The
years from 1871 to the death of Baird in 1887 were the formative
period of the new era of Woods Hole as a scientific center.
In historical documents and in old books the present name Woods
Hole is spelled in a different way. The old name "Woods Holl"
is considered by some historians of Cape Cod (Conklin, 1944)
to be a relic of times prior to the 17th century
when the Norsemen visited the coast. The "Holl", supposed to
be the Norse word for "hill", is found in the old records. The
early settlers gave the name "Hole" to inlets or to passages
between the islands, such as "Robinson's Hole" between Naushon
and Pasque Islands, or "Quick's Hole" between Pasque and Nashawena
Islands, and Woods' Hole between the mainland and Nonamesset
Island. In 1877 the Postmaster General ordered the restoration
of the original spelling "Wood's Holl", which remained in force
until 1896 when the United States Post Office changed it back
to Woods Hole and eliminated the apostrophe in Wood's. The change
was regretted by the old timers and by C.O. Whitman who had
given the specific name "hollensis" to some local animals he
described.
At the time of his arrival at Woods Hole in 1871, Baird was
well known to the scientific circles of this country and abroad
as a naturalist, student of classification and distribution
of mammals and birds, and as a tireless collector of zoological
specimens. He maintained voluminous correspondence with the
scientists in the United States and Europe, and was Permanent
Secretary of the recently organized American Association for
the Advancement of Science. To the general public he was known
as a contributor to a science column in the New York Herald
and author of many popular magazine articles. His newly acquired
responsibilities as Commissioner of Fisheries greatly added
to his primary duties as Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution which was primarily responsible for the establishment
of the National Museum in Washington. As a scientist, Baird
belonged to the time of Louis Agassiz, Th. H. Huxley, and Charles
Darwin. Like Agassiz he attended medical college but never completed
his studies, although the degree of M.D. honoris causa was later
conferred upon him by the Philadelphia Medical College.
In the words of Charles F. Holder (Holder, 1910), "he was a
typical American of the heroic type. A man of many parts, virtues,
and intellectual graces, and of all the zoologists science has
given the world... he was most prolific in works of practical
value to man and humanity."
Commissioner Baird attended many Congressional hearings and
conferences with state officials and fishermen at which the
probably causes of the decline of fisheries were discussed and
various corrective measures suggested. From the lengthy and
frequently heated discussions and evidence presented by the
fishermen and other persons familiar with the fisheries problems,
he became convinced that an alarmingly rapid decreased in the
catches of fish had continued for the last 15 or 20 years. Such
a decline was particularly noticeable in the case of scup, tautog,
and sea bass in the waters of Vineyard Sound. It was logical,
therefore, that the new Commissioner of Fisheries would select
for his initial activities the New England coastal area where
the fishing industry was of the greatest importance as a politico-economical
factor.
Woods Hole, however, was not a significant fishing center. In
the "Fisheries and Fishing Industry of the United States" prepared
and edited by Goode (1884-87) for the 1880 Census (fig. 4),
the fishing activity at Woods Hole is described in the following
words: "Of the male inhabitants only seven are regularly engaged
in fishing, the remainder being employed in the guano factory,
in farming and other minor pursuits... There is one ship carpenter
in Wood's Holl, but he finds employment in his legitimate business
only at long intervals. Of sailmakers, riggers, caulkers, and
other artisans there are none. Four men are employed by Mr.
Spindel, during the height of the fishing season, in icing and
boxing fish. The boat fishery is carried on by seven men from
April until September, inclusive. Only three species of fish
are usually taken, namely scup, tautog and sea bass. The total
catch of each fisherman is about 15 barrels, or about 2400 pounds.
In addition about 6,720 lobsters are annually taken."
Before selecting a location for permanent headquarters for the
work on fishery management and conservation, Baird undertook
extensive explorations of the fishing grounds off the entire
New England Coast. Section 2 of the Joint Resolution Number
8 of Congress gave the Commissioner full authority to carry
out the necessary research. In part it reads as follows: "and
further resolved, That it shall be the duty of the said Commissioner
to prosecute investigations and inquiries on the subject, with
the view of ascertaining whether any and what diminution in
the number of the food-fishes of the coast and the lakes of
the United States has taken place; and, if so, to what causes
the same is due; and also, whether any and what protective,
prohibitory, or precautionary measures should be adopted in
the premises; and to report upon the same to Congress." Section
4 of the same Resolution contains an important clause which
authorizes the Commissioner of Fisheries "to take or cause to
be taken, at all times, in the waters of the sea-coast of the
United States, where the tide ebbs and flowers, and also in
his judgement, from time to time, be needful or proper for the
conduct of his duties as aforesaid, any law, custom, or useage
of any State to the contrary notwithstanding."
The significant words "where the tide ebbs and flows" were interpreted
by Baird in a very broad scientific sense which extended the
authority for his investigations to the offshore areas of the
open ocean.
Pounds and weirs were most frequently accused by the public
as destructive methods of fishing responsible for the decline
in the abundance of food fishes along the coast. Although Baird
gave very serious consideration to the possible destructiveness
of fixed nets, traps, pounds, pots, fish weirs, and other stationary
apparatus, he was fully aware of the complexity of the factors
which may cause the decline in fish populations. He discusses
this difficult problem in a paper entitled "Report on the condition
of the sea fisheries of the south coast of New England" and
published as the first section of the voluminous First Report
of the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries for 1871. Of the causes
which may have contributed to the decrease of summer shore fisheries
of the south side of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, a fact
which he considered as well established by the testimonies of
competent persons, he lists the following: (1) decrease or disappearance
of the food of commercial fishes; (2) migration of fishes to
other localities; (3) epidemic diseases and "peculiar atmospheric
agencies, such as heat, cold, etc."; (4) destruction by other
fishes; (5) man's activities resulting in the pollution of water,
in overfishing, and the use of improper apparatus.
The biologist of today will recognize in this statement Baird's
broad philosophical approach to the major problem of fishery
biology. The outlined program combined oceanographical and meteorological
investigations with the studies of biology, ecology, parasitology,
and population dynamics of various fish species. Baird's program
of research is as comprehensive and valid today as it was 90
years ago.
No time was lost in initiating this program. Woods Hole was
selected as the base of the sea coast operations during the
first summer. In spite of the insignificance of local fisheries,
this locality offered a number of advantages which were recognized
by Baird. Communication with Boston, New York, and Washington
was good and promised to be better with the expected opening
of the railroad branch in 1872. Being centrally located in relation
to principal fishing grounds of New England and having good
dock facilities and water of sufficient depth for sea going
vessels, Woods Hole was a suitable base for visiting the offshore
grounds. Furthermore, it was believed that the alleged decrease
in food fishes was most clearly manifested in the region around
Vineyard Sound. The small yacht Mazeppa of the New Bedford Custom
House and the revenue-cutter Moccasin attached to the custom-house
at Newport, R.I., were placed at the disposal of Baird; and
the Light-House Board granted permission to occupy some vacant
buildings and the wharf at the buoy-station on the west bank
of Little Harbor (fig. 5). The Secretary of the Navy came to
Baird's assistance by placing at his command a small steam launch
which belonged to the Boston Navy Yard and by giving many condemned
powder tanks which could be used for the preservation of specimens.
Nets, dredges, tanks, and other gear were provided by the Smithsonian
Institution. Cooperation of the various governmental agencies
was authorized by Congress which in Section 3 of the Resolution
specific that "the heads of the Executive Departments be, and
they are hereby directed to cause to be rendered all necessary
and practicable aid to the said Commissioner in the prosecution
of the investigations and inquiries aforesaid."
This provision of the law was of great value. It is apparent,
however, that the success in obtaining cooperation authorized
by law depended a great deal on the personal characteristics
of Baird, his great ability of getting along with people, and
his remarkable power of persuasion. These qualifications played
the major role in his success in organizing the Commission's
work and also in obtaining the cooperation of scientists as
well as that of fishermen and businessmen.
The investigation during the first summer consisted primarily
in collecting large numbers of fishes and studying their spawning,
rate of growth, distribution, and food. In the course of this
work nearly all the fish pounds and traps, some 30 in number,
in the vicinity of Woods Hole, were visited and their location
recorded. There was no difficulty in obtaining the owners' permission
to examine these installations and to collect the needed specimens.
Altogether 106 species of fish were secured, photographed, and
preserved for the National Museum. Of this number 20 or more
species had not previously been known from Massachusetts waters
(Baird, 1873). Information gained in this manner was supplemented
by the testimonies of various fishermen who presented their
ideas either for or against the use of traps and pounds. Among
them was Isaiah Spindel, who at the request of Baird, prepared
a description of a pound net used at Woods Hole and explained
its operation. In the following years Spindel became an influential
member of the group of local citizens who supported Baird's
plan of establishing a permanent marine station at Woods Hole.
The ship Moccasin under the command of J.G. Baker was engaged
in taking samples of plankton animals, in determining the extent
of beds of mussels, starfish, and other bottom invertebrates,
and in making temperature observations.
One of the principal collaborators in the studies conducted
at Woods Hole in 1871 was A. E. Verrill (fig. 6) of Yale University,
a professor whom Baird appointed as his assistant and placed
in charge of the investigations of marine invertebrates. Dredging
for bottom animals during the first summer was carried out on
a relatively small scale from a chartered sailing yacht Mollie
and a smaller vessel used in the immediate vicinity of
Woods Hole. Extensive collections were made by wading on tidal
flats exposed at low water.
Zoological work attracted considerable interest among the biologists
of this country. Many of them stopped at Woods Hole fore greater
or lesser periods and were encouraged by Baird to use the facilities
of the Fish Commission. The group included such well known men
as L. Agassiz, A. Hyatt, W.G. Farlow, Theodore Gill, Gruyure
Jeffries of England, and many others.
The first year's work extended until the early part of October.
Before returning to Washington, Baird commissioned Vinal N.
Edwards (fig. 7) of Woods Hole to continue the investigation
as far as possible. By the end of the first year a general plan
of study of the natural histories of the fishes and the effect
of fishing on fish populations was prepared with the assistance
of the well-known ichthyologist, Theodore N. Gill. His old "Catalogue
of the fishes of the Eastern Coast of North America from Greenland
to Georgia", (Gill, 1861) was revised and the next text including
the recently collected data concerning the Massachusetts fishes,
appeared in the First Report of the U.S. Commissioner of Fish
and Fisheries adopted by Baird (Baird, 1873) as a guide for
the work of his associates for the purpose of "securing greater
precision in the inquiries." The plan is composed of 15 sections,
such as Geographical distribution, Abundance, Reproduction,
etc., with detailed subdivisions under each one. A questionnaire
containing 88 different items was included in order to facilitate
the inquiries conducted among the fishermen. The scope of the
highly comprehensive program is complete enough to be useful
today; marine biologists of today would probably only rephrase
it, using modern terminology. During the first year of operations
conducted at Woods Hole, Baird and his associates laid down
the foundation of the new branch of science which we now call
fishery biology or fishery science.
Edwards, whom Baird appointed as pilot and collector to continue
the work which started in June 1871 at Woods Hole, was a most
remarkable man. Without a formal scientific education he was
a born naturalist who possessed the essential characteristics
of a true scientist, with great ability for accurate observation,
correct recording of facts, and enthusiastic devotion to the
study of nature. Sine the time of his appointment until his
death on April 5, 1919, Edward remained in the continuous service
of the Fisheries Station at Woods Hole and became the person
most familiar to the biologists working there. Devoid of any
vanity he unselfishly assisted many scientists engaged on various
research problems. No wonder, therefore, that his name was frequently
mentioned in the many papers, especially those dealing with
the local marine fauna. For more than 30 years he kept daily
records of sea-water temperature and density at Woods Hole,
recorded the catches of fish from the pounds, noted the appearance
of sea birds and their nesting, and recorded the results of
seining and dredging. Shore seining seemed to be his favorite
occupation in which he engaged with an unquenchable enthusiasm.
E frequently rowed his heavy skiff, loaded with a 200-foot seine,
five or six miles and after seining for several hours returned
home in darkness.
In a letter on file in the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, Edwin Linton
writes that Edwards' ability to forecast the weather for many
hours ahead seemed uncanny to inlanders not familiar with the
sea. He adds that "I think of Vinal's mind, when dealing with
nature, as mirroring... the region from Narragansett Bay to
Monomy, and I do not know how much farther. The set of the tides
seemed to be in his mind as a moving picture which he could
refer to on the moment, so that it was much easier to ask Vinal
when it would be low water at Katuma Bay, on the coming Saturday,
or when the tide would begin to make to the eastward at Quick's
Hole on the following Monday... than it would be to attempt
to work it out from the tide tables."
