieved by two-wavelength sorting.
S.R. Delwiche, T.C. Pearson, and D.L. Brabec.
Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a fungal disease that affects small cereal grains, such as wheat and barley, and is becoming more prevalent throughout much of the World's temperate climates. The disease poses a health risk to humans and livestock because of the associated production of the mycotoxin, deoxynivalenol (DON or vomitoxin). A study was undertaken to examine the efficiency of high-speed, optical sorting of intact wheat kernels for reduction of DON concentration. Soft red winter (n = 32) and soft white (n = 3) wheat samples, known to have elevated levels of FHB, were obtained from commercial mills throughout the eastern United States. An additional seven samples of wheat from the discard piles of in-mill cleaners were also studied. Fusarium-damaged wheat, cleaned of non-kernels and foreign material (~4.5 kg/sample, DON range = 0.6-20 mg/kg), was fed into a commercial high-speed bichromatic sorter operating at a throughput of 0.33 kg/(channel-min) and a kernel rejection rate of 10 %. A wavelength filter pair combination of 675 and 1,480 nm was selected for sorting, based on prior research. Visual measurements of the proportion of Fusarium-damaged kernels were collected on incoming and sorted (separate analyses of accepted and rejected seed), as were measurements of DON concentration. Results indicated that the fraction of DON contaminant level in the sorted wheat to that in the unsorted wheat ranged from 18 to 112 %, with an average of 51 %. Nine of the 35 regular samples and all seven of the discard pile samples underwent a second sort, with five from this second set undergoing a third sort. Multiple sorting was effective in producing wheat whose DON concentration was between 16 and 69 % of its original, unsorted value.
S.R. Delwiche, T.C. Pearson, and C.S. Gaines.
Our previous work has examined the accuracy of a semi-automated wheat scab inspection system that is based on near-infrared (NIR) reflectance (1,000-1,700 nm) of individual kernels. Classification analysis has involved the application of various statistical classification techniques, including linear discriminant analysis (LDA), soft independent modeling of class analogy (SIMCA), partial least squares (PLS) regression, and nonparametric (k-nearest-neighbor) classification. Recent research has focused on the determination of the most suitable visible or near-infrared wavelengths that could be used in high-speed sorting for removal of FHB-infected soft red winter wheat kernels. Current technology in high-speed sorters limits the number of spectral wavelengths (regions) of the detectors to no more than two. Hence, the critical aspect of this study has been the search for the single wavelengths and best two-wavelength combinations that maximize class separation, using LDA. Four thousand eight hundred kernels from 100 commercial cultivars, equally divided between normal and scab-damaged categories, were individually scanned in the extended visible (410-865 nm) and near-infrared (1,031-1,674 nm) regions. Single and all combinations of two-wavelength LDA models were developed and characterized through cross-validation by the average correctness of classification percentages. Short visible (~420 nm) and moderate near-infrared (1450-1500 nm) wavelengths produced the highest single-term classification accuracies (at approximately 77 % and 83 %, respectively). The best two-term models occurred near the wavelengths of 500 and 550 nm for the visible region alone (94 % accuracy), 1,152 and 1,248 nm for the near-infrared region alone (97 %), and 750 and 1,476 nm for the hybrid region (86 %). These wavelengths are, therefore, considered of importance in the design of monochromatic and bichromatic high-speed sorters for scab-damage reduction. Ongoing research is presently examining the efficiency of high-speed sorting for Fusarium-damaged kernels, as measured by reduction in DON concentration. Approximately 40 5-kg commercial samples of SRWW have undergone as many as three successive sorts, using a commercial sorter outfitted with filters at 675 and 1,470 nm. Results indicate a significant reduction in DON is achieved through sorting; however, this comes at the expense of false positives (good kernels diverted to reject stream) and the overall reduction in material available for processing.
N. Wang, N. Zhang, F.E. Dowell, and T.C. Pearson.
The Grain Check 310 is a real-time, image-based wheat quality inspection machine that can replace tedious visual inspections for purity, color, and size characteristics of grains. Grain Check 310 also has the potential for measuring the vitreousness of durum wheat. Different neural network calibration models were developed to classify vitreous and non vitreous kernels and evaluated using samples from GIPSA and from fields in North Dakota. Model transferability between different inspection machines was also tested.
F.H. Arthur and M.E. Casada.
Temperature profiles and insect populations were compared in wheat that had been aerated with low airflow rates during the summer in addition to two autumn aeration cycles, versus wheat aerated in autumn only or unaerated. Tests were in 2000-01, 2001-02, and 2002-03, and data were analyzed separately for each year. Temperature profiles at depths of 0.9 and 1.8 m in the grain mass showed distinct declines in temperature for each aeration cycle during the first two years of the study, however, summer aeration did not result in as large of temperature declines in 2002-03, partly because the summer aerated bin was loaded with warmer grain. The effectiveness of summer aeration was estimated using confined insect populations in tube cages placed on the surface of the grain and by sampling the grain for natural insect populations using pitfall probe traps. At the conclusion of the summer aeration cycle, the number of lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica (Fabricius), red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), and rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae (L.) in the tube cages were consistently lower in bins that had not been aerated during the summer, possibly because without aeration temperatures in the top surface of the grain mass were high enough to limit insect populations. Pitfall trap catch of rusty grain beetles, Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens), hairy fungus beetle, Typhaea stercorea (L.), foreign grain beetle, Ahasverus advena (Walt), and lesser grain borer was consistently lower in bins with summer aeration, indicating a reduction in natural insect populations. Field data seem to support modeling simulation studies that predict lower insect populations when a summer aeration cycle is included, however, the timing and the effectiveness of this extra aeration may vary depending on when the bins are loaded, the weather patterns for a particular year, and the presence and severity of natural infestations of insects.
M.E.A. Ingles, M. Casada, R.G. Maghirang, and T.J. Herrman.
The U.S. grain handling system has been developed predominantly to handle large volumes of commodity grains, and it often seems unable to preserve the identity of specialty grains to the desired level of purity. But almost no data on grain commingling during handling are available in the literature. This study evaluated commingling in a country elevator in Manhattan, KS. This elevator, which has a capacity of 190 t/h (7,000 bu/ha), has three receiving pits and one bucket elevator leg. Experiments involved moving soybeans through one of three receiving pits followed by moving corn through the same equipment without any special cleaning between the two operations. Corn samples were collected at selected time intervals during the second operation and analyzed for commingling. Commingling was calculated as the percentage of soybean kernels mixed in the corn samples. Commingling was greater than 1 % only during the first 75 to 135 s (1 to 2 t of grain received), except for the gravity-type dump pit configuration, where commingling remained in excess of 1 % for the duration of the test (840 s or 7.3 t of grain). Measured mean cumulative commingling was 1.31 % for the combined effect of gravity-type pit and elevator leg, 0.30 % for the combined effect of leg and pit with drag conveyor, and 0.23 % for the bucket elevator alone. The effects of different receiving configurations were further studied by using ARENA simulation with different amounts of initial impurities of incoming grains. The model predicted that a facility equipped with a bucket elevator and receiving pit with drag conveyor receiving 10 t of grain would yield to a final commingling of at least 0.28 %, of which 0.27 % would be from the effect of the leg. With minimum cleaning between loads, a load of grain handled immediately right after a load of different grain type would generate the highest amount of commingling.
D.R. Tilley, M. Casada, and F.H. Arthur.
An alternative to fumigants and insecticides for controlling stored-product insects in empty grain storage bins prior to filling is heat treatment in which the temperature is quickly raised to a minimum of 50°C and held there for two to four hours. Effectiveness of heat treatments on empty grain storage bins was evaluated for five readily-available propane and electric heat treatment systems by measuring temperature and the mortality of Tribolium castaneum (Herbst), Sitophilus oryzae (L.), and Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) at three time intervals. Eleven locations, six above and five below the drying floor, were monitored for temperature and mortality of the three insect species using arenas initially stocked with live adult insects. Data were analyzed separately for each heating system with floor location and time interval as main effects for insect mortality. The high output propane heater (29 kW) produced 100 % mortality in 2 h for the three insect species at all test area locations. The electric duct heater system (18 kW) also produced 100 % mortality at all test area locations after 40 h when aided by a complicated interior heat distribution system. The other three systems produced less than 100 % mortality.
F.E. Dowell and T.C. Pearson.
High speed sorters that can detect and remove defects in single kernels at speeds of about 80,000 kernels/s (300 bu/hr) are commonly used to remove undesirable product from commodities such as peanuts, tree nuts, and coffee beans. However, they have had limited use in the grain industry. We have been conducting research with Satake, Inc, with the objective of investigating grain related applications of their high-speed sorters that utilize visible and near-infrared sensors. Samples that range in size from about 100 g to 500 bu and that contain defects such as fungal damage, toxins, low or high protein, internal insects, and discolored wheat have been analyzed with this technology. Removing kernels infected with Karnal bunt with ~100 % accuracy; purifying white wheat breeder samples by removing red kernels with up to 100 % accuracy; removing low or high-protein corn from bulk samples where shifts in protein content of about 1 % can be achieved with each pass through the sorter; removing toxins such as aflatoxin and fumonisin from corn with ~90 % accuracy; and removing insect damaged kernels. This technology can be used to help breeders develop new cultivars for specific markets, to remove toxins from grain, presort grain before milling to optimize mill performance, and rapidly screen samples for grading and marketing purposes.
F.E. Dowell, T.C. Pearson, and P.R. Armstrong.
Many grain quality attributes are not uniformly distributed within the sample or bulk lot. For example, aflatoxin or fumonisin in grain may be present in only a small percentage of kernels. Our research program concentrates on developing technology or procedures to rapidly detect specific grain quality characteristics and then sort the sample or bulk-lot based on that measurement. We are working with automated single kernel systems that utilize acoustics, and color and near-infrared (NIR) sensors that can detect specific attributes and sort kernels at rates of 1 to 1,000 kernels/s. The acoustical system is being investigated for detecting insects inside single wheat kernels. The color and NIR sensors are being used to detect and remove: aflatoxin and fumonisin from corn; fumonisin from wheat; red from white wheat, red from white millet, low from high protein wheat, and damaged from undamaged corn for developing new cultivars; soft from hard wheat for studying the affects of hardness on bread quality; Karnal bunt from wheat for routine inspection; defective soybeans with off-flavors from good beans; and insect infested wheat kernels from undamaged kernels. The lower-speed detection and sorting is based on technology developed within our research unit and commercialized by Perten Instruments, Springfield, IL. The higher-speed detection and sorting is based on electronic sorting technology developed by Satake USA Inc, Houston, Texas. This technology can help regulatory agencies rapidly screen samples; breeders develop cultivars with specific end-use traits; and researchers study specific, intrinsic kernel characteristics.
P.R. Armstrong.
Current grain temperature monitoring systems employ sensors that are hard-wired into a structure. Thermocouples are typically used and are integrated into a supporting cable and suspended between the ceiling and floor of a structure. Multiplexed signal conditioning is performed outside the structure and the data transmitted to a display and storage device. Wireless sensors were studied as an alternative to these systems. The main issue addressed in this study was the data transmission distance that can be achieved through grain by a low power RF device designed to operate in unlicensed FCC spectrum. Results showed that sensors transmitting at 915 MHz and 1 mW power were able to communicate reliably over 2 m, although this was close to their limit. Measured signal attenuation displayed typical small-scale fading patterns, i.e. sub-wavelength changes in position caused high variability in signal strength. A 2-m range would allow reasonable spatial resolution for monitoring grain conditions such as temperature although sensors would have to be networked in order for data to be sent to an external gateway. Theory on RF attenuation in grain gave an approximation of experimental transmission signal loss but did not provide the accuracy desired to determine RF range. It was, however, helpful in selecting the most appropriate frequency range to achieve the greatest transmission distance.
P.R. Armstrong and J. Kipp.
The storage environment of grain is a micro-environment where many biological activities occur. Grain, insects, and mold produce an abundance of metabolites that could potentially be good indicators of storage conditions. Carbon dioxide has been suggested as a good indicator of bad storage conditions but is not specific to any particular problem. Various alcohols, carbonyls, and hydrocarbons have been identified as fungi volatiles, whereas volatiles specific to insects, such as aggregation pheromones dominicalure 1 and 2, and 2-pentanol, were considered to be potential problem indicators. Sensors used in electronic noses have been studied as a method to detect volatiles and determine when storage problems are caused by insects and molds. We generally thought that most sensors have the sensitivity but not the selectivity to detect many of the volatiles. We also need more research to identify the most appropriate volatiles for effective monitoring and the environmental factors under which they are formed. Carbon dioxide monitoring would seem the most promising technology for immediate application, given this sensor technology is well established.
P.R. Armstrong, E.B. Maghirang, F. Xie, and F.E. Dowell.
Instruments using near-infrared reflectance (NIR) and Fourier transform near-infrared (FT-NIR) spectroscopic methods were compared for their predictive performance of several wheat flour and grain constituents. Protein, moisture, and hardness of whole grain wheat; protein, ash, and amylose of wheat flour; and corn grit fat were used to develop prediction equations between reference data of these constituents and their spectra. Partial Least Squares (PLS) regression was used to develop the prediction equations. NIR and FT-NIR spectrometers collected spectra over the wavelength ranges of 1,100-2,498 and 1,142-2,502 nm respectively. Prediction models were selected using F-test criteria (P = 0.05). Results show that FT-NIR and NIR instruments were comparable in prediction performance and there are no apparent advantages of one over the other. Wheat flour protein and ash; whole-grain wheat protein and moisture models had good quantitative prediction based on RPD values, i.e., RPD values were greater than 5. Wheat flour amylose and whole grain wheat hardness predictions were qualitative with RPD values near 3. Corn grit fat predictions were poor with RPD values near 1.
P.R. Armstrong, S. Uddin, and N. Zhang.
Grain temperature and moisture content (MC) are considered to be principal factors for safe storage of grain. Continuous monitoring of temperatures within grain masses is relatively easy using thermocouples, but monitoring of MC is limited by availability of sensors. However, temperature and relative humidity (RH) can be used to predict grain MC based on equilibrium moisture content (EMC) equations such as the Modified Henderson, Chung-Pfost, or Oswin. These models are limited to quasi-static thermodynamic conditions but do provide a method to predict MC with commercial sensors. Error analysis was performed using EMC relationships and temperature and RH sensor error data to determine the total error in grain MC prediction. Error inherent in the EMC regression model (± 2.15 % to ± 3.8 % MC) was greater than the contribution of sensor error (approximately ± 0.5 % to ± 1 % MC) between storage conditions of 20-70 % RH. Outside these RH ranges, sensor error can contribute substantially (± 2 % to ± 8 % MC at 95 % RH) to the total error. Development of EMC equations that exclude ranges of RH above 80 % and below 20 % may be desirable in order to develop EMC prediction equations with smaller standard errors due to regression. EMC equations respond differently to sensor error above 70 % RH, with the Oswin equation displaying the largest errors for MC prediction. Between 20 % RH and 70 % RH, there was little difference between the prediction error for the equations.
D.L. Brabec, R.G. Maghirang, M.E. Casada, and E. Haque.
Grain dust, a health and safety risk, is generated whenever grain is loaded into or unloaded from hoppers and equipment. This research investigated airflow models and evaluated the particle dynamics from a high-pressure water-fog system for potential dust control at a grain-receiving hopper. A 0.2-mm (0.008-in.) spray nozzle was used to produce a plume of fog directed across a free-falling grain column. Ninety percent of the fog drops ranged from 10 to 40 µm in diameter. Average drop velocities in the plume cross section were over 10 m/s at 7.6 cm from the nozzle. The air-velocity pressures at 7.6 cm were parabolic in the radial direction, with maximum pressures over 275 Pa (1.1 in. H2O). Airflow distributions, grain-dust transport, and spray-droplet trajectories within the test chamber were modeled in three dimensions using FLUENT, which is a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software program. Induced airflow from the spray fog caused recirculation of the air and dust particles in the lower part of the chamber. This recirculation pattern transported the dust from the grain pile back into the spray plume, where it mixed with the spray fog. Experiments in a test chamber, representing a section of a grain-receiving hopper, produced side-wall fog deposits of 11 mg/cm2/min in the middle where plume and airflow was restricted by the incoming grain. The side-wall fog deposits decreased to 1.5 mg/cm2/min near the outlet. Most grain-surface fog deposits ranged from 0.1 to 0.4 mg/cm2/sec.