Title: Background Note: United Nations
PA
Source: Office of Public Communication, Bureau of Public
Affairs
Description: Historical, Political and Economic Overviews of the
Countries of the World
Date: Oct, 15 199210/15/92
Category: Country Data
Region: Whole World
Country: Ashmore and Cartier Islands
Subject: Travel, Human Rights, Arms Control,
Security Assistance and Sales, History,
International Organizations, Trade/Economics,
Military Affairs, Cultural Exchange
[TEXT]
Official Name:
United Nations
PROFILE
Established:
By charter signed in San Francisco, California,
on June 26, 1945; effective October 24, 1945.
Purposes:
To maintain international peace and security; to
develop friendly relations among nations; to achieve international
cooperation in solving economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian
problems and in promoting respect for human rights and fundamental
freedoms; to be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations in
attaining these common ends.
Members:
178.
Official languages:
Arabic, Chinese, English, French,
Russian, Spanish.
Principal organs:
General Assembly, Security Council,
Economic and Social Council, Trusteeship Council, International
Court of Justice, Secretariat.
Budget:
UN assessed budget (calendar year 1991)--$1.2
billion. US share--$298 million. In calendar 1991, the United
States paid its full assessment of $1.1 billion to the United Nations,
its agencies, and other international organizations, including UN
peace-keeping operations, voluntary contributions for other UN
organizations such as UNICEF, and $25 million for UN refugee
programs.
Secretariat
Chief Administrative Officer:
Secretary General of the
United Nations, appointed to a 5-yr. term by the General Assembly on
the recommendation of the Security Council. Secretary General:
Boutros Boutros-Ghali.
Staff:
A worldwide staff of 23,000, including more than
2,800 US citizens. The staff is appointed by the Secretary General
according to UN regulations.
General Assembly
Membership:
All UN members. President: Elected at the
beginning of each General Assembly session.
Main committees:
First--Political and Security, primarily
disarmament; Special Political Committee. Second--Economic and
Financial. Third--Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural. Fourth--
Trusteeship. Fifth--Administrative and Budgetary. Sixth--Legal.
Many other committees address specific issues, including peace-
keeping, outer space, crime prevention, status of women, and UN
Charter reform.
Security Council
Membership:
Five permanent members (China, France,
Russia, UK, US), each with the right to veto, and 10 non-permanent
members elected by the General Assembly for 2-year terms. (In
December 1991, Russia assumed the permanent Security Council
seat previously held by the USSR.) Five non-permanent members are
elected from Africa and Asia combined; one from Eastern Europe;
two from Latin America; and two from Western Europe and other
areas. Non-permanent members are not eligible for immediate
reelection. The 1992 non-permanent members are Austria, Belgium,
Cape Verde, Hungary, Japan, Morocco, Venezuela , Ecuador, India, and
Zimbabwe.
President:
Rotates monthly in English alphabetical order of
members.
Economic and Social Council
Membership:
54; 18 elected each year by the General
Assembly for 3-year terms. President: Elected each year.
Trusteeship Council
Membership:
China, France, Russia, UK, US.
President:
Elected each year.
International Court of Justice
Membership:
15, elected for 9-year terms by the General
Assembly and the Security Council from nominees of national groups
under provisions of the International Court of Justice Statute.
BACKGROUND
The immediate antecedent of the United Nations was the League of
Nations. It was created under US leadership following World War I
(although the United States never became a member). The League
existed from 1919 until its reduced organization and functions were
replaced by the United Nations in 1945.
The idea for the United Nations found expression in declarations
signed at conferences in Moscow and Tehran in October and December
1943. In the summer of 1944, representatives of the USSR, the UK,
and the United States met at Dumbarton Oaks, a mansion in
Washington, DC. Later, discussions among China, the UK, and the
United States resulted in proposals concerning the purposes and
principles of an international organization, its membership and
principal organs, as well as arrangements to maintain international
peace and security and international economic and social
cooperation. These proposals were discussed and debated by
governments and private citizens worldwide.
On March 5, 1945, invitations to a conference to be held in San
Francisco in April were issued by the United States on behalf of
itself, China, the USSR, and the UK to 42 other governments that had
signed the January 1, 1942, "Declaration by United Nations" and that
had declared war on Germany or Japan no later than March 1, 1945.
The conference added Argentina, Denmark, and the two republics of
Belarus and the Ukraine, bringing the total to 50.
The 50 nations represented at San Francisco signed the Charter of
the United Nations on June 26, 1945. Poland, which was not
represented at the conference but for which a place among the
original signatories had been reserved, added its name later,
bringing the total of original signatories to 51. The United Nations
came into existence 4 months later, on October 24, 1945, when the
Charter had been ratified by the five permanent members of the
Security Council--China, France, the USSR, the UK, and the United
States--and by a majority of the other signatories.
UN membership is open to all "peace-loving states" that accept the
obligations of the UN Charter and, in the judgment of the
organization, are able and willing to fulfill these obligations.
Admission to membership is determined by the General Assembly
upon recommendation of the Security Council. In September 1991,
there were 166 members. By August 1992, 179 countries were
members of the UN. In September 1992, however, the General
Assembly, by a vote of 127 to 6 with 26 abstentions, revoked
Yugoslavia's membership, reducing the total to 178.
In New York City, the UN owns its headquarters site , which is
international territory. The UN headquarters building was
constructed between January 1, 1949, and August 21, 1950, beside
the East River on donated land. Under special agreement with the
United States, certain diplomatic privileges and immunities have
been granted, but generally the laws of New York City, New York
State, and the United States apply.
SECURITY COUNCIL
Under the UN Charter, the Security Council has "primary
responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and
security," and all UN members "agree to accept and carry out the
decisions of the Security Council in accordance with the present
Charter."
Other organs of the United Nations make recommendations to
member governments. The Security Council, however, has the power
to make decisions, which member governments must carry out under
the Charter. A representative of each Security Council member must
always be present at UN headquarters so that the Council can meet
at any time.
Decisions in the Security Council on all substantive matters--for
example, a decision calling for direct measures related to the
settlement of a dispute--require the affirmative votes of nine
members, including the support of all five permanent members. A
negative vote--a veto--by a permanent member prevents adoption of
a proposal that has received the required number of affirmative
votes. Abstention is not regarded as a veto. A permanent member
usually abstains when it does not wish to vote in favor of a decision
or to block it with a veto.
A state that is a member of the UN but not of the Security Council
may participate in Security Council discussions in which the Council
agrees that the country's interests are particularly affected. In
recent years, the Council has interpreted this loosely, enabling many
countries to take part in its discussions. Non-members routinely
are invited to take part when they are parties to disputes being
considered by the Council.
Although the UN Charter gives the Security Council primary
responsibility for international peace and security, it recommends
that states first make every effort to settle their disputes
peacefully, either bilaterally or through regional organizations.
Under Chapter Six of the Charter, "Pacific Settlement of Disputes,"
the Security Council "may investigate any dispute, or any situation
which might lead to international friction or give rise to a dispute."
The Council may "recommend appropriate procedures or methods of
adjustment" if it determines that the situation might endanger
international peace and security. These recommendations are not
binding on UN members.
Under Chapter Seven, the Council has broader power to decide what
measures to be taken in situations involving "threats to the peace,
breaches of the peace, or acts of aggression." In such situations, the
Council is not limited to recommendations but may take action,
including the use of armed force, "to maintain or restore
international peace and security." This was the basis for UN armed
action in Korea in 1950 and the use of coalition forces in Iraq and
Kuwait in 1991.
In the case of Iraq, the Security Council adopted 12 resolutions in
1990 that clearly laid out the path of peace for that country to
follow. Those resolutions demanded that Iraq withdraw immediately
and unconditionally from Kuwait, established an economic embargo
against Iraq backed by force, and authorized the use of "all means
necessary" to expel Iraqi armed forces from Kuwait if the Iraqis did
not withdraw by January 15, 1991. When the Iraqis did not
withdraw, the international coalition of forces launched Operation
Desert Storm at 4:50 pm Eastern Standard Time on January 16 to
force Iraq into complying with the 12 UN Security Council
resolutions. As a result of that joint military operation, the Iraqi
armed forces were expelled from Kuwait.
GENERAL ASSEMBLY
The General Assembly is made up of all 178 UN members. Member
countries are seated in English alphabetical order. Each year,
seating begins at a point in the alphabet determined through a
drawing.
The Assembly meets in regular session once a year under a
president elected from among the representatives. The regular
session usually begins on the third Tuesday in September and ends in
mid-December. Special sessions can be convened at the request of
the Security Council, of a majority of UN members, or, if the
majority concurs, of a single member. There have been 14 special
sessions of the General Assembly. The 10th special session, in
1978, constituted the largest inter-governmental conference on
disarmament in history.
Voting in the General Assembly on important questions--
recommendations on peace and security; election of members to
organs; admission, suspension, and expulsion of members;
trusteeship questions; budgetary matters--is by a two-thirds
majority of those present and voting "yes" or "no." Abstentions are
not counted. Other questions are decided by a simple majority vote.
Each member country has one vote.
Apart from approval of budgetary matters, including adoption of a
scale of assessment, Assembly resolutions are not binding on the
members. It may make recommendations on any questions or
matters within the scope of the UN except matters of peace and
security under Security Council consideration.
As the only UN organ in which all members are represented, the
Assembly has been the forum in which members have launched major
initiatives on international questions of peace, economic progress,
and human rights. It may initiate studies and make recommen-
dations to promote international political cooperation; develop and
codify international law; realize human rights and fundamental
freedoms; and further international economic, social, cultural,
educational, and health programs.
The Assembly may take action if the Security Council is unable--
usually due to disagreement among the five permanent members--to
exercise its primary responsibility for the maintenance of
international peace in a case involving an apparent threat to the
peace, breach of peace, or act of aggression. The "Uniting for Peace"
resolutions, adopted in 1950, empower the Assembly, if not already
in session, to convene in emergency special session on 24-hour
notice and to recommend collective measures--including the use of
armed force in the case of a breach of the peace or act of aggression.
Two-thirds of the members must approve any such recommendation.
Emergency special sessions under this procedure have been held on
nine occasions. The eighth emergency special session, in September
1981, considered the situation in Namibia. The situation in the
occupied Arab territories, following Israel's unilateral extension of
its laws, jurisdiction, and administration to the Golan Heights, was
the subject of the ninth emergency session in January and February
1982.
Recently, the Assembly has become a forum for the North-South
dialogue--the discussion of issues between industrialized nations
and developing countries. These issues have come to the fore
because of the phenomenal growth and changing makeup of the UN
membership. Smaller countries that achieved independence after the
UN's creation have caused a massive shift in the Assembly. In 1945,
the United Nations had 51 members: now more than two-thirds of its
178 members are developing countries.
There are many differences in wealth, size, and outlook among the
developing countries. Nevertheless, this large group (some 120
countries in the General Assembly), known as "the Third World," the
"non-aligned," and the "Group of 77," has generally voted and acted in
concert. Because of their numbers, they tend to determine the
agenda of the Assembly, the character of its debates, and the nature
of its decisions. For many developing countries, the United Nations
is particularly important. It is the collective source of much of
their diplomatic influence and the basic outlet for their foreign
relations initiatives. Increasingly, they seek inclusion in the
councils of power, and the UN provides such a policy forum.
The UN has devoted significant attention to the problems of the
developing countries, in response to their growing political
importance in multilateral arenas. The General Assembly has
guided, and in many cases created, special programs to help
developing nations acquire the skills, knowledge, and organization
they need for more productive economies. These programs
complement the work of the various specialized agencies in the UN
system. Through its economic committee, the Assembly remains
concerned with the question of economic development.
Economic and Social Council
The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) assists the General
Assembly in promoting international economic and social
cooperation and development. ECOSOC has 54 members, 18 of whom
are selected each year by the General Assembly for a 3-year term. A
retiring member is eligible for immediate reelection--the United
States, France, the UK, and the USSR have been members since the UN
was founded. ECOSOC has held two major sessions each year: a
spring meeting, usually in New York, and a summer meeting, usually
in Geneva, but now is merging the two sessions into one 7-week
session, alternating locations between New York and Geneva. The
president is elected for a 1-year term. Voting is by simple majority.
ECOSOC undertakes studies and makes recommendations on
development, world trade, industrialization, natural resources,
human rights, the status of women, population, narcotics, social
welfare, science and technology, crime prevention, and other issues.
Trusteeship Council.
The UN trusteeship system was established to help ensure that non-
self-governing territories were administered in the best interests
of the inhabitants and of international peace and security. The
Trusteeship Council operates under the authority of the General
Assembly or, in the case of strategic trusts, the Security Council. It
assists those bodies in carrying out their responsibilities under the
UN Charter.
A UN member administering a trust territory is pledged to promote
the political, economic, and educational advancement of the
territory's people. It also promotes "progressive development
towards self-government or independence as may be appropriate to
the particular circumstances of each territory and its people and the
freely expressed wishes of the peoples concerned."
As recently as 1957, 11 territories--most of them former mandates
of the League of Nations or territories taken from enemy states at
the end of World War II--were part of the UN trusteeship system.
All but one have attained self-government or independence, either as
separate nations or by joining neighboring independent countries.
The only one remaining is the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands
(TTPI), designated as a strategic area and administered by the
United States under a 1947 agreement with the Security Council. On
May 28, 1986, the Trusteeship Council determined that the United
States had fulfilled its obligations as trustee and asked it to make
arrangements for trusteeship termination by September 30, 1986,
according to the new status arrangements negotiated with TTPI
governments and ratified by their peoples in UN-observed acts of
self-determination.
As a result of these arrangements, the Republic of the Marshall
Islands and the Federated States of Micronesia became sovereign,
self-governing states in free association with the United States. A
third TTPI entity, the Northern Mariana Islands, had become a self-
governing US commonwealth in 1986. On December 22, 1990, the
Security Council confirmed the Trusteeship Council's action in
Resolution 683. A fourth TTPI entity, the Republic of Palau, remains
subject to the Trusteeship Agreement. The United States and Palau
have negotiated a Compact of Free Association, under which Palau
would have a status comparable to that of the Marshall Islands and
Micronesia. Efforts to bring the compact into effect have been
thwarted, however, by failure to obtain the approval of 75% of
Palau's voters in order to reconcile nuclear provisions of the
compact with non-nuclear provisions of the Palauan Constitution.
Membership of the Trusteeship Council consists of the United
States--the only country now administering a trust territory--and
the other permanent members of the Security Council--China,
France, the UK, and Russia.International Court of Justice
The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of
the UN. The Court was established under the Charter in 1945 as the
successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice. Its main
functions are to decide cases submitted to it by states and to give
advisory opinions on legal questions submitted to it by the General
Assembly or Security Council, or by such specialized agencies as
may be authorized to do so by the General Assembly in accordance
with the UN Charter.
The seat of the Court is in The Hague, Netherlands. It is composed of
15 judges elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council
from a list of persons nominated by the national groups in the
Permanent Court of Arbitration. Electors are mandated to bear in
mind the qualifications of the candidates and the need for the Court
as a whole to represent the main cultural groups and principal legal
systems. No two judges may be nationals of the same country.
Judges serve for 9 years and may be reelected. One-third of the
Court (five judges) is elected every 3 years.
Questions before the Court are decided by a majority of judges
present. Nine judges constitute a quorum. In case of a tie, the
president of the Court casts the deciding vote. In certain
circumstances, parties may be entitled to request a specific judge
for a specific case.
Only states may be parties in cases before the International Court of
Justice. This does not preclude private interests from being the
subject of proceedings if one state brings the case against another.
Jurisdiction of the Court is based on the consent of the parties. The
United States accepted the Court's compulsory jurisdiction in 1946
but withdrew its acceptance following the Court's decision in the
Nicaragua case in 1986.
In the event of a dispute concerning the Court's jurisdiction, the
matter is settled by the Court. Judgments are binding upon the
parties. The Security Council can be called upon by a party to
determine measures to be taken to give effect to a judgment if the
other party fails to perform its obligations under that judgment.
Examples of cases include:
-- A dispute between Greece and Turkey over the boundary of the
continental shelf in the Aegean Sea;
-- A complaint by the United States in 1980 that Iran was detaining
American diplomats in Tehran in violation of international law;
-- A dispute between Tunisia and Libya over the delimitation of the
continental shelf between them;
-- A dispute over the course of the maritime boundary dividing the
United States and Canada in the Gulf of Maine area; and
-- A complaint brought by Nicaragua against the United States
concerning military and paramilitary activities.
Secretariat.
The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary General, assisted by a
staff of about 10,000 international civil servants worldwide. It
provides studies, information, and facilities needed by UN bodies for
their meetings. It also carries out tasks as directed by the Security
Council, the General Assembly, the Economic and Social Council, and
other authorized UN bodies. The Charter provides that the staff be
chosen by application of the "highest standards of efficiency,
competence, and integrity," with due regard for the importance of
recruiting the staff on as wide a geo-graphical basis as possible.
The Charter also provides that the Secretary General and staff shall
not seek or receive instructions from any government or authority
other than the United Nations. Each UN member is enjoined to
respect the international character of the Secretariat and not seek
to influence its staff. The Secretary General alone is responsible
for the staff selection.
The Secretary General's duties include helping resolve international
disputes, administering peace-keeping operations, organizing
international conferences, gathering information on the
implementation of Security Council decisions, and consulting with
member governments regarding various international relations
initiatives. The Secretary General may bring to the attention of the
Security Council any matter that, in his or her opinion, may threaten
international peace and security.
In 1977, the General Assembly created a new position in the
Secretariat--a Director General for Development and Economic
Cooperation. The incumbent, second only to the Secretary General,
works to obtain better efficiency and coordination of the many
economic and developmental programs operating within the UN
system.
THE UN FAMILY
In addition to the 6 principal UN organs, the UN family includes
nearly 30 major programs or agencies. Some were in existence
before the UN was created and are related to it by agreement. Others
were established by the General Assembly. Each specialized agency
provides expertise in a specific area. Some of the important
agencies are discussed below.
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
Headquartered
in Vienna, Austria, the IAEA seeks both to promote the peaceful
application of nuclear energy and to inhibit its use for military
purposes. The IAEA's programs encourage the development and
transfer of the peaceful application of nuclear technology, provide
international safeguards against its misuse, facilitate the
application of safety measures in its use, and help to ensure the
environmentally safe disposal of nuclear waste.
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
Headquartered in Montreal, Canada, ICAO develops the principles and
techniques of international air navigation and fosters the planning
and development of international air transport to ensure safe and
orderly growth. The ICAO Council adopts standards and
recommended practices concerning air navigation, prevention of
unlawful interference, and facilitation of border-crossing
procedures for international civil aviation. Currently, the United
States is actively involved in the adoption and bringing into force of
an ICAO-sponsored multilateral convention to ensure that
manufacturers of plastic explosives insert chemical additives to
make the explosives detectable by screening devices at airports.
International Labor Organization (ILO).
Headquartered in
Geneva, Switzerland, ILO is unique among international
organizations because of its tripartite character: National
delegations consist of representatives from government,
management, and labor. US delegations are comprised of
representatives from the federal government, the AFL-CIO, and the
US Council for International Business. ILO seeks to strengthen
worker rights, improve working and living conditions, create
employment, and provide information and training opportunities. ILO
programs of direct benefit to the United States include the
occupational safety and health-hazard-alert system and the labor
standards and human rights programs.
International Maritime Organization (IMO).
Headquartered
in London, England, IMO promotes cooperation among governments
and the shipping industry to improve maritime safety and to prevent
marine pollution. A significant IMO accomplishment was the
adoption in 1986 of a set of measures, drafted by the United States
following the 1985 hijacking of the Achille Lauro, to protect
passengers and crews on board ships. IMO has also played a major
role in coordinating global response to major oil spills. In November
1990, in reaction to the Exxon Valdez oil spill and in response to the
1989 Group of Seven economic summit in Paris, a new international
convention on oil pollution preparedness and response was
completed and opened for signature.
Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).
Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, UNHCR protects and supports
refugees at the request of a government or the UN and assists in
their return or resettlement. UNHCR was awarded the Nobel Peace
Prize in 1954 and 1982.
UN Children's Fund (UNICEF).
Headquartered in New York City, UNICEF is headed by a US executive
director and provides long-term humanitarian and developmental
assistance to children and mothers in developing countries. A
voluntarily funded agency, UNICEF relies on contributions from
governments and private donors. Its programs emphasize developing
community-level services to promote the health and well-being of
children. UNICEF was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965. In
September 1990, it hosted a World Summit for Children to address
problems and opportunities for children and to rally the political
will and resources to meet their needs. President Bush headed the
US delegation.
UN Development Program (UNDP).
Headquartered in New
York City, UNDP has a US administrator and is the largest
multilateral source of grant technical assistance in the world.
Voluntarily funded, it provides expert advice, training, and limited
equipment to developing countries, with increasing emphasis on
assistance to the poorest countries.
UN Environmental Program (UNEP).
Headquartered in
Nairobi, Kenya, UNEP leads and coordinates UN environmental
activities, calling attention to global and regional environmental
problems and stimulating programs to address the problems. UNEP
assists developing countries in implementing environmentally sound
development policies and has produced a worldwide environmental
monitoring system to standardize international data. UNEP also has
developed guidelines and treaties on issues such as the international
transport of potentially harmful chemicals, trans-boundary air
pollution, and contamination of international waterways.
UNEP is implementing two important new agreements aimed at
protecting the earth's ozone layer. The United States helped
establish, through UNEP and the World Meteorological Organization,
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which
provides a forum to analyze the climate changes in the atmosphere
resulting from natural and man-made chemicals (the so-called
greenhouse effect).
World Food Program (WFP).
Headquartered in Rome, Italy,
the WFP distributes food commodities to support development
projects, for protracted refugee and displaced persons projects, and
as emergency food assistance in situations of natural and manmade
disasters. Development projects, traditionally about two-thirds of
WFP programs, now constitute about 55%, as emergency and
protracted refugee situations worldwide result in increasing
demands for WFP programs and resources. WFP operates exclusively
from voluntary contributions of both commodities and cash donated
by governments.
World Health Organization (WHO).
Headquartered in Geneva,
Switzerland, WHO acts as a coordinating authority on international
public health. After years of fighting smallpox, WHO declared in
1979 that the disease had been eradicated. It is nearing success in
developing vaccines against malaria and schistosomiasis and aims
to eradicate polio by the year 2000. WHO also is coordinating global
research into the causes, cures, and potential vaccines against
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Overall, the agency is
working toward the goal of "health for all by the year 2000" by
seeking a level of health for all the world's people that will enable
them to lead productive lives.
FINANCING
The UN system is financed in two ways: assessed and voluntary
contributions from member states.
The regular 2-year budgets of the United Nations and its specialized
agencies are funded by assessments. In the case of the UN, the
General Assembly approves the regular budget and determines the
assessment for each member. This is broadly based on the relative
capacity of each country to pay, as measured by national income
statistics, although there are some variations.
The Assembly has established the principle that no member should
pay more than 25% of the regular budget, which for the 1992-93
period is over $2 billion. The United States is the only nation
affected by this limitation. If the standard criterion of "capacity to
pay" were applied in the same manner to the United States as to
other major industrial powers, the United States would be assessed
at about 28%.
Under the scale of assessments adopted for period 1992-93, other
major contributors to the regular UN budget are Japan (12%), Russia
(9%), Germany (9%), France (6%), and the UK (5%). For 1992-93,
assessment against members is $1.2 billion per year; the net US
share, after adjustments, is $298.6 million.
The 41st UN General Assembly agreed in 1986 on the need to
institute far-reaching reform measures designed to restore and
strengthen the capability of the United Nations to serve the
interests of its member states. An acceptable program-budget-
approval mechanism was found that contains the following essential
elements:
-- A consensus decision-making process;
-- A budget ceiling;
-- An indication of program priorities; and
-- A contingency fund that protects the integrity of the budget from
constant add-ons.
As a result of what was achieved, member states, through good-
faith negotiation, now act by consensus on important program-
budget issues that previously proved so divisive. This is essential
to the long-term operational viability of the UN and helped restore a
sense of negotiation and cooperation in UN deliberations beyond
budgetary issues.
UN peace-keeping operations have been financed by a combination of
assessments, voluntary contributions, and the sale of UN bonds. The
UN Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) has been financed solely by voluntary
contributions. Some member nations, in addition to providing
monetary support, have supplied troops, equipment, or services
without subsequent reimbursement. The United States has airlifted
personnel from nations contributing troops to a number of peace-
keeping operations.
Special UN programs not included in the regular budget--such as
UNICEF and UNDP--are financed by voluntary contributions from
member governments. Some private-sector funds also are provided.
Some nations use the UN system extensively to contribute to
developmental assistance programs in other nations.
The United States contributes varying percentages of the costs of
the different agencies and programs in the UN system. In FY 1990,
its combined assessed and voluntary contributions amounted to
about $1.3 billion.
MAINTAINING THE PEACE
The UN Charter gives the Security Council the power to:
-- Investigate any situation threatening international peace;
-- Recommend procedures for peaceful resolution of a dispute;
-- Call upon other member nations to completely or partially
interrupt economic relations as well as sea, air, postal, and radio
communications, or to sever diplomatic relations; and
-- Enforce its decisions militarily, if necessary.
Since the United Nations was created, there have been many
outbreaks of international violence in which the United Nations has
helped to reduce the danger of wider conflict. It has opened the way
to negotiated settlements through its service as a center of debate
and negotiation, as well as through fact-finding missions,
mediators, and truce observers. The United States and other like-
minded nations seek to enhance the effectiveness of the Security
Council in dealing with international conflicts. Comprised of troops
and equipment supplied by a broad range of nations, UN peace-
keeping forces sometimes have been able to limit or prevent
conflict. With experience in the operation of such forces over many
years, this UN activity has become increasingly prominent as
cooperation has increased in recent years among permanent members
of the Security Council. The UN cannot impose peace, however.
Some conflicts never have been discussed by the Security Council,
and others have proved to be beyond the capacity of the UN to
influence. Linkage of UN peace-keeping efforts to a viable political
process has been key to their success.
The most extensive use of UN troops was in Korea, where, in 1950,
the Security Council mobilized forces under US leadership for the
defense of South Korea against an attack from North Korea. UN
forces there reached a peak strength of 500,000.
In 1960-64, 20,000 peace-keepers helped restore order following
independence in the Congo (now Zaire).
In 1964, a UN Peace-keeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) was created
to prevent fighting between Greek and Turkish Cypriots. This
mission was given new urgency when Turkish troops landed on
Cyprus in 1974.
In the search for a peaceful solution in the Middle East, the United
Nations has been involved in various ways over the past 43 years.
Its efforts have ranged from UN-sponsored negotiations to the
actual deployment of UN troops. For example, the fighting that broke
out when the State of Israel was established in 1948 was halted by
a UN cease-fire. UN mediators helped bring about armistice
agreements between Israel and Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, and Syria.
Those agreements provided for implementation by mixed armistice
commissions and the UN Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO).
The UN Relief and Works Agency (UNWRA) was established to assist
Arab refugees from the conflict.
In 1956, the Suez Canal crisis was resolved by the withdrawal of
British, French, and Israeli forces from Egyptian territory in
compliance with a UN resolution and by the establishment of the UN
Emergency Force (UNEF I) to preserve the peace. The UN was active
again in achieving a cease-fire and installing UN observers after the
June 1967 war between Israel and its neighbors. Following the
outbreak of hostilities in October 1973, a new UN Emergency Force
(UNEF II) was created to interpose itself between the forces of
Israel and Egypt. It fulfilled its mandate and was dissolved in 1979
with the conclusion of the Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty. After
Israel and Syria reached agreement on disengaging their forces on
the Golan Heights in 1974, the Security Council established a UN
Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF). The mandate of UNDOF has
been extended periodically by the Council.
The UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) was created in early 1978,
following an Israeli reprisal attack on Palestine Liberation
Organization (PLO) bases in southern Lebanon. It permitted an
Israeli withdrawal and restored order under the control of Lebanese
authorities. After Israel's invasion of June 1982 drastically
transformed conditions in southern Lebanon, UNIFIL played a
significant role in efforts to bring stability to southern Lebanon. Its
mandate has been extended periodically by the Security Council,
with humanitarian and other temporary tasks added to its functions.
Efforts by the United States and other countries over the years to
enhance the effectiveness of the Security Council in dealing with
international conflicts led to an effective worldwide coalition in
1990. For only the second time in UN history, and for the first time
with the USSR's support, the UN formally authorized the use of force
against an aggressor country. Twelve UN Security Council
resolutions demanded that Iraq withdraw from Kuwait. When Iraq
did not do so by the January 15, 1991, deadline, the US-led forces
expelled Iraq from Kuwait.
Seven new peace-keeping activities in the Mideast (UNIKOM), Africa
(UNAVEM II and MINURSO), Central America (ONUCA), Cambodia
(UNAMIC and UNTAC), and the former Yugoslavia (UNPROFOR) were
established in the year following the conclusion of the Gulf war.
The proliferation of these operations reflected a new climate of
international cooperation and growing consensus that, in the post-
Cold War era, the UN had a central role to play in helping defuse
regional conflicts. These new UN under-takings represented also an
emerging synthesis of peace-keeping and peace-making, adding to
the traditional peace-keeping mandates such responsibilities as
supervising elections, monitoring human rights, and overseeing civil
administration.
With its new, higher profile, however, the UN has had to make
difficult choices. Limited funds and the UN's own limited capacity
to plan and implement peace-keeping operations required that
priorities be established. At the recent UN Security Council summit,
12 other heads of government joined President Bush in reiterating
their support for collective security. They encouraged the Secretary
General to increase his efforts not only to resolve conflicts but to
head them off. It was recognized, however, that fundamental to the
success of any UN peace-keeping operation is the full cooperation of
the parties. It was further acknowledged that regional
organizations could play a constructive peace-keeping role and
might be better situated, on a case-by-case basis, to intercede and
mediate the peaceful resolution of conflicts.
ARMS CONTROL AND DISARMAMENT
The UN Charter, adopted in 1945, gave no immediate priority to
disarmament, but envisaged a system of regulation that would
ensure "the least diversion for armaments of the world's human and
economic resources." The advent of nuclear weapons came only
weeks after the signing of the Charter and provided immediate
impetus to concepts of arms limitation and disarmament. In fact,
the first resolution of the first meeting of the General Assembly
(January 24, 1946) was entitled "The Establishment of a Commission
to Deal with the Problems Raised by the Discovery of Atomic Energy"
and called upon the commission to make specific proposals for "the
elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons and of all
other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction."
The UN has established a few forums to address multilateral
disarmament issues. The principal ones are the First Committee of
the UN General Assembly, the UN Disarmament Commission, and the
Geneva-based Conference on Disarmament. Items on the agenda
include consideration of the possible merits of a nuclear test ban,
outer-space arms control, efforts to ban chemical weapons, nuclear
and conventional disarmament, nuclear-weapon-free zones,
reduction of military budgets, and measures to strengthen
international security.
The Conference on Disarmament is the sole forum established by the
international community for the negotiation of multilateral arms
control and disarmament agreements. Evolving from earlier
multilateral forums dating back to 1959, it has 40 members
representing all areas of the world, including the five major
nuclear-weapon states (China, France, Russia, UK, and US). The
conference is an autonomous body and is not formally a UN
organization. It is linked, however, to the UN system through a
personal representative of the Secretary General who serves as the
secretary general of the conference. Resolutions adopted by the
General Assembly often request the conference to consider specific
disarmament matters. In turn, the conference reports on its
activities to the General Assembly annually.
HUMAN RIGHTS
The pursuit of human rights was one of the central reasons for
creation of the United Nations. World War II atrocities, including
the execution of millions of Jews, led to a ready consensus that the
new organization must work to prevent any similar tragedies in the
future.
An early objective was the creation of a framework of legal
obligations as the basis for consideration of and action on
complaints about human rights violations. The UN Charter obliges
all member nations to promote "universal respect for, and
observance of, human rights" and to take "joint and separate action"
to that end.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, though not legally
binding, was adopted by the General Assembly in 1948. Treaties and
conventions followed, many of them drawing upon the Universal
Declaration. These included the:
-- International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights;
-- International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights;
-- International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination;
-- Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
Against Women; and
-- American Convention on Human Rights.
Although each of these treaties has been signed by the United
States, consent to their ratification has not been given by the
Senate. The Senate has granted its advice and consent to the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide. Congress has passed the necessary implementing
legislation, and the convention has been formally ratified by the
United States.
In addition to the preparation of legal documents, various organs of
the UN system undertake consideration of human rights issues. The
General Assembly regularly takes up human rights questions
originating in the Assembly or referred to it by subordinate bodies.
The UN Human Rights Commission (UNHRC), under ECOSOC, is charged
specifically with promoting human rights. To carry out this mandate,
the UNHRC drafts international instruments, conducts expert
studies, and investigates situations in countries where human rights
violations are believed to occur. Investigations can be proposed by
any member government and are decided upon by vote of the entire
commission. The 43 UNHRC members (including the United States)
are elected by ECOSOC on the basis of equitable geographic
distribution. The number of members of the Commission grew to 53
beginning with the 1992 session, the additional 10 seats being
divided among the Latin American, African, and Asian groups.
The UNHRC Subcommission on Prevention of Discrimination and
Protection of Minorities is composed of experts serving as
individuals rather than as government representatives. Among its
various activities, the subcommission may, under procedures set up
by ECOSOC, make a confidential review of private communications
sent to the UN containing allegations of human rights abuses.
Situations that appear to reveal a consistent pattern of gross human
rights violations may be referred to the commission in closed
session. That body may then make a thorough study of the situation
or may undertake an investigation with the consent of the accused
government.
Other UN agencies also act on human rights concerns. The ILO was
one of the first agencies to set high standards and reporting
requirements on human rights situations in the labor field. A
special committee of UNESCO, of which the United States is not a
member, examines human rights complaints from individuals,
groups, and non-governmental organizations within the fields of
education, science, culture, and communication.
The Organization of American States (OAS) has written an American
Convention on Human Rights that gives jurisdiction to an Inter-
American Human Rights Commission and creates a new court on
human rights. The convention entered into force in July 1978. The
United States has signed but not ratified the convention.
The United Nations is expanding its work on behalf of women, not
only to ensure their rights as individuals but also to stress the need
for them to use their talents and abilities for progress on social
issues. These efforts are reflected in the agendas of the
Commission on the Status of Women, ECOSOC, the General Assembly,
the UNHRC, and the UNDP Governing Council and in discussions of the
rights and problems of elderly women at the World Assembly on
Aging. UN efforts led to the celebration of International Women's
Year in
1975 and to the declaration of a UN Decade for Women, 1976-85.
Although the UN system has created a legal framework for action on
human rights, efforts to implement the established standards have
been uneven. Some observers have suggested that UN forums have
been characterized by "selective morality" as criticism has been
focused primarily on the state of human rights in Chile, El Salvador,
Guatemala, South Africa, and the Israeli-occupied territories simply
because such criticism was acceptable to a majority of UN members,
while criticism of other nations' abuses was not.
The 1982 and 1983 sessions of the UNHRC marked a departure in this
regard, by taking public action on an East European country, Poland,
for the first time in the commission's history. At its 1988 session,
the commission took a major step toward investigating the human
rights situation in Cuba, primarily as a result of efforts on the part
of the United States. At that session, the United States proposed a
resolution which would inscribe Cuba on the commission's 1989
agenda. This US initiative prompted negotiations that resulted in an
agreement to send an investigatory team to Cuba under UNHRC
auspices and according to UN rules and regulations regarding special
rapporteurs. As a result of that investigation, conducted in Cuba in
September 1988, the 1989 session of the UNHRC was presented with
a 400-page report on the human rights situation in Cuba. At the
1992 session, the commission, noting no improvement in the human
rights situation there, decided to appoint an individual as special
rapporteur to keep Cuban human rights under scrutiny.
BENEFITS OF THE UN SYSTEM
One of the benefits of the UN system is the opportunity it provides
for government officials to meet, share ideas, and consult on
international problems. This helps them to understand the views of
other governments while avoiding confrontations that might
otherwise result from misunderstandings of national intentions and
interests.
Each year in September, the General Assembly's annual regular
session brings together not only the official representatives of all
member countries but also, in many cases, the foreign ministers and
chiefs of state. The US Secretary of State traditionally spends 2-3
weeks at the General Assembly each year consulting with other
governments on both bilateral questions and on issues coming before
the United Nations. President Bush, a former UN ambassador,
follows the tradition set by many US presidents of addressing the
General Assembly annually.
The United Nations and its affiliated international organizations are
especially important to member nations of the Third World who
conduct much of their foreign policy there and rely heavily on these
forums to advance their national interests and interact with other
nations, including the United States. Thus, the United States cannot
afford to rely solely on its bilateral relations with Third World
countries for advancing US foreign policy objectives but must take
advantage of its participation in the UN system to influence the
opinions and policies of Third World governments and their peoples.
General Benefits.
Participation in the United Nations and
its affiliated programs and agencies helps the United States in many
ways: It provides important mechanisms for the advancement of US
foreign policy objectives; it can serve as a powerful platform for
the advancement of Western values and ideals; it facilitates large-
scale humanitarian operations and multilateral efforts to deal with
global problems, such as famine and pestilence; and it can serve the
cause of peace.
In foreign policy, the United Nations clearly accomplishes tasks that
neither the United States nor any nation could accomplish alone.
These tasks include coordinated efforts to reduce regional and
global environmental problems; to control human and animal
diseases that threaten to reach epidemic proportions; to monitor,
report, and predict global weather patterns; and, most important, to
establish conditions conducive to the peaceful resolution of disputes
between nations. In particular, UN peace-keeping forces often have
provided a "buffer" (helpful to the maintenance of cease-fires in the
Middle East and Cyprus) by establishing an atmosphere in which
conflicts can be contained and peace negotiations can take place.
The United States hopes that involving the UN will reduce the
likelihood of open conflict and promote a more stable international
order. History warns that disputes can get out of control, drawing
large nations and small into a vortex from which they cannot escape.
The UN can provide an internationally acceptable setting in which
nations can move away from rigid negotiating positions and begin to
seek solutions to their problems.
Achievement of US international goals in human rights depends on
its ability to mobilize world opinion on behalf of human rights
issues. If only one nation urges an end to genocide, torture,
terrorism, illegal detention, or political persecutions, the offending
nation can procrastinate without penalty. If, however, the UN takes
a strong stand on behalf of human rights, pressures for reform are
more effective and the likelihood of corrective action
correspondingly greater.
UN programs also can serve US objectives for the developing world
by promoting economic development. Concerned about global
poverty, the United States attempts through various means to help
developing nations meet basic human needs--clean water, food,
shelter, and health care--and other development goals. This
objective is pursued on a bilateral basis, through regional
approaches, and by actively employing the UN system to persuade
other countries to share the burden of global development.
The United States and other major Western donors encourage the UN
system to promote private-sector approaches to development in the
Third World and to loosen the bonds of government-controlled
markets and commodity-pricing arrangements. Today, UN technical
assistance and financing systems are supplying needed experience,
skills, equipment, resources, and support programs that encourage
self-reliance in developing-country societies, that encourage change
in government policies that are not conducive to development, and
that allow Third World populations to better cope with difficult
circumstances.
UN programs also try to meet humanitarian needs for those
disadvantaged by circumstances beyond their control. Even private
charitable agencies must rely on the multiple capacities of the
United Nations and its family of international organizations to
develop the infra-structure and political climate without which
those in need would be outside the reach of our compassion.
Providing opportunities for dialogue between the industrialized
countries and the developing nations is another important role
played by the United Nations, which is particularly important to the
United States because many developing nations regard the UN system
as the most important arena for their foreign relations. Moreover,
these nations constitute more than two-thirds of the UN's
membership and purchase more than one-third of US exports.
In the specialized UN agencies dealing with trade, commodities, and
investment, the United States seeks to expand the world economy in
a way compatible with its own free economic system and values. In
the Economic and Social Council, the regional commissions, and the
UN Conference on Trade and Development, the United States has
promoted an open international trading-and-investment system and
has insisted on maintaining a strong role for the private sector in
meeting the development needs of all countries.
The UN and its family of international organizations is a success
story for the West. It embodies in its charter the same liberal
democratic values and principles that are found in the US
Constitution and makes them applicable to every UN member. The UN
system can be viewed as a vehicle for putting those values and
principles into practice on a global scale. As President Bush said in
his State of the Union address on January 29, 1991, "The leadership
of the United Nations, once only a hoped-for ideal, is now confirming
its founders' vision."
Direct Benefits.
Beyond benefits gained for US foreign
policy interests, the United States also gains direct economic,
social, and humanitarian benefits. Large parts of US financial
assistance to the UN and its related agencies are returned to US
companies through equipment and supply sales and consulting
services. US support of the UN Development Program encourages the
growth of self-reliance and helps to expand the markets for US
goods and services.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) efforts to eliminate the
Mediterranean fruit fly from the Caribbean and Central America
directly benefit the US citrus industry. Likewise, US cattle raisers
have a direct stake in FAO efforts to eliminate the bont tick, the
carrier of a threatening cattle disease, from the Caribbean. FAO's
voluntary, non-binding Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use
of Pesticides benefits the US pesticide industry by encouraging
other countries to adopt pesticide-safety standards comparable to
those in force in the United States and thereby limit competitive
advantages otherwise gained by producers who reduce their costs by
failing to observe adequate labeling and safety standards.
In 1985, UNICEF spent a total of $107 million on goods and services
in the United States. UNICEF also furthers US humanitarian
interests in the developing world by mobilizing assistance from
public and private sources throughout the world for programs
benefiting children and mothers.
As the world's most advanced nation, the United States has
extensive needs for immediate and reliable worldwide
communication and, therefore, relies on the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU). It facilitates international
cooperation between member states and promotes the development
of efficient technical facilities in order to improve international
telecommunication services. As the largest producer and supplier of
telecommunications equipment, the United States benefits from the
technical assistance extended to developing countries from agencies
such as the ITU.
US maritime interests benefit directly from the International
Maritime Organization's work on standardization, safety-of-life-at-
sea measures, and ocean-anti-pollution programs. Other US
environmental interests are supported by the UN Environmental
Program, which serves as a catalyst in bringing international
attention to global and regional environmental problems and helping
countries develop their economies in environmentally responsible
ways.
The World Meteorological Organization provides weather information
to persons from all spheres of US life--farmers, mariners, aviators,
and travelers. Its work has significant economic and social impact
on the United States.
Standards and recommended practices developed by the International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) directly affect US commercial air
travel and favorably influence the US economic community, which
supplies the greatest share of aircraft and equipment world wide.
ICAO develops the principles and techniques of international air
navigation and fosters the planning and development of international
air transport to ensure the safe and orderly growth of civil aviation.
It also promotes standards for the control of noise and pollution
from aircraft. US travelers by air and sea benefit from improved
safety and security standards developed by ICAO and the
International Maritime Organization.
The United States also benefits significantly from the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which serves major US national
security and non-proliferation interests. IAEA is charged under its
statute with two primary objectives: through its program of
technical cooperation, it encourages the peaceful uses of nuclear
energy, especially in the fields of medicine, agriculture, and basic
industry, and its program of international safeguards inhibits the
use of nuclear material for non-peaceful purposes, thus helping to
prevent the spread of nuclear weapons. IAEA also plays an active
role in promoting international cooperation in nuclear safety; it
expanded its work in this area in response to the nuclear disaster in
Chernobyl in April 1986.
The UN also serves important US interests through the development
and enforcement of international treaties and conventions, such as
those designed to control drug abuse. Given the high importance
placed by the United States on control of drug abuse and drug
trafficking, the United Nations provides a valuable forum to discuss
and coordinate relevant international actions.
US POLICY TOWARD THE UNITED NATIONS
The US Government recognizes the value of the United Nations for
the conduct of US foreign relations and for the direct benefits it
provides the United States and its people.
The United States was a major force in the creation of the United
Nations in 1945. The Senate, by a vote of 89 to 2, gave its consent
to the ratification of the UN Charter on July 28, 1945. In December
1945, the Senate and the House of Representatives, by unanimous
votes, requested that the United Nations make its headquarters in
the United States. Since then, the United States has been a major
participant; however, the changing political makeup of the world
following World War II, particularly with the dismantling of the
major European empires, produced changes in the United Nations and
in US approaches to UN issues.
As the United States has reasserted its leadership in multilateral
affairs and strengthened its influence in the United Nations and its
related agencies, it has promoted fiscal responsibility in the
budgetary process, increased the number of US nationals on staffs of
international organizations, and augmented private-sector
involvement in UN programs and activities.
This initiative culminated in the UN approval of a package of
sweeping reforms in administrative and financial procedures in
December 1986. Those reforms enable the United Nations to perform
its functions more effectively and efficiently and give the major
donors, including the United States, a greater voice in determining
how money is spent. The United States, through these structural
reforms, has been able to strengthen its influence within the UN
system.
The United States, in order to achieve its objectives at the United
Nations, has developed a number of closely related strategies. The
first strategy recognizes that the UN system offers an excellent
opportunity to explain US views on important issues while
spotlighting unacceptable behavior by other countries. Through
speeches, frequent rights of reply, and resolutions, the United
States has gained increased understanding for its policies on such
issues as the role of the entrepreneur, the right to private property,
and human rights.
The United States has partially succeeded in reducing bloc voting in
the United Nations and moderating the rhetoric and unreasonable
demands of bloc members. If left unchecked, bloc voting tends to
place policy decisions in the hands of the most radical members of
the bloc and intensifies the immoderation of UN debates. The US
aims to appeal to the individual interests of each bloc member as
opposed to the often imaginary benefits of bloc solidarity in support
of radical and impracticable demands. In addition, this strategy
attempts to link US interests with those of other countries, thereby
increasing the US leverage.
The United States also has pursued the universality principle with
respect to UN membership, stating that the United States would
cease participation in, and support for, any UN body that excluded
Israel or denied Israel the full privileges of membership. This
affirmation is supported by congressional legislation that outlines
the same principle and calls for the same action by the United
States if Israel is denied full membership privileges in any of the UN
bodies, agencies, or their subsidiary components.
In 1991, the UN took a decisive step long sought by the United States
when it repealed the determination appearing in UN resolution 3379
of 1975 that Zionism is a form of racism. The assertion equating
Zionism with racism challenged the right of the State of Israel to
exist and undermined the integrity and even-handedness of the UN as
an international organization. On December 12, 1991, the United
States and 85 co-sponsors tabled a draft resolution which sought to
revoke the determination. On December 16, 1991, this resolution
was adopted by a vote of 111 (US)-25-13 (with 15 absences). This
action by the General Assembly was an extremely important step in
restoring credibility to the UN.
Apart from approval of budgetary matters, General Assembly
resolutions are recommendatory and not binding on the members.
Binding decisions concerning action with respect to threats to the
peace and acts of aggression can only be made by the Security
Council, as in the case of the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. In that case,
the UN Charter gives the United States and the four other permanent
members the right of veto. The United States is thus the beneficiary
of an important voting privilege.
US proposals for enhancing UN effectiveness include:
-- Strengthening the role of the Security Council in the settlement
of disputes, particularly through more automatic referral to the
Council in situations of international tension;
-- Strengthening the UN's peace-keeping capability, including the
development by member nations of trained national troop
contingents for quick deployment;
-- Addressing disarmament and arms-control questions more
effectively;
-- Addressing human rights issues more effectively and equitably;
-- Exploring ways to supplement the financing of international
programs with funds from international commerce, services, or
resources;
-- Improving the effectiveness of the United Nations through the
unitary UN concept which would eliminate overlap and duplication;
-- Coordinating the technical assistance programs in various UN
agencies more effectively, including better delivery of humanitarian
aid and expanded efforts for evaluation, monitoring, and quality
control;
-- Improving the UN Secretariat, both in operations and quality of
personnel; and,
-- Coordinating the participation in the UN system of various
branches of the US Government more effectively.
US Representation
The US Permanent Mission to the United Nations in New York is
headed by the US Representative to the United Nations, with the rank
of ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary. The mission
serves as the channel of communication for the US Government with
the UN organs, agencies, and commissions at the UN headquarters and
with the other permanent missions accredited to the UN and the non-
member observer missions. The US mission has a professional staff
made up largely of career Foreign Service officers, including
specialists in public affairs and in political, economic, social,
financial, legal, and military issues.
The United States also maintains missions in Geneva, Montreal,
Nairobi, Rome, and Vienna as well as offices in other cities where
various UN agencies are based. All of these missions report to the
Department of State and receive guidance on all questions of policy
from the President through the Secretary of State. Relations with
the UN and its family of agencies are coordinated by the Assistant
Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs.
US delegations to the annual regular sessions of the General
Assembly include two members of the US Congress--one Democrat
and one Republican, selected in alternate years from the Senate and
the House of Representatives. Delegations also include prominent US
citizens from fields outside the government.
The US Mission to the United Nations is located at 799 United
Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017 (tel. 212-415-4000).
Preamble to Charter of the United Nations:
We the Peoples of the United Nations Determined
To Save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which
twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and
To Reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and
worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women of
nations large and small, and
To establish conditions under which justice and respect for the
obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international
law can be maintained, and
To promote social progress and better standards of life in larger
freedom,
And for these ends
To practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as
good neighbors, and
To Unite our strength to maintain international peace and security,
and
To Ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the institution of
methods, that armed force shall not be used, save in the common
interest, and
To employ international machinery for the promotion of the
economic and social advancement of all peoples,
Have resolved to combine our efforts to accomplish these aims.
Accordingly, our respective Governments, through representatives
assembled in the city of San Francisco, who have exhibited their full
powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the present
Charter of the United Nations and do hereby establish an
international organization to be known as the United Nations.
178 Members of the United Nations1
Afghanistan (1946)
Albania (1955)
Algeria (1962)
Angola (1976)
Antigua and Barbuda (1981)
Argentina
Armenia (1992)
Australia
Austria (1955)
Azerbaijan (1992)
The Bahamas (1973)
Bahrain (1971)
Bangladesh (1974)
Barbados (1966)
Belarus (formerly Byelorussian SSR)
Belgium
Belize (1981)
Benin (1960)
Bhutan (1971)
Bolivia
Bosnia-Hercegovina (1992)
Botswana (1966)
Brazil
Brunei Darussalam (1984)
Bulgaria (1955)
Burkina Faso (1960)
Burma (1948)
Burundi (1962)
Cambodia (1955)
Cameroon (1960)
Canada
Cape Verde (1975)
Central African Republic (1960)
Chad (1960)
Chile
China2
Colombia
Comoros (1975)
Congo (1960)
Costa Rica
Cote d'Ivoire (1960)
Croatia (1992)
Cuba
Cyprus (1960)
Czechoslovakia
Denmark
Djibouti (1977)
Dominica (1978)
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
Egypt
El Salvador
Equatorial Guinea (1968)
Estonia (1991)
Ethiopia
Fiji (1970)
Finland (1955)
France
Gabon (1960)
The Gambia (1965)
Georgia (1992)
Germany (1973)
Ghana (1957)
Greece
Grenada (1974)
Guatemala
Guinea (1958)
Guinea-Bissau (1974)
Guyana (1966)
Haiti
Honduras
Hungary (1955)
Iceland (1946)
India
Indonesia (1950)
Iran
Iraq
Ireland (1955)
Israel (1949)
Italy (1955)
Jamaica (1962)
Japan (1956)
Jordan (1955)
Kazakhstan (1992)
Kenya (1963)
Korea, North (1991)
Korea, South (1991)
Kuwait (1963)
Kyrgystan (1992)
Laos (1955)
Latvia (1991)
Lebanon
Lesotho (1966)
Liberia
Libya (1955)
Liechtenstein (1990)
Lithuania (1991)
Luxembourg
Madagascar (1960)
Malawi (1964)
Malaysia (1957)
Maldives (1965)
Mali (1960)
Malta (1964)
Marshall Islands (1991)
Mauritania (1961)
Mauritius (1968)
Mexico
Micronesia (1991)
Moldova (1992)
Mongolia (1961)
Morocco (1956)
Mozambique (1975)
Namibia (1990)
Nepal (1955)
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Niger (1960)
Nigeria (1960)
Norway
Oman (1971)
Pakistan (1947)
Panama
Papua New Guinea (1975)
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Poland
Portugal (1955)
Qatar (1971)
Romania (1955)
Russia3
Rwanda (1962)
St. Kitts and Nevis (1983)
St. Lucia (1979
St. Vincent and the Grenadines (1980)
Samoa (1976)
San Marino (1992)
Sao Tome and Principe (1975)
Saudi Arabia
Senegal (1960)
Seychelles (1976)
Sierra Leone (1961)
Singapore (1965)
Slovenia (1992)
Solomon Islands (1978)
Somalia (1960)
South Africa
Spain (1955)
Sri Lanka (1955)
Sudan (1956)
Suriname (1975)
Swaziland (1968)
Sweden (1946)
Syria
Tanzania (1961)
Tajikistan (1992)
Thailand (1946)
Togo (1960)
Trinidad and Tobago (1962)
Tunisia (1956)
Turkey
Turkmenistan (1992)
Uganda (1962)
Ukraine (formerly Ukrainian SSR)
United Arab Emirates (1971)
United Kingdom
United States of America
Uruguay
Uzbekistan (1992)
Vanuatu (1981)
Venezuela
Vietnam (1977)
Yemen (1947)
Zaire (1960)
Zambia (1964)
Zimbabwe (1980)
1Year in parentheses indicates date of admission; countries with
no date were original members in 1945.
2By Resolution 2758 (XXVI) of Oct. 25, 1971, the General Assembly
decided "to restore all its rights to the People's Republic of China
and to recognize the representative of its Government as the only
legitimate representative of China to the United Nations."
3In December 1991, Russia assumed the permanent Security
Council seat previously held by the USSR. o
UN Secretaries General
Trygve Lie (Norway) Feb. 1, 1946-April 10, 1953
Dag Hammarskjold(Sweden) April 10, 1953-Sept. 18, 1961
U Thant (Burma) Nov. 3, 1961-Dec. 31, 1971
(Initially appointed acting Secretary General; formally appointed
Secretary General Nov. 30, 1962.)
Kurt Waldheim (Austria) Jan. 1, 1972-Dec. 31, 1981
Javier Perez de Cuellar (Peru) Jan. 1, 1982-Dec. 31, 1991
Boutros Boutros-Ghali (Egypt) Jan. 1, 1992-present
US Representatives to the United Nations:
Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.- March 1946-June 1946
Hershel V. Johnson (acting) - June 1946-Jan. 1947
Warren R. Austin - Jan. 1947-Jan. 1953
Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. - Jan. 1953-Sept. 1960
James J. Wadsworth - Sept. 1960-Jan. 1961
Adlai E. Stevenson-Jan. 1961-July 1965
Arthur J. Goldberg-July 1965-June 1968
George W. Ball-June 1968-Sept. 1968
James Russell Wiggins-Oct. 1968-Jan. 1969
Charles W. Yost- Jan. 1969-Feb. 1971
George Bush - Feb. 1971-Jan. 1973
John A. Scali - Feb. 1973-June 1975
Daniel P. Moynihan- June 1975-Feb. 1976
William W. Scranton - March 1976-Jan. 1977
Andrew Young - Jan. 1977-April 1979
Donald McHenry - April 1979-Jan. 1981
Jeane J. Kirkpatrick -Feb. 1981-April 1985
Vernon Walters -May 1985-Jan. 1989
Thomas R. Pickering -March 1989-May 1992
Edward J. Perkins-May 1992-present
- In 1992, UN membership increased to 178 with the addition of 13
new countries:
Armenia (March)
Azerbaijan (March)
Bosnia-Hercegovina (May)
Croatia (May)
Georgia (July)
Kazakhstan (March)
Kyrgyzstan (March)
Moldova (March)
San Marino (March)
Slovenia (May)
Tajikistan (March)
Turkmenistan (March)
Uzbekistan (March)
HOW TO ORDER BACKGROUND NOTES IN PAPER
Published by the US Department of State Bureau of Public Affairs --
Office of Public Communication -- Washington, DC
October 1992 -- Editor: Joan Bigge --
Department of State Publication 8874 -- Background Notes Series
This material is in the public domain and may be reprinted without
permission; citation of this source is appreciated.
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, US Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402. (###)