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Contents Acknowledgment List of List of 1. Introduction The Research Modeling the Evolution of Economic Change: the Strategy Location and Geology Other Research Context Overviews 2. Hoko River Archaeological Project History: Strategy, Procedures, and Public Policy The Hoko Rockshelter (45CA21): Discovery and Re-discovery Annual Summaries Laboratory Procedures and Data Control Tribal and Public Involvement 3. The Hoko Rockshelter Site: Context for Evaluation-Site Excavation and Stratigraphy Introduction Geologic and Cultural Setting of the Site Excavation Procedures Stratigraphy and Depositional Environment by Barbara Stucki I. Introduction II. Overview of Site Deposits III. Research Strategy IV. Details of Research Analyses V. Temporal and Spatial Patterns of Refuse Accumulation VI. Three-dimensional Model of Site Formation VII. Summary of Results 4. The Hoko Rockshelter Site: Context for Evaluation-Floral and Faunal Analysis Floral Remains Vertebrate Fauna by Rebecca J. Wigen Invertebrate Fauna 5. Hoko Rockshelter Artifact Analysis Introduction and Artifact Classification Hoko Rockshelter Artifact Distribution Artifact Material Categories and their Abundance Hoko Rockshelter Artifact Distribution by Material Artifact Type Functional Classification and Site Distribution I. Awls AI. Mammal Leg Bone Awls AII. Mammal Rib Awls AIV. Splinter Bird Bone Awls II. Harpoon Valves RI. Channelled Toggling Harpoon Valves used to Seat a Biconical Arming Point RII. Slotted Valves of Composite Toggle Heads used to seat a Flat Blade RIII. Flat End Toggling Harpoon Valve used to Seat a Wedge-based Arming Point RIV. Self-armed Valves of Toggling Harpoons RV. Harpoon Blanks Fragmented Harpoon Valves III. Harpoon Point Inserts SIId. Biconical Arming Points for RI Harpoon Points SIIc1. Wedge-based Arming Points for RIII Harpoon Points IV. Unilaterally Barbed "Arrows" (SIa) V. Long Thick Bone "Fishhook" Barbs SIIa. "Halibut" Bentwood Hook Barbs SIIe: Jigging/Trolling Beveled Fishhook Barbs TIIc. Jigging/Trolling Hook Barb with Scarffed End TIIa. Large, Rough Fishhook Barbs or Rake Teeth TIIb. Rough Large Fishhook Blanks VI. Small Thin Bone Bi-Points SIIc2. Wedge-based Small (< 0.35 cm thickness) Bone Bipoint Fishhook Barbs TIa. Beveled Base Small Bone Bipoints TIb. Small Flat Bi-points made of Bird (or Rodent) Bone TIc. Small Round to rectanguloid Cross-section Bi-points made of Mammal Bone VII. Bone and Antler Wedges EI. Wedges of Land Mammal Bone EII. Wedges of Antler EIII. Wedges of Sea Mammal Bone VIII. Wealth/Status Artifacts GIa. Spindle Whorl HII. Bark Beater Ua. Blanket/Hair Pins Ub. Pendants Uc. Dentalium Beads Ud. Punched Shell Bangles M. Combs IX. Ground Mussel Shell Artifacts X. Clam Shell Scrapers/Scoops/Bowls XI. Olivella Shell (Beads) XII. Stone Scraper XIII. Burins XIV. Biface XV. Cortex Flakes XVI. Cobble Tools XVII. Abraders/Whetstones XVIII. Hammer-stones XX. Ground Slate XXI. Net/Fishline Sinkers XXII. Anvil Stones XXIII. Cores (Cobble) XXIV. Choppers XXV. Incised Concretions XXVI. Bipolar Cores XXVII. Fishhook Shanks XXVII. Chipped Schist XXIX. Historic Artifacts Major Hoko Rockshelter Features-Hearths and Pits Northwest Coast Inter-site Stone/Bone-Antler/Shell Artifacts Comparisons 6. Summary and Conclusions Hoko Rockshelter Functional Characterization Who Used the Contact Period Hoko Rockshelter and How was the Overall Region Used? Combining the Functional Characteristics of the Hoko Rockshelter, Contact Period Use of Area, and Ozette Late Period Perishable Material Culture Ancient Patterning below State 8 Hoko Rockshelter in a Northwest Coast Overall Context Overview of the Hoko River Archaeological Complex and its Fit into the Developed Economic Modeling References List of Figures Chapter 1 Figure 1.1 Location of the Hoko River Site Complex in relation to the Pacific Ocean, Strait of Juan de Fuca, and other major watersheds in the region. Figure 1.2 The Hoko River archaeological site complex. Figure 1.3 Model of exponential population growth, with central Northwest Coast cultural "phase/types" representing stabilized economic plateaus separated by periods of rapid subsistence pattern changes and relatively rapid exponential population growth (see Croes and Hackenberger 1988, Croes 1988, 1992b, 1995). Figure 1.4 Diagrammatic outline of field strategies (especially regarding the Hoko Rockshelter) to best meet the data requirements of the research objectives. Chapter 2 Figure 2.0 Stored dynamite boxes found in the Hoko Rockshelter upon re-discovery (see Figure 5.121.1 below) Figure 2.1 Cross-section of Hoko Rockshelter with 1979 test excavation area. Figure 2.2 Surface scaffold supports in 1980 field season. Figure 2.3 Kevin Peters, right, Rockshelter Field Supervisor, and crew in 1982 excavations of central trench. Figure 2.3.1 The 1982 crew was the largest at Hoko River. Figure 2.4 Zone 2 interior living area North-South trench. Figure 2.5 Zone 1 deep interior trench excavation, north wall (N104). Chapter 3 Figure 3.1 Hoko Rockshelter (45CA21) shown as dashed in area with a 5 meter rod on present surface. At the time of excavation, the river entered the Strait of Juan de Fuca to the left (since 1990 it has shifted well to the west). Figure 3.2 Profile cross-section, showing major zones, and mouth cross-section of the Hoko Rockshelter (45CA21). Figure 3.3 Contour map of Hoko Rockshelter interior and exterior areas (0.5 M intervals, above mean sea level). Figure 3.3.1 Computer animated 3-D views of Hoko Rockshelter, counter clock-wise from north to south views (scale 6' person standing on lip of rockshelter). Figure 3.4 Map of inter-connected squares excavated, with depth reached, and locations of auger samples in Hoko Rockshelter (45CA21). Figure 3.4.1. 3-D illustration of stratigraphic sections in the three designated zones of the rockshelter: Zone 1: deep-interior, with little trampling and hearths starting to show up as it extends into Zone 2: interior living areas with dense layered floors and heath features, and Zone 3: exterior with secondary refuse extended down the slope Figure 3.5 Example of the complex stratigraphy characteristic of rockshelter shell midden. Note variations in deposition of charcoal (black), ash (speckeled), shell (S) and humus (slashed lines). Figure 3.6 Location and boundary of Hoko Rockshelter in relation to river and Kydaka Point and the rest of the archaeological complex (for final analysis of the Hoko Wet/Dry site (45CA213) see Croes 1995). Figure 3.7 Generalized stratigraphic drawing through interior Zone 2 of the rockshelter. Figure 3.8 Location of excavation units with one or more profile drawings. Figure 3.9 Isometric view of the Hoko Rockshelter site, showing the location of the excavation units on the interior of shelter. Bold lines delineate the location of stratigraphic profiles used in this study. Figure 3.10 Barbara Stucki, geoarchaeologist, draws Hoko Rockshelter stratigraphy using 10 cm string gride, rulers, board, and other drawing equipment. Figure 3.11 Stratigraphic drawing of exterior trench N102/W107-112 with Harris Matrix stratogram. Figure 3.12 Stratigraphic drawing of upper exterior trench N102/W104-107 with Harris Matrix stratogram. Figure 3.13 Stratigraphic drawing of walls W102/N100-102 with Harris Matrix stratogram example for wall W102/N100-101. Figure 3.14 Stratigraphic drawing of initial tested squares N101/W100-102 with Harris Matrix stratogram. Figure 3.15 Stratigraphic drawing of interior square (all four walls) N101/W100 with Harris Matrix stratogram. Figure 3.16 East wall of interior Zone 2 excavation along W100/N102-106 with Harris Matrix stratogram showing deeper excavation area in one square. Figure 3.17 Stratigraphic drawing of deep interior Zone 1 along N103/99-95W (drawing by Gwen Hurst). Figure 3.18 East wall of deepest area of interior excavation (Zone 1), wall 95W/103-104N (drawing by Gwen Hurst). Figure 3.19 Stratigraphic description form developed for recording layer composition in the field. Figure 3.20 Percentage of deposits with different constituent concentrations. Represents 1,342 layers with at least 10% concentration of one constituent by volume. Figure 3.21 Sedimentologic characteristics and granulometric indices for four samples from the Hoko Rockshelter, square N100/W100. Figure 3.22 A. Distribution and concentration of mosses from the floor as recorded before excavation of the Hoko Rockshelter; B. Distribution of vegetation in the rockshelter in 1980 before excavation; N: nettles, F: ferns, P: Indian plum, B: salmon berry bushes. Figure 3.23 Plan map of the interior of the Hoko Rockshelter showing the extent of areas that are protected from rainfall in the summer (summer dripline) and in the winter (shaded areas). The back of the shelter is wet in winter as a result of water flowing down the roof of the shelter. Figure 3.24 Results of experimental trampling to reconstruct rockshelter stratigraphy. A: a humus layer with shells of 3 mm size and containing three post molds; the two on the left have shells and the right one has a stake in the mold; B: a gravel layer underlain by a thin sandy layer/humus that had settled down from above; C: a shell layer with shells mostly larger than 1 cm; C2: a layer containing ash from a fire hearth; D: a sandy layer; E1: a gravelly layer containing some sand from D; E2: was a layer containing whole shells, but has now mixed with D and is no longer visible (layer consisted of a few scattered shells); E3: a sand layer; F: a humus layer with same matrix as A (by M. Rourke and C. Baker August 1981). Figure 3.25 North 101 wall from West 98-102 showing the squares in interior where the mudstone bedrock was reached. Figure 3.26 Vertical changes in layer type frequency, by State, for units N104/W100, N104/W100, and N100/W100*. Figure 3.27 North wall profile showing the eight states defined based on the distribution of layer types, faunal zones and sub-zones, and the distribution of high densities of artifacts and thermally altered rocks. Figure 3.28 Plan map of the Hoko Rockshelter showing the location and extent of excavation in each of the eight States. Figure 3.29 Computer generated density distribution maps of A. stone artifacts, B. bone artifacts, and C. worked bone and bone shavings in States 5-8. State 5: note wide dispersal of remains throughout the shelter; State 6: note the higher concentration of remains in refuse areas outside the shelter; State 7: note concentration of remains in two refuse areas, both at the southern end of the shelter; State 8: note the concentrations of remains in three refuse areas, one of which is at the northern end of the shelter. Figure 3.30 The stratigraphic sequence of unit N100/W102 shown in a Harris diagram. This sequence includes layers which were deposited stratigraphically between Layer 838 and Layer 4. Such individual sequences were combined to build the relative chronology for the entire site. Figure 3.31 (A) Stratigraphic sequence of deposits in the interior of the Hoko Rockshelter (see strata sequence in Figure 3.9). The chronological position of individual layers have been removed from this example diagram to highlight the many, distinct threads of activity. (B) The multilinear sequence is reduced to a matrix diagram which outlines different areas of recurrent deposition (L1-L12). Layers 28, 13, 270, 6 and features CE and CO of the reference sequence (bold line) are key time markers to correlate areas of activity. Figure 3.32 Example of stratigraphic time scale of the Hoko Rockshelter interior (cf. Figures 3.12 and 3.13) showing the degree of correspondence in the relative chronological position of different areas of activity. The reference sequence is partitioned into nine stratigraphic units (S5-S13) which also represent areas of recurrent deposition. Figure 3.33 Example of 3-D formation of the interior areas in the Hoko Rockshelter, showing the location of areas of activity at various points in time (cf. Figures 3.12- 3.14). The thickness of each area of activity represents the number of layers that were deposited in sequence at that location. Figure 3.34 Example of characteristic deposits of different areas of activity in the Hoko Rockshelter interior. Figure 3.35 Example characteristic features of different areas of activity in the Hoko Rockshelter interior through time. Chapter 4 Figure 4.1 Seed percentage from all column samples. Figure 4.2 Column 12 seed samples by cultural layer number. Figure 4.3 Column 1 seed samples by cultural layer number. Figure 4.4 Column 4 seed samples by cultural layer number. Figure 4.5 Column 5 seed samples by cultural layer number. Figure 4.6 Column 1981 seed samples by cultural layer number. Figure 4.7 Facies layer seed samples by facies layer number. Figure 4.7.1 Control Squares seed samples by control square. Figure 4.8 Percentages of berry seeds identified at the Hoko wet site (45CA213), Hoko Rockshelter (45CA21), and Ozette site (45CA24). Figure 4.8.1 Author Rebecca Wigen working on vertebrate fauna analysis in field lab tent at Hoko River. Figure 4.9 Vertebrate fauna density, elements per cubic meter by State. Total NISP of 55,213 bones. Figure 4.10 Fish density, elements per cubic meter by State. Total NISP for figure: 44,305, representing fish with over 1,000 elements identified. Figure 4.11 Mammal density, elements per cubic meter by State. Total NISP for figure: 3.275, representing mammals with 40+ elements identified. Figure 4. 11.1 Drawing of crushed northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris) skull found in Rockshelter exterior Zone 3 in 1883 excavations (illustration by Robin Pederson). Figure 4.12 Bird density, elements per cubic meter by State. Total NISP for figure: 2,704 representing bird groups with over 140 elements. Figure 4.13 Percentage NISP and MNI for red Irish lord, greenling and salmon by Hoko Rockshelter State. Figure 4.14 Percentage NISP and MNI for porpoise, fur seal and deer/elk by Hoko Rockshelter State. Figure 4.15 Percent of shell weight, raw shelled meat weight (RSMW) and minimum number of individuals (MNI) for the horizontal samples in the Hoko Rockshelter (after Miller 1983:98-100). Figure 4.16 Estimated meat weight (RSMW) by State from the Hoko Rockshelter test unit 1 (T.U. 1) (after Miller 1983:125 and Croes 1984:27). Figure 4.17 Estimated meat weight (RSMW) by State from the Hoko Rockshelter column samples (from Croes and Hackenberger 1988:69). Figure 4.18 Percentage of resource use by State, derived from the Hoko Rockshelter faunal remains estimated in calories/cubic meter (see data, Croes and Hackenberger 1988:70). States 4-8 (*) have a larger proportional sample (cubic meters) represented for site excavation area; they are used as the best representative sample. Shellfish data are based on mean meat-weight/10 cubic cm in 61 column samples. Fish and waterfowl caloric estimates are based on element counts/cubic meter (Wigen above). Land and sea mammal caloric estimates are based on MNI/cubic meters (Wigen above). Figure 4.19 California Mussell (Mytilus californicus) mean age at harvest and standard deviation from four rockshelter States and modern examples collected in the 1980s (Ancient sample = 693, modern sample = 293. Bars through the rectangles indicate means). Figure 4.20 Protothaca s. seasonality for overall Hoko Rockshelter and Ozette site distributions (after Miller 1983:127, Wessen 1983:69, Hurst 1986). Figure 4.21 California mussel (Mytilus californianus) harvest season with mean (and curve) and standard deviation through a sequence of States. Figure 4.22 Common mussel (Mytilus edulis) harvest season with mean (and curve) and standard deviation through a sequence of States. Figure 4.23 Littleneck clams (Protothaca staminea) harvest season with mean (and curve) and standard deviation through a sequence of States. Figure 4.24 Summary of shellfish seasonality calculated from three different species by State. Figure 4.25 California mussel age versus length. (after data from Hurst 1986). Figure 4.26 Distribution of all shell by weight. Figure 4.27 Distribution of the fragmentation index (count/weight). Note the funneling down of these debrea in what appears to be a trail from the rockshelter from the northwest corner of the shelter. Figure 4.28 Distribution of fire cracked rock (FCR) by weight. Note the funneling down of these debrea in what appears to be a trail from the rockshelter from the northwest corner of the shelter. Chapter 5 Figure 5. 1 Location of excavated sites in Makah, Ditidaht, and Nuu-chah-nulth West Coast areas most referred to in comparison to Hoko Rockshelter artifacts. Figure 5.1.1 Common bone biconical harpoon insert in situ in the Hoko Rockshelter (Type SIId). Figure 5. 2 Comparison of the Hoko Rockshelter (N=1,484) and Ozette "A" Trench artifact (N=577) functional categories following McKenzie 1974 classification, and excluding Hoko Rockshelter worked bone fragments. Figure 5. 3 Major Hoko Rockshelter artifact categories by zone. Figure 5. 4 Major artifact categories (those with over 50 examples) by states in all zones. Figure 5. 5 Major artifact categories (those with over 50 examples) by states in Zone 1 deep-interior of the Hoko Rockshelter. Figure 5.6 Major artifact categories (those with over 50 examples) by states in Zone 2 interior activity area of Hoko Rockshelter. Figure 5.7 Major artifact categories (those with over 50 examples) by states in Zone 3 exterior activity area of the Hoko Rockshelter. Figure 5.7.1 Example of common small bone bi-point in situ with a broken sea urchin spin base in lower part of picture. Figure 5. 8 Artifact functional sets for all Hoko Rockshelter zones (1-3). Figure 5. 9 Artifact functional sets for zone 1 deep-interior of Hoko Rockshelter. Figure 5. 10 Artifact functional sets for zone 2 interior living area of Hoko Rockshelter. Figure 5. 11 Artifact functional sets for zone 3 exterior activity area of Hoko Rockshelter. Figure 5. 11.1 Procurement artifacts by state and zone and by expected frequency. Figure 5. 12 Manufacturing artifacts by state and zone and by expected frequency. Figure 5. 13 Food Processing artifacts by state and zone and by expected frequency. Figure 5. 14 Examples of small Hoko Rockshelter mammal leg bone awls, Type AI, front (left) and back (right) views. Figure 5. 15 Examples of larger Hoko Rockshelter mammal leg bone awls, Type AI, front (left) and back (right) views. Figure 5. 16 Distribution of Type AI splintered bird bone awls by state and zone (N=40). Figure 5. 17 Example of bone awl used to perforate cedar slat [or split root bundle] to allow root strand to pass through. Reprinted with permission of the artist, Hilary Stewart. Figure 5. 18 AII mammal rib awl from Hoko Rockshelter site. Figure 5. 19 Examples of Hoko Rockshelter bird bone awls, Type AIV, front and back views. Figure 5. 20 Reconstructed exploded view of four main harpoon valve types (RI-RIV) as found at the Yuquot Site. Figure 5. 21 Composite harpoon terminology and measurement areas (after McKenzie 1974:81). Figure 5. 22 Cache of five sets of harpoon valves (3 RI, 2 with points, 2 RIII with points) in State 7 of the rockshelter deep-interior. Figure 5. 23 Cached sets of harpoon points in rockshelter deep-interior, three RI valved (left) and two RIII valved (right) harpoons placed together (cm scale). Figure 5. 24 Cached sets of harpoon points in rockshelter deep-interior, three RI valved (left) and two RIII valved (right) harpoons placed together and opened up (cm scale). Figure 5. 25 Complete harpoon valves (RI) and insert point (SIId) 103/96/.20/12 from the cache. Figure 5. 26 Other complete valves (RI) and point insert (SIId) found cached in lower area of the deep- interior rockshelter (103/96/.60/2, open and both sides, cm scale). Figure 5. 27 Isolated RI valves (inside view) found in Hoko Rockshelter. Note how these are typically broken valves that have been discarded. Figure 5. 28 Outside view (see figure 5.27) of isolated RI harpoon valves found in Hoko Rockshelter. Again note how these are often broken, discarded harpoon valves. Figure 5. 29 Examples of Ozette wet site harpoons with cherry bark bindings. They appear to be RI type harpoon valves. Figure 5. 30 Two-pronged channel valved harpoon (RI) described as a salmon harpoon (reprinted from Underhill 1945:21, Office of Indian Education Program, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington D.C.). Figure 5. 31 Fur seal hunter prepares to throw harpoon from rear finger rests into sleeping seal (Kirk 1986:221). Figure 5. 32 Example of harpoon finger rest found at Ozette wet site. Figure 5. 33 Two prong harpoons found in Ozette wet site houses. Figure 5. 34 Back and inside of three RII harpoon valves (l-r: 100/101/DT/5, 102/98/1.25/3 (sea mammal bone), 101/100/CY/1 (antler)). Figure 5. 35 Side view of large RII harpoon valve (102/98/1.25/3) (scale in cm). Figure 5. 36 Example of Ozette RII harpoon valves with mussel shell blades, string binding and found in cedar bark sheath (from Pictures of Record). Figure 5. 37 Decorated RII harpoon valve from the Hoko Rockshelter site (102/98/1.25/3; Scale 1 cm). Figure 5. 38 Yuquot RII harpoon valve with identical design incised as found on one from Hoko Rockshelter (Scale 1 cm). Figure 5. 39 Hilary Stewarts illustrations depicting well the composition of RII valve type whaling harpoons (1996:110). Figure 5. 40 Inside and back of isolated RIII harpoon valves (l: 100/99/EM/4, r: 99/100-102/SL/19). Figure 5. 41 Inside, side and outside view of single RIV harpoon valve found at the Hoko Rockshelter (106/105/1.00/1; Scale 1 cm). Figure 5. 42 Inside view of RV harpoon blanks, in order as in Table 5.13 l-r. Figure 5. 43 Outside view of RV harpoon blanks, in order as in Table 5.13 l-r. Figure 5. 44 Shaped antler tang that could represent a start on a harpoon valve (100/101/DR/1, Scale 1 cm). Figure 5. 45 Site comparisons of harpoon valve types. Figure 5. 46 Examples (1) of SIId harpoon arming points from the Hoko Rockshelter. Figure 5. 47 Example (2) of SIId harpoon arming points from the Hoko Rockshelter. Figure 5. 48 SIIc1 harpoon arming points with flat and side (wedge) view. Figure 5. 49 Distribution by State of SIId and SIIc1 type harpoon points as percentage of all artifacts. Note that percentage scales are different and that State 1 and 2 have low numbers of artifacts. Figure 5. 50 Distribution by Zones of SIId and SIIc1 type harpoon points from top to bottom. Figure 5. 51 Unilaterally barbed projectile point fragments from the Hoko Rockshelter. Figure 5. 51.1 Most complete unilaterally barbed projectile point from the Hoko Rockshelter (100/101/TU1/151). Figure 5. 52 Examples of SIIa "halibut" hook barbs from the Hoko Rockshelter (scale in cm). Figure 5. 53 Example of Ozette wet site halibut hook barb in wooden shank bound with cherry bark binding. Figure 5. 54 Drawing of complete Ozette halibut hook with wooden shank, SIId bone barb held by cherry bark binding (illustration by Chris Walsh). Figure 5. 55 SIIa "halibut" hook barb in Ozette wet site halibut hook and also bound as an awl. Both have wooden shanks and are bound with cherry bark (from Friedman 1976:164). Figure 5. 56 SIIe beveled "jigging/trolling fishhook" barbs (scale in cm). Figure 5. 57 Examples of uni-barb "jigging/trolling" Ozette wet site fishhooks with wooden shanks, bone barbs and cherry bark binding. Figure 5. 58 Drawing of a uni-barb "jigging/trolling" Ozette wet site fishhook (illustration by Chris Walsh). Figure 5. 59 Examples of bi-barb bound fishhooks from the Ozette wet site. All have wooden shanks bound with cherry bark strips. The two on the left have bone barbs classified as SIIc2 (see below) and the larger one on the right appears to have SIIe beveled barbs or TIIc scarffed based barbs types considered here (from Friedman 1976:64). Figure 5. 60 Examples of TIIc jigging/trolling hook barbs with scarffed ends from the Hoko Rockshelter (scale in cm). Figure 5. 61 Examples of TIIa bone bipoints from the Hoko Rockshelter (scale in cm). Figure 5. 62 TIIb. Rough large bone bi-point blanks from the Hoko Rockshelter (scale in cm). Figure 5. 63 Wedge-based SIIc2 bi-points from the Hoko Rockshelter (scale in cm). Figure 5. 64 Examples of bi-barb Ozette wet site fishhooks with SIIc2 bone bi-points--some separated to show wedge-shaped base of bone barbs. Figure 5. 65 Drawing of bi-barb Ozette wet site hooks (illustration by Chris Walsh). Figure 5. 66 Small Ozette wet site bi-barb fishhook show elaborate cherry bark binding over a wooden shank. Figure 5. 67 Set of Ozette wet site bi-barb fishhooks found in a cedar bark fishing tackle bag with extra wrapping materials, wooden shanks, sandstone abrader for sharpening bone bi-barbs and other materials. Figure 5. 68 Example of TIa beveled base small bone bipoints from the Hoko Rockshelter (scale in cm). Figure 5. 69 Examples of TIb small flat bi-points made of bird (or rodent) bone from the Hoko Rockshelter, front and back (scale in cm). Figure 5. 70 TIc bird bone bi-point inserted into the weave of a "food" basket with a braid handle at the Ozette wet site (Illustration by Chris Walsh). Figure 5. 71 Close-up of TIc bird bone bi-point drawing as found in a "food" basket from the Ozette wet site (Illustration by Chris Walsh). Figure 5. 72 Examples of TIc mammal bone bi-points from the Hoko Rockshelter (scale in cm). Figure 5. 73 EI bone wedges/chisels (medullary cavity and outside surfaces of bone) from Hoko Rockshelter. Figure 5. 74 Outer and inner surfaces of EII antler wedges from the Hoko Rockshelter. Figure 5. 75 Outside and inside split surface of EIII mammal bone wedges or levers. Figure 5. 76 Whale bone vertebral epiphysis spindle whorl from the Hoko Rockshelter (102/97/SL/14; scale in cm). Figure 5. 77 Wooden spindle whorl on shaft found under bench/bed platform along south wall of House 1 at Ozette (U.S. quarter for scale). Figure 5. 78 Examples of wooden spindle whorls with elaborate designs from the Ozette Village wet site. Figure 5. 79 Sea mammal bone, bark beater blank (?) showing areas of worn/work encircled (100/97/CQ&CR/1, scale in cm). Figure 5. 80 Carved bone blanket or hair pin with bird carving at end (100/99/EG/1, scale in cm). Figure 5. 81 Illustration of Hoko Rockshelter bone blanket or hair pin (Drawing by Robin Pederson). Figure 5. 82 Top: shell, mother-of-pearl pendant (103/95.5/.40/8); bottom l to r: 101/100/DJ/1, 103/98/.60/1, 105/99/.70/4, 106/98/.75/2. Figure 5. 83 Illustration of pendants 101/100/DJ/1 (illustration by Ann Cody) and 106/98/.75/2 (illustration by Samantha Thoe-Schechter) (Scale in cm.). Figure 5. 84 Dentalia shell beads from the Hoko Rockshelter, l to r: 104/100/.90/1, 102/98/.40/2, and 109/104/.10/1 (scale in cm). Figure 5. 85 Punched clam shell bangles from the Hoko Rockshelter site, scallops in top row, l to r: 103/96/.20/7 and 101/101/.45/2; middle left cockle: 103/96/.30/5; middle central littleneck clam: 103/96/.30/1; bottom row butterneck clams, l to r: 102/105/.10/1 and 104/100/.40/1 (scale in cm). Figure 5. 86 Probable comb tooth, all sides, from Hoko Rockshelter (104/100/1.15/1, scale in cm). Figure 5. 87 Examples of ground mussel scrapers/knives/planers from the Hoko Rockshelter, front (inside) and back (occlusal; scale in cm). Figure 5. 88 Mussel shell ground celts/chisels from the Hoko Rockshelter, inside and outside (scale in cm). Figure 5. 89 Example of ground mussel shell projectile points from the Hoko Rockshelter (scale in cm). Figure 5. 90 Ground mussel shell artifact distribution by zone and State. Expected based on cubic meters excavate. Figure 5. 91 Examples of clam shell scrapers/scoop/ladles/bowls from the Hoko Rockshelter (Scale in cm). All examples are horse clams (Schizothoenus capas and/or Tresus nuttalli), accept the two lower left hand examples, which are butter clam (Saxidomus giganteus) pieces. Red ochre paint residue can be seen in the upper left example and the center right siphon area piece. Figure 5. 92 Two sides of the Olivella shell (beads) from the Hoko Rockshelter. The top three rows have holes ground in their distal ends (four to right in 3rd row are broken). The fourth row from top are random olivella that did not have ground holes in their distal ends. The bottom two rows were found in a cache together in squares 103/98/.15-.30 area, and only one had a hole ground at the distal end-and since they are the majority of the examples without holes ground, they must have been stored for later processing. Figure 5. 93 Ground holes on distal end of Olivilla shell beads for stringing at the Hoko Rockshelter site (scale in cm). Figure 5. 94 Examples of Type VI "backed scrapers" from the Hoko Rockshelter, front and back (scale in cm). Figure 5. 95 Examples of large Type VII spall flake "scrapers" from the Hoko Rockshelter (scale in cm). Figure 5. 96 Example of smaller Type VII spall flake "scrapers" from the Hoko Rockshelter (scale in cm). Figure 5. 97 Cortex spall tool (V) being formed through bi-polar purcussion and used to fillet salmon Reprinted with permission of the artist, Hilary Stewart. Figure 5. 98 Examples of Hoko Rockshelter burins showing directions for taking off the burin spalls. Figure 5. 99 Type X bifacially worked tool from the Hoko Rockshelter (102/98/ /10; scale in cm). Figure 5. 100 Examples of Type Y cortex flakes from the Hoko Rockshelter, front and back (scale in cm). Figure 5. 101 Examples of Type AA cobble tool or plane from the Hoko Rockshelter, flat side and other side. Figure 5. 102 Examples of BBI tapered and formed abraders/whetstones, front and back, from the Hoko Rockshelter (scale in cm). Figure 5. 103 Example of Type BBII irregular abrader stone, front and back, with grooving on upper left of left side, and piddock clam drill holes on right, back, side. This sandstone must have been collected from beach and not from outcrop quarry since it has piddock clam drill holes evident (scale in cm). Figure 5. 104 Example of irregular flat Type BBII abraders from the Hoko Rockshelter (note grooves in lower left hand example; scale in cm). Figure 5. 105 Example of Type BBII abraders from the Hoko Rockshelter with heaving grooving on surface (scale in cm). Figure 5. 106 Example of Type BBII stone "slab" abraders (too large to conveniently hold in the hand) from the Hoko Rockshelter (scale in cm). Figure 5. 107 Examples of Type DD hammerstones from the Hoko Rockshelter, white circles indicate hammer battering and dark circles indicate areas of anvil base battering (scale in cm). Figure 5. 108 Examples of Type HH ground slate artifacts from the Hoko Rockshelter, both sides (scale in cm). Figure 5. 109 Pecked and girdled stone anchor stone from Hoko Rockshelter, both sides shown on left, right view to accentuate the pecked groove (95/97/CC/1, scale in cm). Figure 5. 110 Examples of Type JJ anvil stones from the Hoko Rockshelter (circles indicate pock marks from use as anvil; scale in cm). Figure 5. 111 More examples of Type JJ anvil stones from the Hoko Rockshelter (circles indicate pock marks from use as anvil; scale in cm). Figure 5. 112 Examples of Type KK stone cores from the Hoko Rockshelter (scale in cm). Figure 5. 113 More examples of Type KK stone cores from the Hoko Rockshelter (scale in cm). Figure 5. 114 Examples of Type LL stone choppers from the Hoko Rockshelter, front and back. White circled areas show signs of wear from chopping actions, dark circles show signs of pock marks from use of chopper surface as anvil stone. Figure 5. 115 Examples of incised concretions from the Hoko Rockshelter . The upper example has two lines incised across on surface (left picture) and the lower example has cross-hatching on one surface (left) and series of lines on adjacent surface (right). Note that the lower example is in two pieces, and one must have been effected by a fire or some other exposure since the two halves are of very different colors at this time. Figure 5. 116 Natural "bowl" shaped mudstone/limestone concretions that may have been used as small containers. Figure 5. 117 Examples of Type Z bipolar cores from the Hoko Rockshelter, front and back. Arrows indicate the direction of bi-polar percussion from stricks by hammer stone. Figure 5. 118 More examples of Type Z bipolar cores from the Hoko Rockshelter, front and back. Arrows indicate the direction of bi-polar percussion from stricks by hammer stone. Figure 5. 119 Ground slate fishhook shank from the Hoko Rockshelter, all sides (100/99/EK/5; scale in cm). Figure 5. 120 Example of chipped schist from the Hoko Rockshelter, both sides (102/98/.95/1, scale in cm). Figure 5. 120.1 Principal Investigator, Dale Croes, inspects dynamite boxes found on surface of rockshelter interior when rediscovered. Figure 5. 121 The historic artifacts from the Hoko Rockshelter. All metals appear to be copper or brass, ceramic pieces appear to be the same pattern of blue on white, and probably from the same vessel. Figure 5. 122 Horizontal and vertical plots of Hoko Rockshelter hearth features type I-IV. Figure 5. 123 Illustration of how clastic hearths (subtype IIIa) were quarter-sectioned in excavation. Excavator David Chapman labelled each hearth cooking stone so an example of this type of hearth could be reconstructed in the lab or for museum display. Figure 5.123.1 Drawing of cross-section excavation with facing stratigraphy for hearth feature in Unit 100N-99W Feature 66F. Figure 5. 124 Excavation photographs of clastic hearth (type IIIa, Layer 66F) including 3-D. Figure 5. 125 Three dimensional photograph and drawing of clastic hearth (subtype IIIa, Layer 66F). Figure 5. 126 Stratigraphic profile and Harris Matrix layer number designations in States 7 and 8 illustrating a x-section of a clastic hearth (subtype IIIa) at bottom of State 7. Figure 5. 127 Example of a hearth sequencing through time in rockshelter stratigraphy. Figure 5. 128 Horizontal and vertical plots of Hoko Rockshelter pit features, types V-VI. Figure 5. 129 Complete, furthest neighbor, linkage dendrogram with Euclidian distance measurement of 11 West Coast site assemblages, using stone, bone-antler, and shell artifact variables (N=70). Figure 5. 130 Complete, furthest neighbor, linkage dendrogram with Euclidian distance measurement of 50 Gulf of Georgia, Puget Sound, Straits of Juan de Fuca and West Coast site assemblages, using stone, bone-antler, and shell artifact variables (N=70). Chapter 6 Figure 6.1 Patterning of primary and secondary refuse in State 8; based on the generalized composite distribution of depositional areas (Zones 1-3) in all three auger levels (surface-10 cm, 10-20 cm, 20- 30cm) (after Peter 1986:184). Figure 6.2 Facilities (features) identified in the 0.0-0.10, 0.10-0.20, 0.20-0.30 m levels in State 8 excavation units. Small numerals indicate auger sample locations and large numerals (circled) designate defined depostional areas in each of the three auger levels in State 8 (after Peter 1986). Figure 6.3 General locations of activities in a 3-D view (looking north) of the Hoko Rockshelter. Figure 6.4 How the channels of a river separate and recombine (after Moore 1994:930). Figure 6.5 Model of exponential population growth, with central Northwest Coast cultural "phase/types" representing stabilized economic plateaus separated by periods of rapid, quantum, subsistence pattern changes and relatively rapid exponential population growth. Figure 6.6 Dendrogram representing an average linkage cluster analysis of Northwest Coast wet site basketry attributes (modes) phylogenesis on a matrix of Jaccard's Coefficient. Figure 6.6.1 Unrooted tree diagram based on PAUP software-Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony- statistical test of Northwest Coast wet site basketry attributes (modes). Figure 6.7 Regions of basketry style phylogenetic continuity on the Northwest Coast. Figure 6.8 Hypothetical stylistic/ethnic phylogenetic continuity patterns, based on basketry artifact analyses which cross-cut ethnogenetic phase designations based on Central Coast SB-AS artifacts. Figure 6.9 Example of proposed phylogenesis tree diagram of Coast Salish basketry style and proposed ethnic inter-connections for 3,000 years. See this as Area C on map (Figure 6.7) and cladogram (Figure 6.6 and 6.6.1, above). List of Tables Chapter 2 Table 2. 1 Radiocarbon dates from the Hoko Rockshelter site. Chapter 3 Table 3.1 Frequency of layers with varying numbers of constituents (diversity) - 1% concentration level. Table 3.2 Proportion of layers containing varying concentrations of constituents (N=1,342). Table 3.3 Frequency of layers with varying numbers of constituents (diversity) - 10% concentrated level. Table 3.4 Layers sorted by type and size. LNS: humus, little/no shell; LMS: humus, moderate shell; DNS: humus, charcoal, little/no shell; PS: pure shell; A: ash; S: silty sand; SA: sand (after Moreno and Klein 1982). Table 3.5 Layer types in the Hoko Rockshelter shell midden. Table 3.6 Column samples with composition (weight per cubic cm), sorted by layer type (to be defined below). Table 3.7 pH by sediment type in the Hoko Rockshelter (45CA21; after Moreno and Klein 1982). Table 3.8 Frequency of different classified layer types by State. Table 3.9 Composition of areas of activity based on the percentage of different types of layers (excluding features). Table 3.10 Distribution of hearth and pit features per area of activity. Stake- and postmoulds were not included in this analysis. This accounts for the low frequency of layers in some areas. Chapter 4 Table 4.1 Common and scientific names of vertebrate taxa identified from Hoko Rockshelter (45CA21). Fish names taken from Hart (1973); mammal names taken from Banfield (1974); bird names taken from Campbell et. al. (1989). Table 4.2 NISP and density of fish bones from the Hoko Rockshelter (45CA21). Table 4.3 MNI and density of fish bones from the Hoko Rockshelter (45CA21). Table 4.4 NISP and density of mammal bones from Hoko Rockshelter (45CA21). Table 4.5 MNI and density of mammal bones from the Hoko Rockshelter (45CA21). Table 4.6 NISP and density of bird bones from the Hoko Rockshelter (45CA21). Table 4.7 NISP and density of grouped bird taxa from the Hoko Rockshelter (45CA21). Table 4.8 MNI and density of bird bones from the Hoko Rockshelter (45CA21). Table 4.9 MNI and density of grouped bird taxa from the Hoko Rockshelter (45CA21). Table 4.10 Volume (in cubic meters) of States used for calculating density of NISP and MNI at the Hoko Rockshelter. Table 4.11 The proportions of elements in complete individuals of salmon, flatfish, rockfish, gadids, greenling and red Irish lord. Table 4.12 Proportion of major skeletal categories (cranium, suspensorium, pectoral girdle, branchials, tail assemblage and vertebrae) between species (from Wigen, Crockford and Stucki, 1990). Table 4.13 Comparison of salmon elements from various Northwest Coast sites. ? = not counted. (from Wigen, Crockford and Stucki, 1990). Table 4.14 Combined Ozette Village wet site (45CA24) House 1 and 2 salmon bones by body portion (after Huelsbeck 1983). Table 4.15 Comparison of percent of rockfish elements from various Northwest Coast sites. Table 4.16 Summary of elements for flatfish, greenling and red Irish lord from the Hoko Rockshelter. Table 4.17 Fur seal bone element summary for the Hoko Rockshelter. Table 4.18 Elk and deer bone element summary for the Hoko Rockshelter. Table 4.19 Anatidae (ducks, geese, swans) bird element summary for the Hoko Rockshelter. Table 4.20 Grebes bird element summary for the Hoko Rockshelter. Table 4.21 Loons bird element summary for the Hoko Rockshelter. Table 4.22 Alcids bird element summary for the Hoko Rockshelter. Table 4.23 Bird element percentages compared between Northwest Coast sites. Table 4.24 Ericson's (1987) ratio for bird limbs (wing to leg) among sites. * means no specimens in this taxon. Table 4.25 Intertidal species list for the Hoko Rockshelter (after Miller 1983:95). Table 4.26 Technological items used in procurement, preparation and use of intertidal resources. Note that this list does not exhaust possibilities. Based on ethnographic sources (Boas 1913; Drucker 1951; Ellis and Swan 1981; Gunther 1927; Haberlin and Gunther 1930; Jewitt 1893; Miller, Flynn, et. al. 1981; Stern 1934; Suttles 1974; Swan 1869, 1971, 1972). Table 4.27 Methods of cooking and storing intertidal resources. X = primary or preferred method; + = other methods used; ? = not known; 0 = hardly ever or never. Based on ethnographic sources (Boas 1913; Drucker 1951; Ellis and Swan 1981; Gunther 1927; Haberlin and Gunther 1930; Jewitt 1893; Miller, Flynn, et. al. 1981; Stern 1934; Suttles 1974; Swan 1869, 1971, 1972). Table 4.28 Location of food preparation and use for intertidal resources. This table reports most common methods of preparation found in the literature and does not exhaust all of the possible means of preparation for each species. Based on ethnographic and historic sources (Boas 1913; Drucker 1951; Ellis and Swan 1981; Gunther 1927; Haberlin and Gunther 1930; Jewitt 1893; Miller, Flynn, et. al. 1981; Stern 1934; Suttles 1974; Swan 1869, 1971, 1972). Table 4.29 Preferences and taboos concerning intertidal fauna. This table reports most common preferences and taboos found in the literature and does not exhaust all of the possible means of preparation for each species. Based on ethnographic and historic sources (Boas 1913; Drucker 1951; Ellis and Swan 1981; Gunther 1927; Haberlin and Gunther 1930; Jewitt 1893; Miller, Flynn, et. al. 1981; Stern 1934; Suttles 1974; Swan 1869, 1971, 1972). Chapter 5 Table 5. 1 Hoko Rockshelter and Ozette "A" trench artifacts by construction material (Note: Ozette "A" trench data from MacKenzie 1974). Table 5. 2 Hoko Rockshelter artifact construction material by zone. Note: ( ) represents percentages. Table 5. 3 Hoko Rockshelter major artifact construction materials by State. Note: ( ) represents percentages; * from Wigen and Stucki 1988:102. Table 5. 4 Hoko Rockshelter artifact functional categories. MacKenzie's artifact class designations are indicated in parentheses. Table 5. 5 Hoko Rockshelter artifact functional categories by zone. Note: ( ) represent percentages. Table 5. 6 Hoko Rockshelter major artifact categories by state. Note: ( ) represents percentages in rows and columns; * from Wigen and Stucki 1988:102 and above; Major artifact categories, with 50 or more examples, are: I. awls, II. harpoon valves, III. Harpoon inset points, V. Long "fishhook?" bi-points, VI. Small bi-points, IX. Mussel shell knives, XVII. Abraders, XXX. Worked Bone Fragments. Table 5. 7 Bone Awl Measurements (cm). Table 5. 8 Measurements of splintered bird bone awls (Type AIV) from the Yuquot site (cm). Table 5. 9 RI. Channelled (distal end) Toggling Harpoon Valve Measurements. Table 5. 10 RII. Slotted Valves of Composite Toggle Heads Measurements. Table 5. 11 RIII. Flat (distal end) Valves of Composite Toggle Heads Measurements. Note: See Figure 5.21 for measurement areas. Note: The complete sets with points had wedge-shaped arming points measuring (in cm). Table 5. 12 RIV. Self Armed Valves of Composite Toggle Heads Measurements. Table 5. 13 RV. Harpoon Blank Measurements. Table 5. 14 Hoko Rockshelter harpoon valve fragments. Table 5. 15 Summary of harpoon types found from Hoko, Ozette and Yuquot. Measurements are in cm and are the Mean Values. * Ozette wet site harpoons are not clearly defined, but from artifact list these appear to be the proper harpoon types designated. Also all Ozette wet site harpoon valves are listed as possibly made of wood, a material not preserved in the other sites and may effect their totals and the comparisons once clarified. Table 5. 16 SIId. Harpoon RI Arming Point Measurements (cm). Table 5. 17 SIIc1. Harpoon RIII Arming Point Measurements (cm). Table 5. 18 SIa Unilaterally Barbed "Arrow" Point Measurements. Table 5. 19 SIIa "Halibut" Hook Barb Measurements (cm). Table 5. 20 SIIe: Jigging/Trolling Beveled Fishhook Barb Measurements (cm). Table 5. 21 TIIc. Jigging/trolling hook barb with scarffed end measurements (cm). Table 5. 22 TIIa. Large, rough fishhook barbs or rake teeth measurements (cm). Table 5. 23 TIIb. Rough large fishhook blanks measurements (cm). Table 5. 24 SIIc2. Wedge-based small bone bi-point fishhook barbs measurements (cm). Table 5. 25 TIa. Beveled base small bone bipoints measurements (cm). Table 5. 26 TIb. Small flat bi-points made of bird (or rodent) bone measurements (cm). Table 5. 27 TIc. Small round to rectanguloid cross-section bi-points made of mammal bone measurements (cm). Table 5. 28 EI Wedges of land mammal bone measurements (cm). Table 5. 29 EII wedges of antler measurements (cm). Table 5. 30 EIII wedges of sea mammal bone measurements (cm). Table 5. 31 IX. ground mussel shell artifacts measurements (cm) from the Hoko Rockshelter. Table 5. 32 V. "Scraper" cortex spall tool artifacts measurements (cm) from Hoko Rockshelter. Table 5. 33 Type Y cortex flakes measurements (cm) from the Hoko Rockshelter. Table 5. 34 Type AA cobble plane tool measurements (cm) from the Hoko Rockshelter. Table 5. 35 XVII. abrader/whetstone artifacts measurements (cm). Table 5. 36 Type DD hammer stone artifacts measurements (cm) from the Hoko Rockshelter. Table 5. 37 Type HH ground slate artifacts measurements (cm) from the Hoko Rockshelter. Table 5. 38 Type EEII single grooved cobble/sinkers measurements (cm). Table 5. 39 Type JJ stone anvilstone measurements (cm) from the Hoko Rockshelter. Table 5. 40 Type KK stone cores measurements (cm) from the Hoko Rockshelter. Table 5. 41 Type LL stone chopper measurements (cm) from the Hoko Rockshelter. Table 5. 42 Type Z bipolar core measurements (cm) from the Hoko Rockshelter. Table 5. 43 Feature record form used by excavators at the Hoko Rockshelter site. Table 5. 44 Feature layer types and subtypes with criteria for defining each type given (after Miksa 1984). Table 5. 45 Feature types (and subtypes) with layer associations given. The layer types are shown in the order they appear, top to bottom. For example, the first feature in feature type IV has 3 layers: the first layer is layer type 5, the second is 2 A, and the third, or bottom, layer is 1 B. Table 5.46 Presence (1)-absence (0) of stone, bone-antler, and shell artifact list for Hoko Rockshelter and Gulf of Georgia, Puget Sound, Straits of Juan de Fuca and West Coast sites.
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Hoko River Sites (Wash.).
Indians of North America -- Washington (State) -- Hoko River Watershed -- Antiquities.
Indians of North America -- Implements -- Washington (State) -- Hoko River Watershed.
Excavations (Archaeology) -- Washington (State) -- Hoko River Watershed.
Hoko River Watershed (Wash.) -- Antiquities.