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PART ONE / ABOUT THE LICHENS. 1 Lichens: The Organism 3 What Lichens Are 3 What Lichens Are Not 3 The Components 4 The Fungi, 4 The Photobionts, 4 Picking a Partner 6 The Lichen Association 6 The Mysterious Transformation 8 2 How Lichens Are Built: Thallus Shapes and Structure 9 Growth Forms 9 Foliose Lichens, 13 Fruticose Lichens, 14 Crustose Lichens, 16 Squamulose Lichens, 17 Combinations of.Growth Forms, and Intermediates, 18 Special Features of Lichen Thalli 18 Cilia, 18 Pruinose and Scabrose Surfaces, 18 Tomentum, 19 Cortical Hairs, 19 Maculae, 20 Pseudocyphellae, 20 Cyphellae, 20 Cephalodia, 20 3 How Lichens Reproduce 23 Fruiting Bodies in Lichens 23 Ascomata 23 Asci 24 Ascospores 26 The Tissues of Apothecia 28 Perithecia 29 Mushroom Lichens 29 Pycnidia and Conidia 30 Vegetative Reproductive Structures 30 Soredia, 30 Isidia, 31 Granules and Blastidia, 32 Schizidia, 33 Lobules, 33 4 Colors of Lichens 34 5 How Lichens Live: Physiology and Growth 36 Producing and Sharing Food: Photosynthesis in Lichens 36 Using Food for Energy: Respiration 37 Finding the Balance: Photosynthesis versus Respiration 37 Water Relations 38 Temperature 39 Minerals 39 Nitrogen 40 Growth 40 Putting It All Together: Physiology and Habitat Selection 41 6 Lichen Chemistry 42 Lichen Substances: What They Are 42 Where the Substances Occur, and What They Do for the Lichen 42 Using Chemistry for Identifying and Classifying Lichens 44 7 Where Lichens Grow: Their Substrates 45 General Characteristics of Substrates 45 Bark 45 Wood 46 Mosses and Dead Vegetation 46 Rock 47 Soil 50 Leaves 51 Artifacts as Substrates 52 Animals 52 8 Lichens and Ecosystems 54 Nature's Pioneers 54 Colonization of Rock: Succession and Soil Formation, 54 Colonization and Stabilization of Soil, 55 Colonization of Trees, 57 Contribution of Lichens to the Nitrogen Cycle 58 Animals and Lichens 59 Lichens as Food, 59 Lichens as Nesting Material, 60 Lichens as Camouflage, 61 9 Geographic Distributions in North America 62 How Have Distribution Patterns Arisen? 62 Classifying Patterns of Distribution 63 Arctic-Alpine Element 67 Boreal Element 67 Temperate Element 68 Eastern Sector, 69 Western Sector, 71 Western Montane Element 72 Madrean Element 73 Tropical Element 74 Oceanic Element 75 Maritime Element 75 lo Lichens and People 78 Lichens as Food 78 Clothing 79 Dyes 80 Perfumes 82 Medicines and Poisons 82 Models and Decorations 83 Lichenometry 84 The Down Side of Lichen Growth: Lichen-Caused Damage Human Impacts on Lichens 11 Environmental Monitoring with Lichens Lichens as Pollution Monitors: Why Does It Work? Pollution Indexes, Scales, and Maps Transplants Lichen-Based Programs of Pollution Monitoring Prospecting Ancient Forests 12 Naming and Classifying Lichens Lichen Names Scientific Names and Their Authors Lichen Classification: Families of Lichens Scientific versus Vernacular Names 13 Collecting and Studying Lichens Conservation Tools Transporting Lichens Back Home Preparing Specimens for Study and Storage Preparing a Label The Permanent Collection Studying Lichens Equipment, lol Microscopic Study, loi Chemistry Spot Tests, 103 Crystal Tests, 108 Thin-Layer Chromatography, 108 Ultraviolet Light, log Photographing Lichens: Techniques and Advice 14 Using This Book to Name a Lichen: Hints and Conventions Organizing the Task Keys Main Entries Distribution Maps Plates PART TWO / GUIDE TO THE LICHENS Identification Keys to Genera and Major Groups Key to Keys Key A: Fruticose Lichens Key B: Dwarf Fruticose Filamentous Lichens Key C: Sterile Crustose Lichens Key D: Crustose Perithecial Lichens and Lichens with Ascomata Resembling Perithecia Key E: Crustose Script Lichens Key F: Crustose Disk Lichens Key G: Squamulose Lichens Key H: Umbilicate and Fan-Shaped Lichens Key I: Jelly Lichens Key J: Yellow Foliose Lichens Key K: Foliose Lichens That Are not Umbilicate, Jelly-Like, or Yellow Descriptions, Illustrations, Keys to Species, and Maps