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FHWA > Engineering > Pavements > Recycling > Fly Ash Facts |
Fly Ash Facts for Highway EngineersChapter 1 - Fly Ash - An Engineering MaterialWhy Fly Ash?
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Million Metric Tons | Million Short Tons | Percent | |
---|---|---|---|
Produced | 61.84 | 68.12 | 100.0 |
Used | 19.98 | 22.00 | 32.3 |
As shown in Table 1-1, of the 62 million metric tons (68 million tons) of fly ash produced in 2001, only 20 million metric tons (22 million tons), or 32 percent of total production, was used. The following is a breakdown of fly ash uses, much of which is used in the transportation industry.
Million Metric Tons | Million Short Tons | Percent | |
---|---|---|---|
Cement/Concrete | 12.16 | 13.40 | 60.9 |
Flowable Fill | 0.73 | 0.80 | 3.7 |
Structural Fills | 2.91 | 3.21 | 14.6 |
Road Base/Sub-base | 0.93 | 1.02 | 4.7 |
Soil Modification | 0.67 | 0.74 | 3.4 |
Mineral Filler | 0.10 | 0.11 | 0.5 |
Mining Applications | 0.74 | 0.82 | 3.7 |
Waste Stabilization /Solidification | 1.31 | 1.44 | 6.3 |
Agriculture | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.1 |
Miscellaneous/Other | 0.41 | 0.45 | 2.1 |
Totals | 19.98 | 22.00 | 100 |
The collected fly ash is typically conveyed pneumatically from the ESP or filter fabric hoppers to storage silos where it is kept dry pending utilization or further processing, or to a system where the dry ash is mixed with water and conveyed (sluiced) to an on-site storage pond.
The dry collected ash is normally stored and handled using equipment and procedures similar to those used for handling portland cement:
Dry collected fly ash can also be moistened with water and wetting agents, when applicable, using specialized equipment (conditioned) and hauled in covered dump trucks for special applications such as structural fills. Water conditioned fly ash can be stockpiled at jobsites. Exposed stockpiled material must be kept moist or covered with tarpaulins, plastic, or equivalent materials to prevent dust emission.
Size and Shape. Fly ash is typically finer than portland cement and lime. Fly ash consists of silt-sized particles which are generally spherical, typically ranging in size between 10 and 100 micron (Figure 1-2). These small glass spheres improve the fluidity and workability of fresh concrete. Fineness is one of the important properties contributing to the pozzolanic reactivity of fly ash.
Figure 1-2: Fly ash particles at 2,000x magnification.
Chemistry. Fly ash consists primarily of oxides of silicon, aluminum iron and calcium. Magnesium, potassium, sodium, titanium, and sulfur are also present to a lesser degree. When used as a mineral admixture in concrete, fly ash is classified as either Class C or Class F ash based on its chemical composition. American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO) M 295 [American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Specification C 618] defines the chemical composition of Class C and Class F fly ash.
Class C ashes are generally derived from sub-bituminous coals and consist primarily of calcium alumino-sulfate glass, as well as quartz, tricalcium aluminate, and free lime (CaO). Class C ash is also referred to as high calcium fly ash because it typically contains more than 20 percent CaO.
Class F ashes are typically derived from bituminous and anthracite coals and consist primarily of an alumino-silicate glass, with quartz, mullite, and magnetite also present. Class F, or low calcium fly ash has less than 10 percent CaO.
Compounds | Fly Ash Class F | Fly Ash Class C | Portland Cement |
---|---|---|---|
SiO2 | 55 | 40 | 23 |
Al203 | 26 | 17 | 4 |
Fe2O3 | 7 | 6 | 2 |
CaO (Lime) | 9 | 24 | 64 |
MgO | 2 | 5 | 2 |
SO3 | 1 | 3 | 2 |
Color. Fly ash can be tan to dark gray, depending on its chemical and mineral constituents. Tan and light colors are typically associated with high lime content. A brownish color is typically associated with the iron content. A dark gray to black color is typically attributed to an elevated unburned carbon content. Fly ash color is usually very consistent for each power plant and coal source.
Figure 1-3: Typical ash colors
Quality requirements for fly ash vary depending on the intended use. Fly ash quality is affected by fuel characteristics (coal), co-firing of fuels (bituminous and sub-bituminous coals), and various aspects of the combustion and flue gas cleaning/collection processes. The four most relevant characteristics of fly ash for use in concrete are loss on ignition (LOI), fineness, chemical composition and uniformity.
LOI is a measurement of unburned carbon (coal) remaining in the ash and is a critical characteristic of fly ash, especially for concrete applications. High carbon levels, the type of carbon (i.e., activated), the interaction of soluble ions in fly ash, and the variability of carbon content can result in significant air-entrainment problems in fresh concrete and can adversely affect the durability of concrete. AASHTO and ASTM specify limits for LOI. However, some state transportation departments will specify a lower level for LOI. Carbon can also be removed from fly ash.
Some fly ash uses are not affected by the LOI. Filler in asphalt, flowable fill, and structural fills can accept fly ash with elevated carbon contents.
Fineness of fly ash is most closely related to the operating condition of the coal crushers and the grindability of the coal itself. For fly ash use in concrete applications, fineness is defined as the percent by weight of the material retained on the 0.044 mm (No. 325) sieve. A coarser gradation can result in a less reactive ash and could contain higher carbon contents. Limits on fineness are addressed by ASTM and state transportation department specifications. Fly ash can be processed by screening or air classification to improve its fineness and reactivity.
Some non-concrete applications, such as structural fills are not affected by fly ash fineness. However, other applications such as asphalt filler, are greatly dependent on the fly ash fineness and its particle size distribution.
Chemical composition of fly ash relates directly to the mineral chemistry of the parent coal and any additional fuels or additives used in the combustion or post-combustion processes. The pollution control technology that is used can also affect the chemical composition of the fly ash. Electric generating stations burn large volumes of coal from multiple sources. Coals may be blended to maximize generation efficiency or to improve the station environmental performance. The chemistry of the fly ash is constantly tested and evaluated for specific use applications.
Some stations selectively burn specific coals or modify their additives formulation to avoid degrading the ash quality or to impart a desired fly ash chemistry and characteristics.
Uniformity of fly ash characteristics from shipment to shipment is imperative in order to supply a consistent product. Fly ash chemistry and characteristics are typically known in advance so concrete mixes are designed and tested for performance.
ACI 229R | Controlled Low Strength Material (CLSM) |
ASTM C 311 | Sampling and Testing Fly Ash or Natural Pozzolans for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete |
AASHTO M 295 ASTM C 618 | Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete |
ASTM C 593 | Fly Ash and Other Pozzolans for Use With Lime |
ASTM D 5239 | Standard Practice for Characterizing Fly Ash for Use in Soil Stabilization |
ASTM E 1861 | Guide for the Use of Coal Combustion By-Products in Structural Fills |
Quality Assurance and Quality Control criteria vary for each use of fly ash from state to state and source to source. Some states require certified samples from the silo on a specified basis for testing and approval before use. Others maintain lists of approved sources and accept project suppliers' certifications of fly ash quality. The degree of quality control requirements depends on the intended use, the particular fly ash, and its variability. Testing requirements are typically established by the individual specifying agencies.
Figure 1-4: Microscopic photographs of fly ash (left) and portland cement (right).
Chemical Requirements | Class F | Class C | |
---|---|---|---|
SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 | min% | 701 | 50 |
SiO3 | max% | 5 | 5 |
Moisture Content | max% | 3 | 3 |
Loss on ignition (LOI) | max% | 51 | 51 |
Optional Chemical Requirements | Class F | Class C | |
Available alkalies | max% | 1.5 | 1.5 |
Physical Requirements | Class F | Class C | |
Fineness (+325 Mesh) | max% | 34 | 34 |
Pozzolanic activity/cement (7 days) | min% | 75 | 75 |
Pozzolanic activity/cement (28 days) | min% | 75 | 75 |
Water requirement | max% | 105 | 105 |
Autoclave expansion | max% | 0.8 | 0.8 |
Uniform requirements2: density | max% | 5 | 5 |
Uniform requirements2: Fineness | max% | 5 | 5 |
Optional Physical Requirements | Class F | Class C | |
Multiple factor (LOI x fineness) | 255 | -- | |
Increase in drying shrinkage | max% | .03 | .03 |
Uniformity requirements: Air entraining agent | max% | 20 | 20 |
Cement/Alkali Reaction: Mortar expansion (14 days) | max% | 0.020 | -- |
Notes:
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Mike Rafalowski
Office of Pavement Technology
202-366-1571
E-mail Mike