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Contents Preface xxvii Foreword xxix PART A 1. Railways and Transport 1 1.1. Evolution of the railways 1 1.1.1. Historical outline 1 1.1.2. The golden age of the railways 2 1.1.3. Railways and other competing transportation means 2 1.1.4. Railways in the era of monopoly and competition 3 1.2. Characteristics of rail transport 4 1.2.1. Ability to transport high volumes 4 1.2.2. Energy consumption 4 1.2.3. Environmental impact and safety 6 1.3. Increase of mobility and railways 6 1.4. Economic development and railways 7 1.5. Rail passenger traffic 8 1.6. Rail freight traffic 11 1.7. Railway traffic, length of lines, staff and productivity 13 1.8. Priority to passenger or freight traffic 15 1.9. Transportation services with good prospects for the railways 16 1.9.1. Comparative advantages of railways and high-speed trains 16 1.9.2. Urban rail services 16 1.9.3. Combined transport 16 1.9.4. Bulk loads 18 1.9.5. Freight rail transport and logistics 18 1.10. Rail and air transport: Competition or complementarity 19 1.10.1. Areas of competition and of complementarity 19 1.10.2. Rail links with airports 20 1.10.3. Rail connections of airports with other areas 20 1.11. International railway institutions 21 1.12. Rolling stock industries 22 1.13. Railway interoperability 22 1.14. Applications of GPS in railways 23 2. High Speeds and Magnetic Levitation 24 2.1. High-speed trains 24 2.1.1. The application of high speeds in railways 24 2.1.2. Impact of high speeds on the reduction of rail travel times 25 2.1.3. High speeds and the increase of traffic 26 2.1.4. Technical features of high-speed railway lines 27 2.1.5. Track characteristics for high speeds 27 2.1.6. Rolling stock for high speeds 28 2.1.7. Power supply at high speeds 28 2.2. The Channel Tunnel and high speeds between London and Paris 29 2.2.1. Technical description 29 2.2.2. Travel times 29 2.2.3. Method of financing and forecasts of demand 30 2.2.4. Operation, safety and maintenance .30 2.3. Tilting trains 30 2.4. Aerotrain 31 2.5. Magnetic levitation 32 2.5.1. Technical description 32 2.5.2. Comparison of magnetic levitation with conventional railways 32 2.5.3. Applications of magnetic levitation 33 3. Policy and Legislation 35 3.1. The competitive international environment and the evolution of the organization of railways 35 3.2. The dual nature of railways: business and technology 35 3.2.1. Inherited weaknesses by the railways 35 3.2.2. Comparative advantages of the railways 36 3.2.3. Strategy and restructuring measures 37 3.2.4. Railways and transport requirements 38 3.3. Globalization and liberalization in the rail market 39 3.4. Separation of infrastructure from operation and the new challenges for the railways 41 3.4.1. Separation as an incentive for competition 41 3.4.2. Competition and new challenges for railways 42 3.4.3. Various forms of separation 43 3.5. A definition of railway infrastructure 44 3.6. European Union rail legislation 44 3.7. Some representative models of separation of infrastructure from operation in European railways 46 3.7.1. The Integrated model 46 3.7.2. The Semi-integrated model with apparent organic separation 47 3.7.3. The Holding model 47 3.7.4. The Separated model 48 3.7.5. The Separated model along with further separation in infrastructure 48 3.7.6. The Separated model along with privatization 49 3.7.7. Assessment of the various models 50 3.8. Rail legislation in the USA and Canada 52 3.9. Rail legislation in Japan 53 3.10. Rail legislation in Australia and New Zealand 54 4. Forecast of Rail Demand 4.1. Purposes, needs and methods for the forecast of rail demand 55 4.2. Parameters affecting the various categories of rail demand 56 4.2.1. Parameters affecting rail demand globally (aggregate approach) 56 4.2.2. Categories of rail demand and effects of the various parameters of rail transport 57 4.2.2.1. Passenger rail demand 57 4.2.2.2. Freight rail demand 57 4.3. Qualitative methods 58 4.3.1. Market surveys 58 4.3.2. Scenario writing method 59 4.3.3. Delphi method 59 4.4. Statistical projections 62 4.4.1. Theoretical background and conditions of applicability 62 4.4.2. Example of a statistical projection 64 4.5. Econometric models 65 4.5.1. Definition and domains of application 65 4.5.2. Statistical tests for the validity of an econometric model 65 4.5.3. Example of an econometric model 66 4.6. Gravity models 67 4.7. Fuzzy models 67 4.7.1. Description of the fuzzy method 67 4.7.2. Example of a fuzzy model 68 4.8. Time-series models 69 4.8.1. General time-series models ¿ Approach of Box-Jenkins 69 4.8.2. The Least median of squares (LMS) method for the forecast of rail demand 70 4.9. Statistical evaluation of the forecasting ability of a model 71 4.10. A comparative analysis of performances of each method 73 4.11. Modelling of rail freight demand 74 5. Costs and Tarification 75 5.1. Definition of railway costs 75 5.1.1. Construction and operation costs 75 5.1.2. Fixed and variable costs 75 5.1.3. Marginal cost 75 5.1.4. External costs and marginal social cost 77 5.1.5. Generalized cost 77 5.2. Construction cost of a new railway line 78 5.3. Maintenance and operation costs of infrastructure 80 5.3.1. Maintenance cost of infrastructure 80 5.3.2. Operation cost of infrastructure 80 5.4. Cost of purchase of high-speed rolling stock 80 5.5. Cost of operation of a railway company 81 5.5.1. Passenger 81 5.5.2. Freight 82 5.5.3. Combined transport 82 5.6. Quantification of external effects in monetary values 83 5.7. Tarification of infrastructure 87 5.7.1. Principles of infrastructure pricing 87 5.7.2. Objectives of infrastructure pricing 87 5.7.3. Financial consequences of infrastructure pricing 87 5.7.4. A commercial approach of infrastructure pricing 89 5.7.5. Theoretical and practical infrastructure pricing 89 5.7.6. Structure of infrastructure pricing 90 5.8. Infrastructure pricing models in some countries 90 5.8.1. Infrastructure pricing according to the European Union legislation 90 5.8.2. France 91 5.8.3. Germany 91 5.8.4. United Kingdom 92 5.8.5. Sweden and Finland 92 5.8.6. Italy 93 5.8.7. Switzerland 93 5.8.8. Other countries 93 5.8.9. A comparison of rail infrastructure charges 93 5.9. Tarification of operation 95 5.9.1. Targets of tarification 95 5.9.2. The traditional method of tarification 95 5.9.3. Effects of elasticities 96 5.9.4. Tarification and competition 97 5.10. Tarification of passenger traffic 97 5.10.1. The existence or not of public service obligations 97 5.10.2. The strategic dilemma: profit or increase of traffic 98 5.10.3. Tarification for rail operators without public service obligations 98 5.10.4. Yield management techniques 98 5.10.5. Complementary commercial measures to increase revenues 99 5.11. Tarification of freight traffic 99 6. Planning and Management of Railways 100 6.1. Railways and the social and economic environment 100 6.1.1. A systems approach for the railways 100 6.1.2. Railways and the social and economic environment 100 6.1.2.1. The social and economic environment 100 6.1.2.2. Strategic and tactical level of decisions 100 6.1.2.3. Separation in business units 103 6.1.2.4. Changes and requirements of the environment of railways 103 6.1.3. Quality control 104 6.2. Competition and impact on railway management 104 6.3. Feasibility studies and methods of financing 105 6.3.1. Need for evaluation of any rail project 105 6.3.2. Benefits and costs from a new railway infrastructure 105 6.3.3. Evaluation methods for rail projects 106 6.3.4. Methods of financing a new rail project 107 6.3.5. Public-Private Partnerships 109 6.4. Planning the railway activity 110 6.4.1. Need and purposes of planning 110 6.4.2. Master Plans and Business Plans 111 6.4.3. A brief description of a Business Plan of a railway undertaking 111 6.5. Project management for railways 112 6.5.1. Definition of project management 112 6.5.2. Scope, benefits and costs of project management 113 6.5.3. Some rail projects that could require project management 114 6.5.4. A description of tasks of project management for railways 115 6.6. Management of infrastructure 117 6.6.1. Tasks and objectives for rail infrastructure 117 6.6.1. A new management approach 118 6.6.3. The issue of outsourcing 118 6.6.4. The need for an homogeneous product at world level 119 6.7. Management and policy for rail passenger transport 120 6.7.1. Tasks and objectives for rail passenger transport 120 6.7.2. A segmentation of traffic 120 6.7.3. A new strategy combining competition, cooperation and alliances 121 6.7.4. Traditional weaknesses and offer of a new global product of railways 121 6.7.5. Application of informatics technologies (internet, SMS) 123 6.7.6. Marketing ¿ Customer satisfaction surveys ¿ Creation of a new culture 123 6.8. Management and policy for rail freight transport 124 6.8.1. Tasks and objectives of rail freight transport 124 6.8.2. A merciless competition 124 6.8.3. Integration of rail freight in the logistic chain 125 6.9. Human resources and their revalorization 125 6.9.1. The need for a more entrepreneurial approach 125 6.9.2. Allocation of human resources 126 6.9.3. The art of motivating people to work 127 6.9.4. Increase of productivity 127 6.9.5. Restructuring and revalorization of human resources 128 6.10. Privatization of railways 129 6.10.1. Prerequisites and targets of privatization 129 6.10.2. Privatization and competition 129 6.10.3. The problem of debt 130 6.10.4. The need for a strong Regulator 130 6.10.5. Privatization of infrastructure 130 6.10.6. Privatization of operation 130 6.10.7. Some cases of privatization of railways all over the world 131 6.10.8. Effects and degree of privatization 132 6.11. Justification and calculation of public service obligations 132 PART B 7. The Track System 133 7.1. The traditional division of railway topics into track, traction and operation 133 7.2. The track system and its components 134 7.3. Track on ballast or on concrete slab 135 7.4. Track gauge 137 7.5. Load per axle and traffic load 138 7.5.1. Load per axle 138 7.5.2. Traffic load 139 7.6. Sleeper spacing 140 7.7. The wheel-rail contact 141 7.8. Transverse wheel oscillations along the rail 142 7.9. Rail slope on sleeper 144 7.10. Load gauge 144 7.10.1. Static and dynamic load gauge 144 7.10.2. European, British and American load gauge 145 7.10.3. Load gauge for high-speed tracks 146 7.10.4. Load gauge for metro systems 147 7.10.5. Load gauge for metric gauge tracks 147 7.11. Forces generated by the movement of rail vehicle ¿ Static and dynamic analysis 147 7.11.1. Forces generated 147 7.11.2. Static and dynamic analysis-Track defects and additional dynamic loads 149 7.12. Influence of forces on passenger comfort 150 8. Mechanical Behaviour of Track 151 8.1. A variety of methods adjusted to the nature of the problem under study 151 8.2. Track coefficients and Bousinesq¿s analysis 151 8.2.1. Definitions ¿ Symbols 151 8.2.2. Track coefficients 152 8.2.3. Track coefficients and Bousinesq¿s analysis 153 8.3. Approximate uni-directional elastic analysis of vertical effects 154 8.3.1. Assumptions and formulas 154 8.3.2. Results of the method 156 8.4. Accurate analysis of the mechanical behaviour of track ¿ Finite element method and elastoplastic analysis 157 8.4.1. A short description of applications of the finite element method in track problems 157 8.4.2. Construction of the mesh of the model 158 8.4.3. Limit conditions 159 8.4.4. Stress-strain relationship 159 8.4.4.1. Case of ballast and subgrade 160 8.4.4.2. Case of rail and sleeper 161 8.4.5. Numerical calculations procedure 161 8.4.6. Determination of the mechanical characteristics of the various materials 162 8.4.7. Stress and strain in the track-subgrade system 163 8.4.8. Distribution of wheel load along successive sleepers 165 8.4.9. Elastic line of sleeper 165 8.5. Dynamic analysis of the track-subgrade system 165 8.6. Track defects and additional dynamic loads 167 8.7. Dynamic impact factor coefficient 168 8.8. Design of the track-subgrade system 169 8.9. Vibrations and noise from rail traffic 170 8.9.1. Origin of rail vibrations 170 8.9.2. Relation of rail noise level to speed 170 8.9.3. Damping of rail noise in relation to distance 171 8.9.4. Noise level in relation to infrastructure type 171 8.9.5. Noise levels in high speeds 171 8.9.6. Noise level standards 172 8.10. Analysis of the accurate mechanical behaviour of rail 172 8.11. Application of unilateral contact theories in railway problems 173 8.11.1. Transmission of forces and contact surfaces 173 8.11.2. Unilateral contact theories 174 8.11.3. Equations of the unilateral contact problem 174 8.11.4. Numerical calculations 174 9. Subgrade ¿ Geotechnical and Hydrogeological Analysis 175 9.1. The importance of the railway subgrade on track quality and its functions 175 9.2. Analytical geotechnical study 176 9.2.1. Targets of a geotechnical study and soil investigation 176 9.2.2. Preliminary studies 177 9.2.3. Techniques and methods of exploration used in a geotechnical study 177 9.2.4. Planning the exploration program 177 9.2.5. Geotechnical report and longitudinal section 179 9.3. Geotechnical classifications of soils 180 9.4. Hydrogeological conditions 182 9.5. Classification of the railway subgrade 183 9.6. Mechanical characteristics of the subgrade 184 9.7. The formation layer 185 9.7.1. Laying of formation layer in new tracks 185 9.7.2. Improvement of formation layer in existing tracks 186 9.8. Impact of traffic load on the subgrade 186 9.9. Impact of maintenance conditions on the subgrade 188 9.9.1. The maintenance coefficient 188 9.9.2. Impact of maintenance coefficient on the behaviour of track bed and the subgrade 188 9.9.3. Impact of the maintenance coefficient on subgrade stresses 189 9.10. Fatigue behaviour of the subgrade 190 9.11. Frost protection of railway lines 191 9.11.1. Frost index 191 9.11.2. Frost foundation thickness 191 9.11.3. Frost protection methods on existing tracks 192 9.12. Track subgrade in cuts and on embankments - Slope gradients 193 9.12.1. Subgrade in cut sections 193 9.12.2. Subgrade on embankment sections 193 9.13. The reinforced soil technique 194 9.14. Hydraulic analysis and calculation of flows 195 9.14.1. Level of ground water 195 9.14.2. Calculation of run-off flows 195 9.15. Geotextiles in railway subgrades 197 9.15.1. Characteristics, types and properties of geotextiles 197 9.15.2. Use and applications of geotextiles in the railway subgrade 197 9.16. Vegetation on the subgrade and the ballast 199 9.16.1. Vegetation on the track and herbicides 199 9.16.2. Criteria and dosage for application of herbicides 200 9.17. Earthquakes and the behaviour of track and the subgrade 201 10. The Rail 202 10.1. Rail profiles 202 10.2. Manufacturing of rail steel 203 10.3. Mechanical strength and chemical composition of rail steel 203 10.3.1. Mechanical strength 203 10.3.2. Chemical composition 204 10.3.2.1. Carbon 204 10.3.2.2. Manganese 204 10.3.2.3. Chromium and Silicon 204 10.3.2.4. Chromium - Manganese 204 10.3.2.5. Equivalent carbon percentage 205 10.3.3. Rail grades 205 10.4. Choice of rail profile 206 10.4.1. Standard gauge tracks 206 10.4.2. Metric gauge tracks 206 10.4.3. Broad gauge tracks 206 10.4.4. Geometrical characteristics of various rail profiles 208 10.5. Transport of rails 208 10.6. Stress analysis of rail 208 10.6.1. Stresses at wheel-rail contact 211 10.6.2. Bending stresses of the rail on the ballast 212 10.6.3. Bending stresses of the rail head on the rail web 212 10.6.4. Stresses caused by thermal effects 212 10.6.5. Plastic stresses 213 10.7. Analysis of the mechanical behaviour of the rail by the finite element and the photoelasticity methods 213 10.8. Rail fatigue 214 10.8.1. Fatigue curve and rail lifetime determination 214 10.8.2. Rail fatigue criterion 215 10.8.3. Evolution of an internal discontinuity 217 10.9. Rail defects 217 10.9.1. Definition of rail defects 217 10.9.2. Codification of rail defects 218 10.9.3. Defects in rail ends 220 10.9.4. Defects away from rail ends 220 10.9.4.1. Tache ovale 220 10.9.4.2. Horizontal cracking 220 10.9.4.3. Rolling (running) surface disintegration 220 10.9.4.4. Short-pitch corrugations 221 10.9.4.5. Long-pitch corrugations 221 10.9.4.6. Lateral wear 221 10.9.4.7. Shelling of the running surface 221 10.9.4.8. Gauge-corner shelling 222 10.9.5. Defects caused by rail damage 222 10.9.5.1. Bruising 222 10.9.5.2. Faulty machining 222 10.9.6. Welding and resurfacing defects 223 10.9.6.1. Electric flash-butt welding 223 10.9.6.2. Thermit welding and electric arc welding defects 223 10.10. Permissible rail wear 224 10.10.1. Vertical wear 224 10.10.2. Lateral wear 225 10.11. Optimum lifetime of rail 225 10.12. Fishplates 226 10.13. The continuous welded rail 227 10.13.1. The continuous welding technique 227 10.13.2. Mechanical behaviour of continuous welded rail 227 10.13.2.1. Assumptions 227 10.13.2.2. Simplified mechanical analysis of continuous welded rail 228 10.13.2.3. Forces distribution along continuous welded rail 229 10.13.2.4. Length changes in the expansion zone 229 10.13.2.5. Rail welding 230 10.13.2.5.1. Flash-butt welding 230 10.13.2.5.2. Thermit welding 230 10.13.2.5.3. Electric arc welding 231 10.13.2.6. Destressing of a continuous welded rail 231 10.13.3. Expansion devices 232 10.13.4. Advantages of the continuous welded rail 232 11. Sleepers ¿ Fastenings 233 11.1. The various types of sleepers and their functions 233 11.2. Steel sleepers 234 11.2.1. Form and properties 234 11.2.2. Manufacturing, size and weight 234 11.2.3. Advantages and disadvantages 235 11.2.4. Lifetime 235 11.3. Timber sleepers 235 11.3.1. Form and properties 235 11.3.2. Dimensions 236 11.3.3. Advantages and disadvantages 237 11.3.4. Lifetime 238 11.3.5. Deformability of timber sleepers 238 11.4. Concrete sleepers 238 11.4.1. Inherent weaknesses of concrete sleepers 238 11.4.2. The two types of concrete sleepers 239 11.5. The twin-block reinforced-concrete sleeper 239 11.5.1. Geometrical characteristics and mechanical strength 239 11.5.2. Advantages and disadvantages 241 11.5.3. Lifetime 241 11.5.4. Deformability of twin-block sleepers 241 11.6. The monoblock prestressed-concrete sleeper 241 11.6.1. Geometrical characteristics and mechanical strength 241 11.6.2. Advantages and disadvantages 244 11.6.3. Lifetime 245 11.6.4. Deformability of monoblock sleepers 245 11.7. Manufacturing, quality control and testing of concrete sleepers 245 11.8. Stresses developing beneath the sleeper 247 11.9. Fastenings 248 11.9.1. Functional characteristics 248 11.9.2. Types of fastenings 248 11.9.2.1. Rigid fastenings 248 11.9.2.2. Elastic fastenings 248 11.9.2.3. Types of elastic fastenings 250 11.9.2.4. Operating principles of elastic fastenings 250 11.9.3. Forces and stresses in rigid and in elastic fastenings 251 11.9.4. Design criteria, anchorage and insulation of a fastening 252 11.9.5. Rail creep and anti-creep anchors 252 11.10. Resilient pads 253 11.10.1. Rail seating and baseplate pads 253 11.10.2. Functions and properties of pads 253 11.10.3. Dimensions, materials and design 253 11.10.4. Force-elongation curves 254 11.11. Numerical application for the dimensioning of the various track components 254 12. Ballast 256 12.1. Functions of ballast and subballast 256 12.1.1. Functions of ballast 256 12.1.2. Functions of subballast 256 12.2. Geometrical characteristics of ballast 257 12.2.1. Ballast size 257 12.2.2. Fine particles 258 12.2.3. Fines 258 12.2.4. Particle shape 259 12.2.4.1. Flakiness index 259 12.2.4.2. Shape index 260 12.2.4.3. Particle length 260 12.3. Mechanical behaviour of ballast 260 12.3.1. Stress-strain relationship 260 12.3.2. Fatigue behaviour 261 12.3.2.1. Ballast 261 12.3.2.2. Subballast 261 12.3.3. Modulus of elasticity 262 12.3.3.1. Ballast 262 12.3.3.2. Subballast 262 12.4. Ballast hardness 262 12.4.1. The Deval test 262 12.4.2. The Los Angeles test 263 12.4.3. The Microdeval test 264 12.4.4. Required ballast strength and hardness 265 12.5. Determination of the appropriate thickness of ballast 265 12.5.1. Determination of the appropriate thickness of track bed 265 12.5.2. Required thickness of track bed to avoid frost penetration 267 12.5.3. Ballast and subballast thickness 268 12.5.4. Calculation of ballast thickness according to the British regulations 268 12.5.5. Numerical application 269 12.5.6. Appropriate thickness of ballast for metric gauge tracks 270 12.6. Track cross-sections 270 12.7. Lifetime and re-use of ballast 275 13. Transverse Effects ¿ Derailment 276 13.1. Transverse effects 276 13.2. Transverse track forces 276 13.2.1. Transverse static force 276 13.2.2. Transverse dynamic force 277 13.3. Transverse track resistance 277 13.4. Influence of ballast characteristics on transverse track resistance 278 13.4.1. Influence of the geometrical characteristics of the ballast cross-section 278 13.4.2. Influence of the granulometric composition of ballast 279 13.4.3. Influence of the degree of ballast compacting 279 13.5. Influence of sleeper type and characteristics on transverse track resistance 281 13.6. Additional measures and special equipment used to increase transverse track resistance 282 13.7. Derailment 283 13.7.1. Derailment caused by track shifting 283 13.7.2. Derailment caused by wheel climbing on the rail 284 13.7.3. Derailment caused by the overturning of the vehicle 285 13.7.4. Derailment safety factor - Numerical application 286 13.8. Effects of transverse winds 287 14. Track Layout 289 14.1. Rail vehicle running on a curve 289 14.1.1. Effects during movement on a curve 289 14.1.2. Transition curve ¿ Cubic parabola or clothoid 289 14.2. Theoretical and actual values of cant ¿ Permissible values of transverse acceleration 291 14.2.1. Theoretical value of cant for complete compensation of centrifugal forces 291 14.2.2. Applied value of cant 291 14.2.3. Cant deficiency and tilting trains 292 14.2.4. Permissible values of transverse acceleration 293 14.2.5. Cant deficiency variation in time 294 14.3. Limit values of cant and acceleration 294 14.4. Calculation of the transition curve 294 14.5. Calculation of the circular arc 297 14.6. Case of consecutive same sense and antisense circular arcs 297 14.7. Superelevation ramp 299 14.8. Combining maximum and minimum speeds 300 14.9. Relationship of train speed with radius of curvature 301 14.10. Gradients 302 14.11. Vertical transition curves 302 14.12. Transition curves in the case of variation of the distance between the axes of the two tracks 304 14.13. Some considerations for metric gauge tracks 304 14.14. Layout design with the use of tables 305 14.15. Layout design with the use of computer methods 305 14.16. Construction of a new railway line 305 14.16.1. Feasibility study 305 14.16.2. Preliminary design 305 14.16.3. Outline design 306 14.16.4. Final design 307 14.16.5. Staking of the track layout 307 14.17. Environmental aspects of track layout 308 15. Switches and Crossings 309 15.1. Functions of switches and crossings 309 15.2. Components of a turnout 310 15.3. Various forms of turnouts 312 15.4. Running speed on turnouts 314 15.5. Geometrical characteristics of turnouts 315 15.6. Derailment criterion for switches and crossings 316 15.7. Turnouts on a curved main track 317 15.8. Turnouts run with increased speeds 317 15.9. Sleeper and track layout in turnouts and crossings 319 15.10. Manual and automatic operation of turnouts 319 15.11. Design principles for switches and crossings 321 16. Laying and Maintenance of Track 322 16.1. Laying of track 322 16.1.1. Mechanical equipment 322 16.1.2. Sequence of construction of the various track works 323 16.2. Track maintenance and parameters influencing it 323 16.3. Definitions and parameters associated with track defects 324 16.4. Track defects 326 16.4.1. Longitudinal defect 326 16.4.2. Transverse defect 326 16.4.3. Horizontal defect 327 16.4.4. Gauge deviations 327 16.4.5. Track twist 327 16.5. Recording methods of track defects 328 16.6. Limit values of track defects 329 16.6.1. Limit values for high-, rapid- and medium-speed tracks 329 16.6.2. Limit values for medium- and low-speed tracks 330 16.6.3. Acceptance limits 330 16.6.4. Emergency values 330 16.7. Progress of track defects 332 16.7.1. Longitudinal defect 332 16.7.1.1. Mean settlement of track 332 16.7.1.2. Standard deviation of longitudinal defects 333 16.6.1.3. Interval between maintenance sessions 333 16.7.2. Transverse defect 334 16.7.3. Horizontal defect 334 16.7.4. Gauge deviations 335 16.7.5. Track twist 335 16.8. Mechanical equipment for maintenance works 335 16.9. Scheduling of maintenance operations 337 16.10. Technical considerations for track maintenance works 339 16.11. Track maintenance, vegetation and weed control 340 17. Slab Track 341 17.1. The dilemma between ballasted and non-ballasted track 341 17.1.1. Advantages and weaknesses of ballasted track 341 17.1.2. The solution of non-ballasted track 341 17.1.3. First trials, tests and evolution of slab track technique 342 17.2. Mechanical behaviour of slab track 343 17.2.1. Simulation of slab track 343 17.2.2. Stresses and settlements in the case of slab track 343 17.3. A variety of forms of non-ballasted track 344 17.4. Slab track with the use of sleepers 344 17.4.1. The Rheda technique 344 17.4.2. The Züblin technique 345 17.4.3. The Stedef technique 346 17.5. Slab track without use of sleepers 346 17.6. Non-ballasted track on an asphalt layer 348 17.7. Transition between ballasted and slab track 348 17.8. Costs of slab track 349 PART C 18. Train Dynamics 350 18.1. Train traction 350 18.2. Resistances acting during train motion 350 18.3. Running resistance 351 18.3.1. General equation for the running resistance 351 18.3.2. Empirical formulas of some railways for the running resistance 352 18.3.3.1. Formulas of the French railways 353 18.3.3.1.1. Diesel or electric locomotives 353 18.3.3.1.2. Pulled rolling stock 353 18.3.3.1.3. Electric passenger vehicles 353 18.3.3.2. Formula of the American railways 354 18.3.3.3. Formulas of the German railways 355 18.3.3.4. Formulas for broad and narrow gauge railways 355 18.3.4. Resistances developed when running in a tunnel 356 18.3.4.1. Pressure problems 356 18.3.4.2. Increased aerodynamic resistances in tunnels 357 18.3.4.3. Crossing of trains 358 18.3.4.4. Tunnel cross-section requirements at high speeds 359 18.3.5. Comparative running resistance between railways and road vehicles 359 18.4. Resistance due to track curves 359 18.5. Resistance caused by gravity 360 18.6. Inertial (acceleration) resistance 360 18.7. Starting force and traction force of a train 361 18.8. Adhesion forces 362 18.9. Required train power 364 18.10. Values of train acceleration and deceleration 365 18.11. Train braking 366 18.8.1. Braking systems 366 18.8.2. Braking distance 367 19. Rolling Stock 370 19.1. Components of a pulled rail vehicle 370 19.2. Wheels 370 19.2.1. Geometrical characteristics and materials 370 19.2.2. Wheel defects and reprofiling 371 19.2.3. Lifecycle of a wheel 371 19.3. Axles 371 19.4. Bogies 373 19.4.1. Definition and functions of a bogie 373 19.4.2. Forms of bogies 373 19.4.3. Components of a bogie 374 19.4.4. Self-steering bogie 374 19.5. Springs 374 19.6. Couplings and buffers 375 19.7. Design of rolling stock 375 19.8. Localization of the position of a rail vehicle with the use of GPS 378 19.9. Tilting trains 378 19.9.1. Needs which gave rise to the tilting technology 378 19.9.2. Tilting technology 379 19.9.3. Technical and operational characteristics of tilting trains 380 19.9.4. Reductions in travel times by tilting trains 381 19.9.5. Cost of tilting trains 381 20. Diesel and Electric Traction 382 20.1. The various traction systems 382 20.2. Steam traction 382 20.2.1. Operating principle of the steam engine 382 20.2.2. Main parts of a steam locomotive 383 20.2.3. Disadvantages and abandonment of the steam locomotive 383 20.3. From steam traction to diesel traction and electric traction 384 20.3.1. From steam traction to diesel traction 384 20.3.2. From steam traction to electric traction 384 20.3.3. Gas turbine locomotives 384 20.4. Diesel traction 385 20.4.1. Operating principle of the diesel engine 385 20.4.2. Transmission systems 386 20.4.3. Requirements of diesel locomotives 386 20.4.4. Advantages and disadvantages of diesel traction 387 20.5. Electric traction and its subsystems 387 20.5.1. Power supply subsystem 387 20.5.2. Traction subsystem 388 20.5.3. Requirements and priorities 388 20.6. Electric traction systems 389 20.6.1. Direct current traction 389 20.6.2. Alternating current traction 389 20.6.2.1. Alternating current traction at 15,000 V, 16? Hz 390 20.6.2.2. Alternating current traction at 25,000 V, 50 Hz 390 20.6.3. Advantages and disadvantages of electric traction compared to diesel traction 393 20.7. Feasibility analysis of electric traction 393 20.7.1. Feasibility analysis parameters and procedure 393 20.7.2. Criterion for selection of the lines to be electrified 394 20.8. Overhead contact system 395 20.8.1. Parts and components of the overhead contact system 395 20.8.2. Calculation of the contact wire with the use of physical models 396 20.8.3. Calculation of the contact wire with the use of the finite element method 397 20.8.4. Suspension of overhead contact systems 398 20.8.5. Power transmission by conductor rail 399 20.8.6. Electrical and power characteristics of some high-speed tracks 399 20.9. Overhead line supporting poles 400 20.9.1. Pole material 400 20.9.2. Pole spacing 400 20.9.3. Pole foundation 401 20.10. Substations 401 20.10.1. Substations feeding direct current systems 401 20.10.2. Substations feeding alternating current systems 402 20.10.3. From thyristors to ¿gate turn off¿ technology 402 20.10.4. Operating control center 403 20.10.5. Interference of electric traction on telecommunication and signaling systems 403 20.11. Synchronous and asynchronous motors 404 20.12. Electric locomotives maintenance ¿ Depot 405 21. Signaling ¿ Safety ¿ Interoperability 406 21.1. Functions of signaling 406 21.1.1. Evolution of signaling 406 21.1.2. Braking distance and signaling requirements 407 21.1.3. Traffic safety and regularity 407 21.1.4. The regulatory framework 407 21.1.5. Basic signaling functions 408 21.2. Semaphoric signaling 408 21.2.1. Visual and audible signals 408 21.2.2. Colours used in signals 408 21.2.3. Types of signals 408 21.3. Operating principles of light signaling ¿ The track circuit 409 21.3.1. Definition of light signaling 409 21.3.2. The track circuit 409 21.3.2.1. Definition 409 21.3.2.2. Operating principle of the track circuit 410 21.3.2.3. The block section 411 21.3.2.4. Types of track circuits 411 21.3.2.5. Track circuit relay 412 21.4. Equipment and parts of a signaling system 412 21.4.1. Light signals 413 21.4.2. Track switch control devices 413 21.4.3. Train integrity detectors 413 21.4.4. Approach locking detectors 414 21.4.5. Local operating and display board 414 21.4.6. Remote monitoring and control 414 21.4.6.1. Operating principles 414 21.4.6.2. Equipment 415 21.4.6.3. Remote monitoring - Control of traffic safety 415 21.4.7. Power supply equipment 415 21.5. Train running procedure in a light signaling system 416 21.5.1. Route interlock 416 21.5.2. Single track interlock 416 21.5.3. Approach interlock 416 21.5.4. Interlocking of opposite schedules 416 21.5.5. Free way interlocking 416 21.5.6. Light signal interlocking 416 21.5.7. Compatible and incompatible schedules 417 21.6. Train speed control 417 21.6.1. The various speed control systems 417 21.6.1.1. Automatic control and driver functions 417 21.6.1.2. Intermittent speed control 418 21.6.1.3. Continuous speed control 418 21.6.1.4. Speed control and interoperability 418 21.6.2. Technical characteristics of train speed control systems 418 21.6.2.1. Electromechanical control 418 21.6.2.2. Track-locomotive continuous communication system 419 21.7. Train scheduling 419 21.8. Calculation of the capacity of a track 420 21.9. Interoperability 421 21.9.1. Definition 421 21.9.2. Interoperability of track gauges 421 21.9.3. Interoperability of power systems 422 21.9.4. The European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS) 422 21.10. Safety measures at level crossings 424 21.11. Managing railway safety 425 22. Environmental Effects of Railways 426 22.1. Increasing threats for a harmful change in earth¿s environment and railways 426 22.2. Air pollution and railways 428 22.3. Noise pollution and railways 429 22.3.1. Origin and damping of noise from rail traffic 429 22.3.2. Methods of reduction of noise from rail traffic 429 22.4. Consumption of energy and railways 429 22.5. Accidents, safety and railways 430 22.6. Land use and landscape 431 22.7. Congestion 432 List of References 433 Abbreviations 455 Index 456
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Railroad engineering.