BIOLOGICAL AND ECOTOXICOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATE SPECIES RESIDING IN ESTUARIES

Species

The length of the Caspian Tern (Sterna caspia) varies from 47 to 54 cm long (Crampe, 1985) with a body mass of 530-782g (Quinn, 1990; Cuthbert and Wires, 1999). The adult Caspian Tern has a bright red bill usually with black shading at the tip. Their legs are black. They have a black cap with a slightly crested appearance with white face, neck, breast, belly and tail and pale gray back and upper wings. The underwings are gray with darker areas on the outer primaries. The juvenile has a deep orange bill and pale legs. Their cap is brownish with white streaks. They have a white face, neck, breast and belly; the upperwing coverts and scapulars are marked with black scalloping. The outer primaries and secondaries are darker than the pale upperwing. The tail is gray (Gough, 2000).

Status in Estuaries

The Caspian Tern breeds near salt evaporation ponds, estuaries, lagoons, bays, harbors, lakes, rivers, reservoirs and sinks on levees, salt dikes, dredge spoil islands, landfills, mainland and barrier island beaches, natural islands and reefs (Wires and Cuthbert, 2000). The nest is a depression large enough to hold 2-3 eggs; it is usually in a vegetation free area. The depression is often lined with dried vegetation, broken shells or small pebbles (Bent, 1921; Penland, 1976). Usually the depression is made in sand, but it has also observed as masses of piled wood, in dead and decaying vegetation or in depressions in bedrock. Occasionally nests are very primitive, with eggs lying on ground or shells or in slight hollows that were already present or made by birds (Bent, 1921; Hayward, 1935; Miller, 1943). In northern Lake Michigan, the average external diameter of the nest is 19.5cm, and the internal diameter is 16.1cm, and the depth is 4.5cm (Cuthbert and Wires, 1999). Caspian terns have been found to nest colonially in small groups of two to three pairs or individually (Bergman, 1980; Ferguson-Lees, 1971; Godfrey, 1986). They also nest in mixed-species colonies with terns and gulls (Bailey, 1902; Finley, 1907; Kirven, 1969). The clutch size ranges from one to three eggs (Mitchell and Custer, 1986; Cuthbert and Wires, 1999). The eggs are a pinkish or buff color, marked with small brown or black spots and speckles and sometimes larger spots or blotches (Bent, 1921; Crampe, 1985). Chicks are semiprecocial at hatching (Cuthbert and Wires, 1999) and become capable of leaving the nest after three to six hours when down dries (Bergman, 1953), but they typically remain in the nest for one to two days (Cuthbert and Wires, 1999). The maximum recorded lifespan for Caspian terns is 29 years, 6 months (Klimkiewicz, 2002).

Abundance and Range

Caspian terns are found on every continent except Antarctica. They breed and winter along coastlines, rivers, lakes and marshes. In North America, Caspian terns breed on the Pacific coast from Alaska to California, in central Canada in the northwest territories, Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba and in central United States in Idaho, Wyoming and Utah (Jehl, 1986; Am. Ornithol. Union, 1983; Campbell et al., 1990). They also breed along the Gulf Coast from Texas to Florida and along the Atlantic Coast from Newfoundland to Florida (Rodgers et al., 1996; Pranty, 1997; Lock, 1983; Godfrey, 1986; Williams et al., 1990; Parnell et al., 1995; Chapeldaine, 1996). They are also found on the Great Lakes in Lakes Michigan, Huron and Ontario (Ludwig, 1965; Cuthbert, 1981; Godfrey, 1986; Weseloh and Blokpoel, 1993; Blokpoel and Tessier, 1996, 1997). The winter range extends along the Pacific coast from southern California to Guatemala in South America. The winter range along the Atlantic coast extends from North Carolina to Honduras (Small, 1994; Stiles and Skutch, 1989; Stevenson and Anderson, 1994; Howell and Webb, 1995). There were an estimated 32,000-35,000 pairs of Caspian terns nesting in North America in the 1980s and 1990s (Cuthbert and Wires, 1999; Wires and Cuthbert, 2000).

Site Fidelity

Caspian terns do not show a preference for their natal colony when returning to breed, but they do show a preference for their natal lake (Gill and Mewaldt, 1983; L’Arrivee and Blokpoel, 1988). Experienced Caspian terns tend to nest at the same colony where they bred before, but that tendency decreases if they were unable to raise at least one chick to fledgling age the previous year (Cuthbert, 1988).

Ease of Census

Moderate

Feeding Habits

Caspian terns feed mainly on fish, including alewife, smelt, juvenile salmonids, shiner perch, yellow perch, northern anchovy, rock bass, staghorn sculpin and chum salmon (Wires and Cuthbert, 2000; Shugart et al., 1978; Baltz et al., 1979; Ludwig, 1965; Gill 1976; Smith and Mudd, 1978). Their diet may also include crayfish and insects (Cuthbert and Wires, 1999). The Caspian tern forages by hovering over shallow waters and plunge-diving when a fish is spotted. The tern often submerges completely (Cuthbert and Wires, 1999).

Caspian Tern Contaminant Exposure Data

  I.

Organochlorine Contaminants

1.

Between 1963 and 1965 two Caspian tern eggs were collected from areas in California where pesticides were thought to be present (Keith and Hunt, 1966). The following concentrations (ug/g ww) were the mean of the two analyses: DDT (1.68), DDE (2.54), DDD (0.00), Dieldrin (0.02), Toxaphene (0.00), and Heptachlor epoxide (0.00).

2.

A female Caspian tern was collected in September 1973 in Florida ( Johnston, 1976). The following concentrations (ug/g ww) were found in the listed tissues: Adipose: DDE (52.72), total DDTs (52.72), Dieldrin (0). Uropygial gland: DDE (29.71), total DDTs (29.71), Dieldrin (0).

3.

A composite of ten Caspian tern eggs was collected in southern Texas in 1970 (King et al., 1978). The concentrations (ug/g ww) of the organochlorines analyzed are as follows: S DDT (15.13), Dieldrin (nd), PCBs (16.50).

4.

Between 1971 and 1973, analyses for PCBs were done on Pigeon Island (N=4) and South Limestone Island (N=3) (Gilbertson et al., 1976). The mean PCB concentrations (ug/g dw) were 359 and 174 respectively.

5.

From 1972 to 1988 dead birds were collected from the Great Lakes Basin and analyzed for organochlorines (Frank and Braun, 1990). The brain of the Caspian tern found in 1983 at Lake Simcoe was analyzed for the following: S DDT (0.23 ug/g ww), Dieldrin (0.05), Chlordane (0.008), Heptachlor epoxide (0.007), PCB (1.1), Mirex (<0.01).

6.

Caspian tern eggs were collected from islands in Lake Michigan and Lake Huron in 1980 and from Lake Ontario in 1981 (Struger and Weseloh, 1985). The concentrations (ug/g ww) found in Lake Huron are from South Limestone Island, N=10, DDE (3.7), Mirex (0.31), PCBs (26.0), HCB (0.03); The Cousins Island, N=10, DDE (4.7), Mirex (0.07), PCBs (30.9), HCB (0.05); Halfmoon Island, N=9, DDE (3.3), Mirex (0.09), PCBs (18.5), HCB (0.04). The concentrations found in Lake Michigan are from Gravelly Island, N=10, DDE (8.8), Mirex (0.06), PCBs (36.2), HCB (0.04); Hat Island, N=9, DDE (5.6), Mirex (0.05), PCBs (27.8), HCB (0.04); Isle aux Galets, N=9, DDE (4.6), Mirex (0.04), PCBs (24.7), HCB (0.04). The concentrations found in Lake Ontario are from Pigeon Island, N=8, DDE (5.2), Mirex (1.57), PCBs (39.3), HCB (0.06).

7.

Caspian tern eggs were collected from salt evaporation dikes at the south end of San Diego Bay, San Diego, California in 1981 (Ohlendorf et al., 1985). From a random collection (N=25), DDE (9.30 ug/g ww), DDD (nd), Dieldrin (nd), Heptachlor epoxide (nd), Oxychlordane (nd), cis-chlordane (nd), trans-nonachlor (0.12), cis-nonachlor (nd), Toxaphene (nd), PCBs (1.70). From a collection of eggs that failed to hatch (N=17), DDE (10.0), DDD (nd), DDT (nd), Dieldrin (nd), Heptachlor epoxide (nd), Oxychlordane (nd), cis-chlordane (0.09), trans-nonachlor (0.09), cis-nonachlor (nd), Toxaphene (nd), PCBs (2.21).

Caspian terns found dead in the study area from 1980 to 1981 were divided into carcass (c) and brain (b) samples. The concentrations found for each individual in the order of collection are as follows and listed as (c, b): 17 May 81, DDE (14, 16), trans-nonachlor (0.21c), PCBs (5.0, 5.1); 24 May 81, DDE (8.5, 7.5), PCBs (2.8, 1.7); 24 May 81, DDE (12b), PCBs (1.7b); 10 June 81, DDE (3.5, 7.4), PCBs (1.4, 2.1); 10 June 81, DDE (11, 16), trans-nonachlor (0.12c), oxychlordane (0.27c), PCBs (1.6, 1.9); 10 June 81, DDE (3.2, 1.4), PCBs (1.9, 2.1); 11 July 81, DDE (0.98c), PCBs (0.78c).

8.

In 1982 Caspian tern eggs were collected from Bair Island, San Fransisco Bay and Elkhorn Slough, Monterey Bay, California (Ohlendorf et al., 1988).

The eggs from Bair Island were divided into four groups: early random (e) (N=14) which were collected from 22 April to 3 May, late random (l) (N=8) which were collected from 7-18 May, hatching failure (h) (N=13) and dumped or abandoned (d) (N=2). The concentrations (ug/g ww) are as follows (e, l, h, d): DDE (6.10, 8.67, 5.88, 9.72), DDD (nd, nd, nd, nd), DDT (nd, nd, nd, nd), Dieldrin (nd, nd, nd, nd), Heptachlor epoxide (nd, nd, nd, nd), Oxychlordane (nd, nd, nd, nd), cis-chlordane (nd, nd, nd, nd), trans-nonachlor (0.13, 0.14, 0.06, 0.07), cis-nonachlor (nd, nd, nd, nd), Toxaphene (nd, nd, nd, nd), PCBs (5.35, 4.09, 4.72, 3.82).

The eggs from Elkhorn Slough were collected randomly (N=10). The concentrations are: DDE (7.64), DDD (nd), DDT (nd), Dieldrin (nd), Oxychlordane (nd), cis-chlordane (nd), trans-nonachlor (0.10), cis-nonachlor (nd), Toxaphene (nd), PCBs (1.83).

9.

Caspian tern eggs (N=9) were collected from Lavaca Bay, Texas in 1984 (King et al., 1991). The contaminant concentrations (ug/g ww) were: DDE (2.2), PCB (2.6).

10.

Caspian tern eggs from five locations in the Great Lakes were analyzed for PCB concentrations (ug/g ww) from 1986 to 1991 (Ludwig et al., 1996). In Green Bay, Lake Michigan: 1986 (13.1-3 colonies, 10.3-2 colonies), 1987 (9.1-2 colonies), 1988 (10.7-2 colonies). In northern Lake Michigan, N=3 colonies: 1986 (6.1), 1987 (5.5), 1988 (9.7). In the North Channel, Lake Huron, N=2 colonies: 1988 (5.6). In Georgian Bay, Lake Huron, N=1 colony: 1988 (10). In Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron, N=1 colony: 1986 (12.6), 1987 (13.6), 1988 (11).

12.

Caspian tern eggs were collected from Great Lakes colonies in North Channel (NC), Beaver Islands (BI), Green Bay (GRB), Georgian Bay (GEB) and Saginaw Bay (SB) in 1988 (Yamashita et al., 1993). The eggs were divided into four groups: live normal, infertile, deformed and not incubated.

The live normal eggs contained concentrations (ng/g ww) as follows, in order of (SB, BI, GRB): PCBs (4200, 11000, 11000), DDT (82, 82, 30), DDE (3300, 4300, 4000), DDD (36, 36, 19), cis-chlordane (9.4, 38, 24), trans-chlordane (nd, nd, nd), cis-nonachlor (37, 79, 46), trans-nonachlor (110, 180, 140), Oxychlordane (35, 86, 63), Hexachlorobenzene (20, 26, 22), a -HCH (nd, nd, nd), b -HCH (nd, 2.7, 2.3), g -HCH (nd, nd, nd), d -HCH (nd, nd, nd).

The infertile eggs contained concentrations as follows, in order of (SB, BI, GRB): PCBs (11000, 8200, 10000), DDT (65, 65, 13), DDE (2600, 2600, 3200), DDD (27, 27, 16), cis-chlordane (8.0, 34, 15), trans-chlordane (nd, nd, nd), cis-nonachlor (20, 56, 51), trans-nonachlor (73, 160, 160), Oxychlordane (24, 48, 53), Hexachlorobenzene (21, 23, 18), a -HCH (nd, nd, nd), b -HCH (1.0, 1.7, 1.5), g -HCH (nd, nd, nd), d -HCH (nd, nd, nd).

The deformed eggs contained concentrations as follows, in order of (NC, GEB, SB, BI, GRB): PCBs (5600, 10000, 14000, 10000, 11000), DDT (19, 19, 39, 39, 21), DDE (2300, 3400, 3800, 4100, 6300), DDD (15, 15, 17, 17, 19), cis-chlordane (18, 25, 14, 26, 15), trans-chlordane (nd, nd, nd, nd, nd), cis-nonachlor (36, 50, 44, 52, 40), trans-nonachlor (100, 150, 150, 160, 130), Oxychlordane (25, 62, 70, 61, 60), Hexachlorobenzene (19, 19, 24, 21, 18), a -HCH (nd, nd, nd, nd, nd), b -HCH (1.8, 1.7, 2.1, 2.9, 1.1), g -HCH (nd, nd, nd, nd, nd), d -HCH (nd, nd, nd, nd, nd).

The eggs that were not incubated contained concentrations as follows, in order of (SB, SB): PCBs (7900, 18000), DDT (19, 26), DDE (2300, 2800), DDD (28, 71), cis-chlordane (20, 9.2), trans-chlordane (nd, nd), cis-nonachlor (44, 49), trans-nonachlor (120, 120), Oxychlordane (38, 62), Hexachlorobenzene (19, 26), a -HCH (nd, nd), b -HCH (nd, 2.4), g -HCH (nd, nd), d -HCH (nd, nd).

13.

From 1989 to 1992, eggs were collected in Hamilton Harbour, Lake Ontario, Canada for analysis of organochlorine concentration (Weseloh et al., 1995).

In 1989, N=10 (pooled) the concentrations (ug/g ww) were: cis-chlordane (0.01), trans-chlordane (0.00), Oxychlordane (0.04), 1234-TCB (0.003), 1235-1245-TCB (0.005), QCB (0.003), HCB (0.02), DDE (3.8), Dieldrin (0.06), Heptachlor epoxide (0.06), a -HCH (0.000), b -HCH (0.001), g -HCH (0.000), Mirex (0.77), Photomirex (0.26), cis-nonachlor (0.03), trans-nonachlor (0.11), OCS (0.01), PCBs (10.1).

In 1991, N=10 (pooled) the concentrations were: cis-chlordane (0.02), trans-chlordane (0.00), Oxychlordane (0.06), 1234-TCB (0.003), 1235-1245-TCB (0.005), QCB (0.002), HCB (0.02), DDE (3.8) Dieldrin (0.08), Heptachlor epoxide (0.03), a -HCH (0.000), b -HCH (0.000), g -HCH (0.000), Mirex (0.72), Photomirex (0.26), cis-nonachlor (0.03), trans-nonachlor (0.11), OCS (0.02), PCBs (8.5).

In 1992, N=12 (pooled) the concentrations were: cis-chlordane (0.03), trans-chlordane (0.001), Oxychlordane (0.05), 1234-TCB (0.001), 1235-1245-TCB (0.002), QCB (0.004), HCB (0.03), DDE (3.8), Dieldrin (0.07), Heptachlor epoxide (0.02), a -HCH (0.000), b -HCH (0.003), g -HCH (0.00), Mirex (0.59), Photomirex (0.23), cis-nonachlor (0.05), trans-nonachlor (0.13), OCS (0.02), PCBs (8.3).

14.

Plasma of Caspian terns nesting of several colonies on the Great Lakes was analyzed for contaminants in 1990 (Mora et al., 1993). The colonies were located on Cousin’s Island (C) N=5 and Elm Island (E) N=10 in North Channel, Lake Huron; Papoose Island (P) N=10 in Georgian Bay, Lake Huron; High Island (H) N=14 and Isle aux Galets (I) N=15 in northern Lake Michigan; a contained disposal facility (S) N=15 in Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron, and Gull Island (GU) N=2 and Gravelly Island (GR) N=3 in Green Bay, Lake Michigan. The contaminant concentrations (ug/g ww) in this order (C, E, P, H, I, S, GU, GR) were: PCBs (0.910, 1.023, 1.396, 1.671, 2.143, 2.512, 3.499, 3.236), DDE (0.124, 0.107, 0.182, 0.167, 0.205, 0.213, 0.281, 0.198), Dieldrin (0.016, 0.009, 0.015, 0.022, 0.025, 0.017, 0.023, 0.014), trans-nonachlor (0.008, 0.004, 0.006, 0.008, 0.009, 0.007, 0.013, 0.006).

15.

Caspian tern eggs were collected from Crescent Island, Washington in 1991 and analyzed for contaminants (Blus et al., 1998). The concentrations (wet weight) were: N=6, 2,3,7,8-TCDD (3.3 pg/g), 2,3,7,8-TCDF (3.9); n=5, b -HCH (0.03 ug/g), Oxychlordane (nd), Heptachlor epoxide (0.01), trans-nonachlor (0.01), DDE (3.6), Dieldrin (0.01), PCB 77 (0.19 ng/g), PCB 126 (0.34), PCB 169 (0.21), PCB 101 (12.0), PCB 99 (10.8), PCB 118/108/149 (nd), PCB 146 (14.3), PCB 153 (161.0), PCB 105 (nd), PCB 137 (8.7), PCB 138 (116.1), PCB 158 (nd), PCB 187/182/159 (24.6), PCB 183 (27.0), PCB 128 (18.9), PCB 174 (nd), PCB 172 (7.8), PCB 180 (87.9), PCB 170 (28.3), PCB 201 (8.7), PCB 196 (nd), PCB 195 (8.7), PCB 194 (13.2), S PCB (616.4).

16.

Ten Caspian tern eggs were collected from the lower Laguna Madre in 1993 and 1994 (Mora, 1996b). The contaminant concentrations (ug/g ww) found was: DDE (0.110) and PCBs (0.562).

17.

In 1993, eggs (N=4) were collected from a dredge spoil island in the National Audubon Sanctuary Islands in the lower Laguna Madre (Mora, 1996a). The contaminant concentrations (ng/g ww) were: total PCBs (1265).

II.

No direct exposure data available

III.

Trace Elements, Metals, and Metalloids

  1.

In 1982 Caspian tern eggs were collected from Bair Island, San Fransisco Bay and Elkhorn Slough, Monterey Bay, California (Ohlendorf et al., 1988). The eggs from Bair Island were divided into four groups: early random (e) (N=14) which were collected from 22 April to 3 May, late random (l) (N=8) which were collected from 7-18 May, hatching failure (h) (N=13) and dumped or abandoned (d) (N=2). The concentrations (ug/g ww) are as follows in the order of (e, l, h, d): Hg (1.29, 1.19, 1.18, 1.90).

2.

Caspian Tern eggs (N=9) were collected from Lavaca Bay in 1984 (King et al., 1991). The trace elements and metal concentrations (ug/g ww) were: Hg (0.20), Se (0.31).

3.

Caspian Tern eggs (N=5) were collected from Crescent Island, Washington in 1991 and analyzed for contaminants (Blus et al., 1998). The concentrations (ug/g ww) were: Hg (0.95).

4.

Ten Caspian Tern eggs were collected from the lower Laguna Madre in 1993 and 1994 (Mora, 1996b). The contaminant concentrations (ug/g ww) found were: Hg (0.61), Se (0.65), B (0.89), Cr (0.13), Cu (0.96), Fe (34.6), Mg (120), Mn (0.49), Sr (0.96), Zn (13.4).

IV.

Petroleum

No residue data available

Caspian Tern Contaminant Response Data

I.

Organochlorine Contaminants

1.

From March through July 1970, ten Caspian Tern eggs were collected from several locations on the Texas coast (King et al., 1978). The eggs were analyzed for DDT, Dieldrin and PCBs. The mean eggshell thickness was 0.339mm. This was an increase from the pre-1943 mean eggshell thickness of 0.336mm. There was no correlation between the eggshell thickness and the contaminant concentrations.

2.

In 1972, 100 Caspian tern chicks from Pigeon Island and 179 from South Limestone Island in Lake Huron were examined (Gilbertson et al., 1976). One deformed chick from Pigeon Island had a crossed bill. There were no deformities found in the chicks from South Limestone Island. Chicks from both islands (N=4 for Pigeon Island and N=3 for South Limestone Island) were analyzed for PCBs. The researchers were not able to make an association between PCB concentrations and the incidence of deformities because of the small sample size, unidentified residues and differences in sampling procedures.

3.

Caspian tern eggs were collected from islands in Lake Michigan and Lake Huron in 1980 and from Lake Ontario in 1981 (Struger and Weseloh, 1985). The eggs were analyzed for DDE, Mirex, PCBs and HCB and measured for eggshell thickness. The measurements were: Gravelly Island, N=11 (0.324mm), Isle aux Galets, N=10 (0.338), Hat Island, N=10 (0.338), South Limestone Island, N=10 (0.314), The Cousin’s Island, N=10 (0.303), Halfmoon Island, N=9 (0.318), Pigeon Island, N=10 (0.329). Linear regression analysis indicated a non-significant relationship between eggshell thickness and DDE concentration.

4.

Caspian tern eggs (N=9) were collected from Lavaca Bay, Texas in 1984 (King et al., 1991). Eggshell thickness was measured and the researchers found that the thickness did not vary between 1943, 1970 and 1984. The concentrations of DDE, PCB, mercury and selenium were also measured.

5.

Caspian tern chicks and dead eggs were examined for deformities from 1986 to 1991 (Ludwig et al., 1996). The eggs were also analyzed for total PCBs.

The deformities found in dead eggs in Green Bay, Lake Michigan (N=601) were 28 subcutaneous edemas, 9 gross hemorrhages, 58 gastroschisis, 21 bill defects, 6 incomplete skulls, 6 eye deformities, 1 neck deformity, 2 vertebral deformities, 7 clubfeet, 3 spina bifida, 1 foot folded under, 2 hydrocephalus, 2 anencephaly, 1 abnormal feathering and 1 grossly undersized. The deformities in northern Lake Michigan (N=248) were 13 subcutaneous edemas, 6 gross hemorrhages, 16 gastroschisis, 8 bill defects, 4 incomplete skulls, 3 eye deformities, 3 neck deformities, 5 clubfeet, 2 spina bifida, 3 hydrocephalus and 1 anencephaly. The deformities in the North Channel of Lake Huron (N=143) were 4 subcutaneous edemas, 2 gross hemorrhages, 12 gastroschisis, 6 bill defects, 1 clubfoot, 2 spina bifida, 1 foot folded under and 1 anencephaly. The deformities in Georgian Bay, Lake Huron (N=62) were 3 subcutaneous edemas, 1 gross hemorrhage, 6 gastroschisis, 2 bill defects, 1 incomplete skull, 1 eye deformity and 2 clubfeet. The deformities in Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron (N=236) were 14 subcutaneous edema, 1 ascites, 9 gross hemorrhages, 28 gastroschisis, 11 bill defects, 3 incomplete skulls, 1 eye deformity, 1 vertebral deformity, 4 clubfeet, 5 hydrocephalus, 6 anencephaly, 3 abnormal feathering, and 6 grossly undersized.

The deformities found in chicks in Green Bay, Lake Michigan (N=4834) were 5 clubbed feet and 3 gastroschsis. The deformities in northern Lake Michigan (N=4858) were 8 clubbed feet and 2 gastroschsis. The deformities in Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron were 4 clubbed feet and 6 gastroschsis. The deformity in North Channel of Lake Huron was one clubbed foot. There were no deformed chicks in Georgian Bay, Lake Huron.

6.

Caspian tern chicks of the Michigan Great Lakes were examined for deformities from 1986 to 1990 (Mora et al., 1993). They were also analyzed for PCBs, DDE, Dieldrin and trans-nonachlor. The deformities in Green Bay, Lake Michigan (N=4075) were 4 clubbed feet and 3 open abdomen/gastroschisis. The deformities in northern Lake Michigan (N=4212) were 8 clubbed feet, 1 open abdomen/gastroschisis and 1 scoliosis. The deformities in Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron (N=1064) were 3 clubbed feet, 6 open abdomen/gastroschisis and 1 scoliosis.

II.

Cholinesterase-Inhibiting Pesticides

No response data available

III.

Trace Elements, Metals, and Metalloids

No response data available

IV.

Petroleum

No response data available

References for Caspian Tern

American Ornithologists’ Union. 1983. Check-list of North America birds. 6 th ed. Am. Ornithol. Union, Washington, D. C.

Bailey, V. 1902. Unprotected breeding grounds. Condor 4:62-64.

Baltz, D. M., V. G. Morejohn, B. S. Antrim. 1979. Size selective predation and food habits of two California terns. West. Birds 10:17-24.

Bennett, L. 1995. Caspian Terns increasing in Southern Alberta. Alberta Nat. 25:2.

Bent, A. C. 1921. Life histories of North American gulls and terns. U. S. National Museum Bulletin 113.

Bergman, G. 1953. Verbalken und biologie der Raubseeschwalbe (Hydroprogne tschegrava). Acta Zool. Fenn. 77:1-50.

Bergman, G. 1980. Single-breeding versus colonial breeding in the Caspian Tern Hydroprogne caspia, the Common Terns Sterna hirundo and the Arctic Tern Sterna paradisea. Ornis Fenn. 57:141-152.

Blokpoel, H. and G. D. Tessier. 1996. Atlas of colonial waterbirds nesting on the Canadian Great Lakes, 1989-1991. Part 3. Cormorants, gulls and island-nesting terns on the lower Great Lakes system in 1990. Technical Report Series no. 225. Can. Wildl. Serv., Ontario Region

Blokpoel, H. and G. D. Tessier. 1997. Atlas of colonial waterbirds nesting on the Canadian Great Lakes, 1989-1991. Part 2. Cormorants, gulls and island-nesting terns on Lake Huron in 1989. Technical Report Series no. 259. Can. Wildl. Serv., Ontario Region

Blus, L. J., M. J. Melancon, D. J. Hoffman, C. J. Henny. 1998. Contaminants in Eggs of Colonial Waterbirds and Hepatic Cytochrome P450 Enzyme Levels in Pipped Tern Embryos, Washington State. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 35:492-497.

Campbell, R. W., N. K. Dawe, I. McTaggart-Cowan, J. M. Cooper, G. W. Kaiser, and M. C. E. McNall. 1990. The birds of British Columbia. Vol. 2. Diurnal birds of prey through woodpeckers. R. Br. Columbia Mus., Victoria.

Chapeldaine, G. 1996. In The breeding birds of Quebec: atlas of the breeding birds of southern Quebec (J. Gauthier and Y. Aubrey, eds.). Ass. Quebecoise des groupes d’ornithologues, Prov. Of Quebec Soc. For the protection of birds, Can. Wildl. Serv., Env. Canada, Quebec Region, Montreal.

Crampe, S., ed. 1985. Handbook of the Birds of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa: the birds of the western Palearctic. Vol. 4. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, UK.

Cuthbert, F. J. 1981. Caspian tern colonies in the Great Lakes: responses to an unpredictable environment. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

Cuthbert, F. J. 1988. Reproductive success and colony-site tenacity in Caspian terns. The Auk 105:339-344.

Cuthbert, F. J. and L. R. Wires. 1999. Caspian Tern (Sterna caspia). In The Birds of North America, No. 403 (A. Poole and F. Gills, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA. 32 pp.

Ferguson-Lees, I. J. 1971. Studies of less familiar birds. 166. Caspian Tern. Br. Birds 64:314-316.

Finley, W. L. 1907. The grebes of southern Oregon. Condor 9:97-101.

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