NSSH Part 629

Glossary Of Landform and Geologic Terms

Definition and Purpose (629.00)

This glossary provides the Soil Survey, soil scientists, and natural resource specialists with landform, geologic, and related terms and their definitions to:

• Improve soil landscape description with a standard, single source landform and geologic glossary;
• Enhance geomorphic content and clarity of soil map unit description by use of accurate, defined terms;
• Establish consistent geomorphic term usage in soil science, especially in the NCSS;
• Provide standard geomorphic definitions for data bases and soil survey technical publications; and
• Train soil scientists and related professionals in soils as landscape and geomorphic entities.

Responsibilities (629.01)

This glossary serves as the official National Cooperative Soil Survey (NCSS) reference for landform, geologic, and related terms. The National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, NE, is responsible for maintaining and updating this glossary. MLRA office soil scientists and National Cooperative Soil Survey participants may, and are encouraged to, propose additions and changes for use in pedon or soil map unit descriptions and soil survey publications. The Glossary of Geology (AGI, 1997) serves as a major source for many glossary terms. Permission was granted (letters dated 9/11/85 and 9/22/93) to the USDA-Natural Resource Conservation Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) by the American Geological Institute (AGI), to use existing definitions. Modifications to original AGI definitions are explained below.

Definitions (629.02)

(a) Reference codes.

Sources from which definitions were taken, whole or in part, are identified by a code (e.g. GG) following each definition. Underlined codes (e.g. GG) signify a definition modification form the original source. The reference codes are:

BFM - Boothroyd, J.C., Friedrich, N.E., and McGinn, S.R. 1985. Geology of microtidal coastal lagoons: Rhode Island. Marine Geology 63:35-76.

BHM - Buol, S.W., Hole, F.D., McCracken, R.J., and Southard, R.J. 1997. Soil genesis and classification, 4th Ed. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA; 527p.

CC - Cowardin, L.M., Carter, V., Golet, F.C., and Laroe, E.T. 1979. Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States. US Dept. Interior, US Fish and Wildlife Service, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.

CF - Clayton, L. and Freers, T.F. (eds.) 1967. Glacial geology of the Missouri Coteau and adjacent areas. Guidebook 18th annual field conference Midwest Friends of the Pleistocene. North Dakota Geological Survey Miscellaneous Series #30, 170 p.

CV - Cruden, D.M., and Varnes, D.J. 1996. Landslide types and processes. In: Turner, A.K., and Schuster, R.L., (eds). 1996. Landslides: investigations and mitigation. National Research Council, Transportation Research Board Special Report No. 247; National Academy Press, Washington, DC; 673 p.

DV - Varnes, D. 1978. Slope movement types and processes. In: Schuster, R.L., and R.J. Krizek. (eds). 1978. Landslides: analysis and control. National Academy Sciences, Transportation Research Board Special Report No. 176; 234 p.

FC - Freeze, A.L. and Cherry, J.A. 1979. Groundwater. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 604 p.

FFP - Peterson, F.F. 1981. Landforms of the Basin and Range Province defined for soil survey. Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Bulletin No. 28, Reno, NV. 52p.

GG - Jackson, J.A. (ed) 1997. Glossary of geology, 4th Ed. American Geological Institute, Alexandria, VA. 769p. ISBN 0-922152-34-9

GG’87 - Bates, R.L., and Jackson, J.A. (ed) 1987. Glossary of geology, 3rd Ed. American Geological Institute, Alexandria, VA.788p.

DA - Davis, R.A. 1994. Barrier island systems - a geologic overview. P. 1-46. In: Davis, R.A. ed.) 1994. Geology of Holocene barrier island systems. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY.

DR - Ritter, D.F., Kochel, R.C., and Miller, J.R. 1995. Process geomorphology, 3rd ed. Wm. C. Brown, Publishers, Dubuque, IA.

FS - Fisher, J.J., and Simpson, E.J. 1979. Washover and tidal sedimentation rates as environmental factors in development of a transgressive barrier shoreline; pp.127-148. In: Leatherman, S.P. (ed.) 1979. Barrier islands from the Gulf of St Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico. Academic Press, New York, NY.

GD - Demas, G.P. 1998. Subaqueous soil of Sinepuxent Bay, Maryland. PhD dissertation, Department of Natural Resources and Landscape Architecture, University of Maryland, College Park, MD.

GHG - Gile, L.H., Hawley, J.W., and Grossman, R.B. 1981. Soils and geomorphology in the Basin and Range area of southern New Mexico – Guidebook to the Desert Project. Memoir 39. New Mexico Bureau of Mines & Mineral Resources, Socorro, NM; 222 p.

GM - Goldthwaite, R.P. and Matsch, C.L. (eds.) 1988. Genetic classification of glaciogenic deposits: final report of the commission on genesis and lithology of glacial Quaternary deposits of the International Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA). A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam; 294 p.

GS - Green, J., and Short, N.M. 1971. Volcanic landforms and surface features: A photographic atlas and glossary. Springer – Verlag, New York, NY. 519 p.

GSST - Soil Science Society of America. 2001. Glossary of Soil Science terms. Soil Science Society of America, Madison, WI. 135p.

HD - Holdorf, H. and Donahue, J. 1990. Landforms for soil surveys in the Northern Rockies. Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station, School of Forestry, University of Montana, Misc. Publ. No. 51. 26 p.

HF - Fisk, H.N. 1959. Padre Island and the Laguna Madre flats, coastal south Texas. Louisiana State University, 2nd Coastal Geography Conference; pp. 103-151.

HP - Hawley, J.W., and Parsons, R.B. 1980. Glossary of selected geomorphic and geologic terms. Mimeo. USDA Soil Conservation Service, West National Technical Center, Portland, OR. 30 p.

KST - Soil Survey Staff. 1994. Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 6th Ed. USDA - Natural Resources Conservation Service (p.54).

MA - MacDonald, G.A. and A.T. Abbott. 1970. Volcanoes in the sea, the geology of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press, 441p.

NL - Lancaster, N. 1995. Geomorphology of desert dunes. Routledge, New York, NY. 209p.

NRC - National Research Council of Canada. 1988. Glossary of permafrost and related ground ice terms. Associate Committee Geotechnical Research, Technical Memorandum 142; 156 p

RF - Fairbridge, R .W. (ed.). Encyclopedia of geomorphology. 1968. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series, vol. 3. Reinhold Book Corporation, New York, NY

RD - Daniels, Raymond B. (personal communication).

RR - Ruhe, Robert V. 1975. Geomorphology: Geomorphic processes and surficial geology. Houghton-Mifflin, Boston, MA, 246p.

SJ - Sugden, D.E. and John, B.S. 1976. Glaciers and landscape, a geomorphological approach. Halsted Press, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY, 376 p.

SM - McGinn, S.R. 1982. Facies distribution of Ninigret Pond. Masters thesis, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI.

SS - Summer, M.E., and Stewart, B.A. (eds). 1992. Soil crusting in Australia. In: Soil crusting: chemical and physical process. Advances in Soil Science, Lewis Publishing, Boca Raton, FL.

SSM - Soil Survey Staff. 1993. Soil Survey Manual. USDA - Soil Conservation Service, Agricultural Handbook No. 18, U.S. Gov. Print. Office, Washington, DC.

SSS - Subaqueous Soils Subcommittee. 2005. Glossary of terms for subaqueous soils, landscapes, landforms, and parent materials of estuaries and lagoons. National Cooperative Soil Survey Conference, USDA-NRCS, National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, NE.

ST - Soil Survey Staff. 1975. Soil Taxonomy. A basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting soil surveys. USDA - Soil Conservation Service Agricultural Handbook #436, U.S. Gov. Print. Office, Washington, DC, 754 p.

SW - Schoeneberger, P.J. and Wysocki, D.A. (personal communication), National Soil Survey Center, NRCS, Lincoln, NE.

WA - Way, D.S. 1973. Terrain analysis. Harvard University, Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross, Inc., Stroudsburg, PA. 392p.

WCHP - Wells, D.V., Conkwright, R.D., Hill, J.M., and Park, M.J. 1994. The surficial sediments of Assawoman Bay and Isle of Wight Bay, Maryland: Physical and chemical characteristics. Coastal and Estuarine Geology File Report Number 94-2, Maryland Geological Survey, Baltimore, MD.

WM - Monroe, W.H. 1980. Some tropical landforms of Puerto Rico. US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1159, U.S. Govt. Print. Office, Washington, DC.

WT - Thornbury, W.D. 1969. Principles of geomorphology; 2nd Ed. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY; 594 p.

WW - White, W.B. 1988. Geomorphology and hydrology of karst terrains. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, NY; 478 p.

(b) Clarifying comments included with glossary definitions.

(not recommended) use – denotes an unacceptable term (obsolete, poorly-defined, or erroneous) that should not be used. The glossary provides an alternate term, if available.

(not preferred) refer to – denotes a technically acceptable, but poorly-defined or outdated term that should be avoided to prevent confusion and redundancy. Preferred alternatives are provided.

(colloquial: ) – denotes a regionally-derived or applied term and identifies the region where it has been used. A colloquial term is either not widely accepted or unknown outside the geographic area where it originates. A colloquial term should be avoided if a more widely recognized alternative exists.

Compare – Follows a term definition and indicates additional glossary entries that are similar or related to that term.

(c) Glossary terms.

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Glossary terms and definitions (PDF; 451 KB)

References (629.03)

(a) Current References

Birkeland, P.W. 1999. Soils and geomorphology, 3rd Ed. Oxford University Press; 430 p.

Bloom, Arthur L. 1997. Geomorphology: a systematic analysis of late Cenozoic landforms, 3rd Ed. Prentice Hall;

Boothroyd, J.C., Friedrich, N.E., and McGinn, S.R. 1985. Geology of microtidal coastal lagoons: Rhode Island. Marine Geology 63:35-76.

Buol, S.W., Southard, R.J., Graham, R.C., and McDaniel, P.A. 2003. Soil classification and genesis, 5th ed. Iowa State Press Ames, IA. ISBN:0-8138-2873-2

Cherry, J.A.. 1999. Groundwater. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

Colman, S.M. and Eethier, D.P. (ed.) 1986. Rates of chemical weathering of rocks and minerals. Academic Press, Inc., Orlando, FL. 603 p.

Compton, R.R. 1985. Geology in the field. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY; 398 p.

Cooke, R.U. and Warren, A.. 1973. Geomorphology in deserts. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA; 374 p.

Cowardin, L.M., Carter, V., Golet, F.C., and Laroe, E.T. 1979. Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States. US Dept. Interior, US Fish and Wildlife Service, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.

Cruden, D.M. and Varnes, D.J. 1996. Landslide types and processes. In: Turner, A.K., and Schuster, R.L. , (eds). 1996. Landslides: investigations and mitigation. National Research Council, Transportation Research Board Special Report No. 247; National Academy Press, Washington, DC; 673 p.

Curran, H.A., Justus, P.S., Young, D.M., and Garver, J.B. 1984. Atlas of landforms, 3rd Ed. US Military Academy, West Point, NY, Dept Geography and Computer Science; 155 p.

Daniels, Dr. Raymond B. 1992. (Personal communication). Head (retired), Soil Survey Investigations, USDA - Soil Conservation Service, Washington, D.C.

Daniels, R.B., and Hammer, D.. 1992. Soil geomorphology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY;

Davis, R.A. 1994. Barrier island systems - a geologic overview. P. 1-46. In: Davis, R.A. ed.) 1994. Geology of Holocene barrier island systems. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY.

Demas, G.P. 1998. Subaqueous soil of Sinepuxent Bay, Maryland. PhD dissertation, Department of Natural Resources and Landscape Architecture, University of Maryland, College Park, MD.

Dixon, J.B., and Weed, S.B.. (eds). 1989. Minerals in the soil environment, 2nd Ed. Soil Science Society of America, Madison, WI, Book Series, No. 1; 1244 p.

Dutro, J.T., Dietrich, R.V., Foose, R.M.. 1989. AGI field data sheets: for geology in the field, laboratory and office, 3rd Ed. American Geological Institute, Alexandria, VA.;

Fisher, J.J., and Simpson, E.J. 1979. Washover and tidal sedimentation rates as environmental factors in development of a transgressive barrier shoreline; pp.127-148. In: Leatherman, S.P. (ed.) 1979. Barrier islands from the Gulf of St Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico. Academic Press, New York, NY.

Fisk, H.N. 1959. Padre Island and the Laguna Madre flats, coastal south Texas. Louisiana State University, 2nd Coastal Geography Conference; pp. 103-151.

Gile, L.H., Hawley, J.W., and Grossman, R.B. 1981. Soils and geomorphology in the Basin and Range area of southern New Mexico- guidebook to the Desert Project. Memoir 39. New Mexico Bureau of Mines & Mineral Resources, Socorro, NM; 222 p.

Gile, L.H., and Ahrens, R.J, (eds). 1994. Supplement to the desert project soil monograph: Soils and landscapes of a desert region astride the Rio Grande Valley near Las Cruces, New Mexico. USDA - Soil Conservation Service, Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 44, vol. 1: Soil water and soils at the soil water sites, Jornada experiment range. National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, NE; 592 p.

Goldthwaite, R.P. and Matsch, C.L, (eds.) 1988. Genetic classification of glacigenic deposits: final report of the commission on genesis and lithology of glacial Quaternary deposits of the International Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA). A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam; 294 p.

Graf, W.L. (ed.) 1987. Geomorphic systems of North America. Geological Society America, Decade of North American Geology, Centennial Special Volume, No. 2.; 643 p.

Hamblin, W.K. and Howard, J.D.. 1995. Exercises in physical geology, 8th Ed. Burgess Publ. Co., Minneapolis, MN; 192p.

Harland, W.B., Armstrong, R.L., Craig, L.E., Smith, A.G., and Smith, D.G. 1990. A geologic time scale. Press Syndicate of University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; 1 sheet.

Holdorf, H. and Donahue, J. 1990. Landforms for soil surveys in the Northern Rockies. Montana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station, School of Forestry, University of Montana, Misc. Publ. No. 51; 26 p.

Hunt, C.B. 1986. Surficial deposits of the United States. Van Nos Reinhold Co., Inc., New York, NY; 208p.

Jackson, J.A.. (ed.). 1997. Glossary of geology, 4th Ed. American Geological Institute, Alexandria, VA; 769p. ISBN 0-922152-34-9

Kidder, David L. 1987. Stratigraphy, micropaleontology, petrography, carbonate geochemistry, and depositional history of the Proterozoic Libby Formation, Belt Supergroup, northwestern Montana and northeastern Idaho. USGS Open File Report 87-635. US Dept of Interior.

Lancaster, N. 1995. Geomorphology of desert dunes. Routledge, New York, NY. 209 p.

Mausbach, M.J., and Wilding, L.P. (eds). 1991. Spatial variabilities of soils and landforms. Soil Science Society of America, Madison, WI, Special Publication No.28; 270 p.

Maxwell, D.T. 1973. Layer silicate mineralogy of the Precambrian Belt Series in Belt Symposium sponsored by the Dept of Geology, Univ. of Idaho and the Idaho Bur. of Mines and Geology, Sept 17-22, 1973. vol II, pp. 114-138.

McGinn, S.R. 1982. Facies distribution of Ninigret Pond. Masters thesis, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI.

Monroe, W.H. 1976. The karst landforms of Puerto Rico. US Geological Survey Professional Paper 899, U.S. Govt. Print. Office, Washington, DC.

Monroe, W.H. 1980. Some tropical landforms of Puerto Rico. US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1159, U.S. Govt. Print. Office, Washington, DC.

Morrison, R.B. (ed.). 1991. Quaternary nonglacial geology: conterminous United States. Geological Society of America, Decade of North American Geology, Geology of North America, Vol. K-2; 672p.

National Research Council of Canada. 1988. Glossary of permafrost and related ground ice terms. Associate Committee Geotechnical Research, Technical Memorandum 142; 156p.

Neuendorf, K.K.E., Mehl, J.P., Jr., Jackson, J. 2005. Glossary of geology, 5th Ed. American Geological Institute, Alexandria, VA. ISBN 0-922152-76-4

Nordt, J.S., Sowers, J.M., and Lettis, W.R. 2000. Quaternary geochronology. AGU Reference Shelf 4, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC; (ISBN 0-87590-950-7); 582 p.

Peterson, F.F. 1981. Landforms of the Basin and Range Province defined for soil survey. Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station, Technical Bulletin No. 28, Reno, NV; 52 p.

Peterson, F.F. 1990. A manual for describing NSSL soil sampling sites: Terms and concepts for identifying physiographic position and other sampling site descriptors; Draft ver. 1.0; USDA-NRCS National Soil Survey Laboratory, Lincoln, NE; 61p. [unpublished]

Porter, S.C. (ed) 1983. Late-quaternary environments of the United States, Vol. 1: the late Pleistocene. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN. 277 p.

Ritter, D.F., Kochel, R.C., Miller, J.R. 1995. Process geomorphology, 3rd Ed. Wm C. Brown Publ.; Dubuque, IA; 539 p.

Royse, C.F. and Barsch, D.. 1971. Terraces and pediment terraces in the southwest: an interpretation. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 82:3177-3182.

Schoeneberger, P.J. and Wysocki, D.A. 2002. Geomorphology. In: Schoeneberger, P.J., Wysocki, D.A., Benham, E.C., and Broderson, W.D. 2002. Field Book for describing and sampling soils, version 2.0. National Soil Survey Center, Natural Resources Conservation Service, USDA, Lincoln, NE.

Schoeneberger, P.J. and Wysocki, D.A. 2000. (personal communication). National Soil Survey Center, USDA - NRCS, Lincoln, NE.

Schoeneberger, P.J., Wysocki, D.A., Benham, E.C., and Broderson, W.D. 2002. Field Book for describing and sampling soils, version 2.0. National Soil Survey Center, Natural Resources Conservation Service, USDA, Lincoln, NE.

Schumm, S.A. 1977. The fluvial system. John Wiley & Sons., Inc., New York, NY; 338 p.

Schumm, S.A. 1987. Experimental fluvial geomorphology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY; 413p.

Schumm, S.A. 1991. To interpret the earth: 10 ways to be wrong. Cambridge Univ. Press; 180 p.

Schumm, S.A., Harvey, M.D., and Watson, C.C.. 1984. Incised channels: morphology, dynamics, and control. Water Resources Publications, Littleton, CO; 200 p.

Schuster, R.L., and Krizek, R.J., (eds). 1978. Landslides: analysis and control. National Academy Sciences, Transportation Research Board Special Report No. 176; 234 p.

Selby, M.J. 1993. Hillslope materials and processes, 2nd Ed. Oxford University Press Inc., New York; 451p.

Sibrava, V., Bowen, D.Q., and Richmond, D.Q., (eds). 1986. Quaternary glaciations in the Northern Hemisphere: final report of the International Geological Correlation Programme, Project 24. Quaternary Science Reviews, Vol. 5, Pergamon Press, Oxford; 514 p.

Smith, G.D. 1978. The Andisol proposal. In: Leamy, M.L., Kinlock, D.I., and Parfitt, R.L. International Committee on Andisols – Final Report. Soil Management Support Services Technical Monograph #20 (p. 5). USDA – Soil Conservation Service, Washington, D.C.

Soil Science Society of America. 2001. Glossary of soil science terms. Soil Science Society of America, Madison, WI; 135 p.

Soil Survey Staff. 1993. Soil Survey Manual. USDA - Soil Conservation Service, Agricultural Handbook No. 18, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC; 437 p.

Soil Survey Staff. 1994. Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 6th Ed. USDA - Natural Resources Conservation Service.

Soil Survey Staff. 1998. Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 8th Ed. USDA - Natural Resources Conservation Service.

Soil Survey Staff. 1999. Soil Taxonomy, 2nd Ed. A basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting soil surveys. USDA - Soil Conservation Service, Agricultural Handbook #436, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 869p.

Sposito, G. 1989. The chemistry of soils. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford; 277 p.

Strahler, A.N. and Strahler, A.H. 1989. Elements of physical geography, 4th Ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY;

Subaqueous Soils Subcommittee. 2005. Glossary of terms for subaqueous soils, landscapes, landforms, and parent materials of estuaries and lagoons. National Cooperative Soil Survey Conference, USDA-NRCS, National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, NE.

Sugden, D.E. and John, B.S.. 1976. Glaciers and landscape, a geomorphological approach. Halsted Press, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY; 376 p.

Summer, M.E., and Stewart, B.A. (eds). 1992. Soil crusting in Australia. In: Soil crusting: chemical and physical process. Advances in Soil Science, Lewis Publishing, Boca Raton, FL.

Trewartha, G.T., Robinson, A.H., Hammond, E.H., and Horn, A.T.. 1976. Fundamentals of physical geography, 3rd Ed. Magraw-Hill, New York, NY.; 384 p.

Turner, A.K., and Schuster, R.L., (eds). 1996. Landslides: investigations and mitigation. National Research Council, Transportation Research Board Special Report No. 247; National Academy Press, Washington, DC; 673 p.

U.S. Geological Survey. 1970. The national atlas of the United States. (sheets 61-63: Classes of Land-Surface from E.H. Hammond). U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, DC; 417 p.

Wahrhaftig, C. 1965. Physiographic divisions of Alaska. US Geological Survey, USGS Professional Paper # 482; 52p.

Washburn, A.L. 1973. Periglacial processes and environments. St. Martin's Press, New York, NY; 320 p.

Washburn, A.L. 1980. Geocryology. John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY.; 406 p.

Wells, D.V., Conkwright, R.D., Hill, J.M., and Park, M.J. 1994. The surficial sediments of Assawoman Bay and Isle of Wight Bay, Maryland: Physical and chemical characteristics. Coastal and Estuarine Geology File Report Number 94-2, Maryland Geological Survey, Baltimore, MD.

White, W.B. 1988. Geomorphology and hydrology of karst terrains. Oxford Univ. Press, New York, NY; 478 p.

Wright, H.E. (ed) 1983. Late-Quaternary environments of the United States, Vol. 2: the Holocene. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, MN. 277 p.

Wysocki, D.A., Schoeneberger, P.J., and LaGarry, H.E. Geomorphology of soil landscapes. 2000. In: Sumner, M.E., editor. 2000. Handbook of Soil Science. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, FL. ISBN: 0-8493-3136-6

(b) Classic References

[Significant references that are Out of Print (no longer commercially available).]

Balster, C.A. and Parsons, R.B.. 1968. Geomorphology and soils, Willamette Valley, Oregon. Oregon State Univ., Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station Special Report 265, Corvallis, OR; 31 p.

Buol, S.W., Hole, F.D., and McCracken, R.J. 1973 (1st ed), 1980 (2nd ed.), 1989 (3rd ed.). Soil genesis and classification. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA.
(now Buol, Southard, Graham, and McDaniel 2003)

Birkeland, P.W. 1974. Pedology, weathering and geomorphic research. Oxford University Press, New York, NY ; 285 p.
(see Birkeland, 1999)

Birkeland, P.W. 1984. Soils and geomorphology, 2nd Ed. Oxford University Press; 386 p.
(see Birkeland, 1999)

Bryan, K. 1946. Cryopedology: The study of frozen ground and intensive frost-action, with suggestions on nomenclature. American Journal of Science, V. 244; 642 p.

Clayton, L. and Freers, T.F. (eds.) 1967. Glacial geology of the Missouri Coteau and adjacent areas. Guidebook 18th annual field conference Midwest Friends of the Pleistocene. North Dakota Geological Survey Miscellaneous Series #30, 170p.

Compton, R.R. 1962. Manual of field geology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY; 378 p. (use Compton, 1985, Geology in the Field.

Compton, R.R. 1977. Interpreting the earth. Harcourt-Brace-Jovanovich, New York, NY; 554 p.

Daniels, R.B., and Jordan, R.H.. 1966. Physiographic history and the soils, entrenched stream systems, and gullies, Harrison County, Iowa. USDA - Soil Conservation Service, Technical Bulletin 1348; 133 p.

Fairbridge, R.W. (ed). 1968. The encyclopedia of geomorphology. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series, Vol. 3. McGraw-Hill Company, Inc., New York, NY; 1295 p.

Fenneman, N.M. 1931. Physiography of the western United States. Magraw-Hill Co., New York, NY; 534p.

Fenneman, N.M. 1938. Physiography of the eastern United States. Magraw-Hill Co., New York, NY.; 714p.

Fenneman, N.M. 1946. (reprinted 1957). Physical divisions of the United States. US Geological Survey, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC; 1 sheet; 1: 7,000,000.

Flint, R.F. 1971. Glacial and Quaternary geology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY; 892 p.

Freeze, A.L. and Cherry, J.A. 1979. Groundwater. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.; 604 p.

Gary, M., McAfee, R., Jr., Wolf, C.L. (eds). 1974. Glossary of geology. American Geological Institute, Falls Church, VA; 805 p. (use Bates & Jackson, 1987).

Green, J., and Short, N.M. 1971. Volcanic landforms and surface features: A photographic atlas and glossary. Springer-Verlag, New York, NY. 519p.

Hawley, J.W. and Parsons, R.B. 1980. Glossary of selected geomorphic and geologic terms. Mimeo. U.S. Dept. Agric., Soil Cons. Serv., West Technical Center, Portland, OR; 30p. (replaced by National Soil Survey Handbook (NSSH), part 629, 1995).

Hunt, C.B. 1967. Physiography of the United States. W.H. Freeman & Co., London; 480 p.

Monkhouse, F. 1978. Dictionary of geography. Aldine Publ. Co., Chicago, IL.; 344 p.

Monkhouse, F. and Small, J. 1978. Dictionary of the natural environment. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY; 320 p.

Peterson, F.F. 1981. Landforms of the Basin and Range Province defined for soil survey. Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station, Technical Bulletin No. 28, Reno, NV; 52 p.

Ruhe, R.V. 1969. Quaternary landscapes in Iowa. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA; 255 p.

Ruhe, R.V. 1975. Geomorphology: geomorphic processes and surficial geology. Houghton-Mifflin Co., Boston, MA; 246p.

Ruhe, R.V., Daniels, R.B., and Cady, J.G. 1967. Landscape evolution and soil formation in southeastern Iowa. USDA - Soil Conservation Service Technical Bulletin 1349; 242 p.

Russel, R.J. (ed.). 1968. Glossary of terms used in fluvial, deltaic, and coastal morphology. Louisiana State Univ., New Orleans, LA.; Coastal Studies Institute Technical Report No. 63; 97 p.

Soil Survey Staff. 1975. Soil Taxonomy. A basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting soil surveys. USDA - Soil Conservation Service, Agricultural Handbook #436, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 754p.

Strahler, A.N. 1946 Geomorphic terminology and classification of land masses. Journal of Geology 54:35-42.

Thornbury, W.D. 1969. Principles of geomorphology; 2nd Ed. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY; 594 p.

Thornbury, W.D. 1965. Regional geomorphology of the United States. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY; 609 p.

Varnes, D. 1978. Slope movement types and processes. In: Schuster, R.L., and R.J. Krizek. (eds). 1978. Landslides: analysis and control. National Academy Sciences, Transportation Research Board Special Report No. 176; 234 p.
 

Lists of Landscape, Landform, Microfeature, and Anthropogenic Feature Terms Defined in the Glossary (Exhibit 629-1)

(comprehensive alphabetical and subset lists arranged by Geomorphic Process or Setting). Geomorphic Process is a framework for the Geomorphic Description System (Schoeneberger and Wysocki, 2002).

[Note: Codes follow some entries: NR - indicates terms that are NOT RECOMMENDED (should not be used); NP - indicates terms that are NOT PREFERRED (have been used, but better alternatives exist). Also following terms are italicized letters for the corresponding shorthand code (e.g., BA); a dash (--) indicates that no shorthand code has been assigned.]

1. Alphabetical Lists (Landscapes, Landforms, Microfeatures, Anthropogenic Features)
    
   1. Landscapes (broad or unique groups or clusters of natural, spatially associated features)

alluvial plain	--
alluvial plain remnant	--
badlands	BA
bajada (also Landform)	BJ
basin	BS
basin floor (also Landform)	--
batholith	--
bay [coast] (water body; also Landform)	--
bolson	BO
Barrier island (also Landform)	--
breaks	BK
canyonlands	--
coastal plain (also Landform)	CP
cockpit karst	--
cone karst	--
continental glacier	--
delta plain (also Landform)	--
drumlin field	--
dune field	--
estuary (water body; also Landform)	--
everglades	--
fan piedmont (also Landform)	FP
fault-block mountains	--
fluviokarst	--
fluviomarine terrace (also Landform)	--
foothills	FH
glaciokarst	--
gulf [coast] (water body; also Landform)	--
hills (singular = Landform)	HI
ice-margin complex	--
intermontane basin (also Landform)	IB
island (also Landform)	--
karst	KP
kegel karst	--
lagoon [coast] (water body; also Landform)	--
lake plain (also Landform)	--
lava field (also Landform)	--
lava plain (also Landform)	--
lava plateau (also Landform)	LL
lowland	--
marine terrace (also Landform)	--
meander belt	MB
mountain range	--
mountains (singular = Landform)	MO
mountain system	--
ocean (water body)	--
outwash plain (also Landform)	--
peninsula	--
piedmont	PI
piedmont slope	--
plains (also Landform)	PL
plateau (also Landform)	PT
rift valley	--
river valley (also Landform)	RV
sandhills	SH
sand plain	--
scabland	SC
sea (water body; also Landform)	--
semi-bolson	SB
shore complex	--
sinkhole karst	--
sound (water body; also Landform)	--
strait (water body; also Landform)	--
tableland	TB
thermokarst	TK
till plain (also Landform)	TP
tower karst	--
upland	UP
valley (also Landform)	VA
volcanic field (also Landform)	--

2. Landforms (natural, individual, earth-surface features mappable at common survey scales)

`a`a lava flow	--
alas	AA
alluvial cone	--
alluvial fan	AF
alluvial flat	AP
alpine glacier	--
anticline	AN
arete	AR
arroyo	AY
ash flow	AS
atoll	AT
avalanche chute	AL
axial stream	--
back-barrier beach	--
back-barrier flat	--
backshore	AZ
backswamp	BS
bajada (also Landscape)	BJ
ballena	BL
ballon	BV
bar	BR
barchan dune	BQ
barrier beach	BB
barrier cove	--
barrier flat	BP
barrier island (also Landscape)	BI
basin floor (also Landscape)	BC
basin-floor remnant	BD
bay [coast] (water body; also Landscape)	WB
bay [geom.]	--
bay bottom	--
bayou (water body)	WC
beach	BE
beach plain	BP
beach ridge	BG
beach terrace	BT
berm	BM
beveled base	--
blind valley	VB
block field	BW
block glide	--
block lava flow	--
block stream	BX
blowout	BY
bluff	BN
bog	BO
box canyon	--
braided stream	BZ
broad interstream divide	--
butte	BU
caldera	CD
canyon	CA
canyon bench	--
Carolina Bay	CB
channel (also Microfeature)	CC
chenier	CG
chenier plain	CH
cinder cone	CI
cirque	CQ
cirque floor	--
cirque headwall	--
cirque platform	--
cliff	CJ
climbing dune	--
closed depression (also Microfeature)	--
coastal plain (also Landscape)	CP
cockpit	--
col	CL
collapsed ice-floored lakebed	CK
collapsed ice-walled lakebed	CN
collapsed lake plain	CS
collapsed outwash plain	CT
collapse sinkhole	--
colluvial apron	--
complex landslide	--
coral island	--
coulee	CE
cove [coast] (water body)	--
cove [geom]	CO
crag and tail	--
crater [volcanic]	CR
creep	--
crevasse filling	CF
cuesta	CU
cuesta valley	--
cutoff	CV
debris avalanche	DA
debris fall	--
debris flow	DF
debris slide	--
debris spread	--
debris topple	--
deflation basin	DB
deflation flat	--
delta	DE
delta plain (also Landscape)	DC
depression	DP
diapir	DD
diatreme	--
dike	DK
dipslope	DL
disintegration moraine	DM
divide	DN
dome	DO
drainageway	DQ
drainhead complex	--
draw	DW
drumlin	DR
drumlinoid ridge	--
dune	DU
dune field (also Landscape)	--
dune lake (water body)	--
dune slack (also Microfeature)	--
earth flow	EF
earth spread	--
earth topple	--
end moraine	EM
ephemeral stream (also Microfeature)	--
eroded fan remnant	--
eroded fan-remnant sideslope	--
erosion remnant	ER
escarpment	ES
esker	EK
estuary (water body; also Landscape)	WD
faceted spur	FS
fall	FB
falling dune	--
fan	FC
fan apron	FA
fan collar	--
fanhead trench	FF
fan piedmont (also Landscape)	FG
fan remnant	FH
fan skirt	FI
fault-block	--
fault-line scarp	FK
fault zone	--
fen	FN
fissure vent	--
fjord (water body)	FJ
flat	FL
flatwoods	--
flood plain	FP
flood-plain playa	FY
flood-plain splay	FM
flood-plain step	FO
flood-tidal delta	--
flood-tidal delta flat	--
flood-tidal delta slope	--
flow	--
flute (also Microfeature)	FU
fluviomarine bottom	--
fluviomarine terrace (also Landscape)	--
fold	FQ
foredune	FD
fosse	FV
free face (also Geom. Comp. – Hills, Mountains)	FW
fringe-tidal marsh	--
gap	GA
geyser	--
geyser basin	--
geyser cone	--
giant ripple	GC
glacial drainage channel	GD
glacial lake (water body)	WE
glacial lake [relict]	GL
glacial-valley floor	--
glacial-valley wall	--
glacier	--
gorge	GO
graben	GR
ground moraine	GM
gulch	GT
gulf [coast] (water body; also Landscape)	--
gut [stream]; (water body)	WH
gut (valley)	GV
half graben	--
hanging valley	HV
headland	HE
head-of-outwash	--
headwall	HW
high hill	--
highmoor bog	HB
hill	HI
hillslope	--
hogback	HO
homoclinal ridge	--
horn	HR
horst	HT
hot spring	--
ice-contact slope	--
ice-marginal steam	--
ice-pushed ridge	--
inlet	--
inselberg	IN
inset fan	IF
interdrumlin	--
interdune (also Microfeature)	ID
interfluve (also Geom. Component - Hills)	IV
interior valley	--
intermittent stream (also Microfeature)	--
intermontane basin (also Landscape)	IB
island (also Landscape)	--
kame	KA
kame moraine	KM
kame terrace	KT
karst cone	--
karst tower	--
karst valley	--
kettle	KE
kipuka	--
knob	KN
knoll	KL
lagoon [coast] (water body; also Landscape)	WI
lagoon bottom	--
lagoon channel	--
lahar	LA
lake (water body)	WJ
lakebed [relict]	LB
lake plain (also Landscape)	LP
lakeshore	LF
lake terrace	LT
landslide	LK
lateral moraine	LM
lateral spread	--
lava field (also Landscape)	--
lava flow	LC
lava flow unit (also Microfeature)	--
lava plain (also Landscape)	LN
lava plateau (also Landscape)	LL
lava trench (also Microfeature)	--
lava tube	--
ledge	LE
levee [stream]	LV
loess bluff	LO
loess hill	LQ
longitudinal dune	--
longshore bar [relict]	LR
louderback	LU
low hill	--
lowmoor bog	LX
marine terrace (also Landscape)	MT
maar	--
mainland cove	--
main scarp (also Microfeature)	--
mangrove swamp	--
marine lake (water body)	--
marsh	MA
mawae	--
meander	MB
meandering channel	MC
meander scar	MS
meander scroll	MG
medial moraine	MH
mesa	ME
meteorite crater	--
mogote	--
monadnock	MD
monocline	MJ
moraine	MU
mountain (plural = Landscape)	MM
mountain slope	MN
mountain valley	MV
mud flat	MF
mudflow	MW
mud pot	--
muskeg	MX
natural levee	NL
neck [volcanic]	--
notch	NO
nunatak	NU
ocean (water body)	--
open depression (also Microfeature)	--
outwash delta	--
outwash fan	OF
outwash plain (also Landscape)	OP
outwash terrace	OT
overflow stream channel	--
oxbow	OX
oxbow lake (water body)	WK
oxbow lake (ephemeral)	OL
paha	PA
pahoehoe lava flow	--
paleoterrace	--
parabolic dune	PB
parna dune	PD
partial ballena	PF
patterned ground	PG
pavement karst	--
peak	PK
peat plateau	PJ
pediment	PE
perennial stream (water body)	--
pillow lava flow	--
pingo	PI
pinnacle	--
pitted outwash plain	PM
pitted outwash terrace	--
plain (also Landscape)	PN
plateau (also Landscape)	PT
playa	PL
playa dune (also Microfeature)	--
playa floor (also Microfeature)	--
playa lake (water body)	WL
playa rim (also Microfeature)	--
playa slope (also Microfeature)	--
playa step (also Microfeature)	--
plug [volcanic]	--
plug dome	PP
pluvial lake (water body)	WM
pluvial lake (relict)	PQ
pocosin	PO
point bar	PR
point bar [coastal]	--
pothole (also Microfeature)	PH
pothole lake (water body)	WN
pressure ridge [ice]	--
pressure ridge [volcanic]; also Micro.)	PU
proglacial lake (water body)	WO
proglacial lake [relict]	--
pyroclastic flow	--
pyroclastic surge	--
raised beach	RA
raised bog	RB
ravine	RV
recessional moraine	RM
reef	RF
relict-tidal inlet (water body)	--
reworked lake plain	--
ribbed fen	RG
ridge	RI
rim	RJ
river (water body)	--
river valley (also Landscape)	--
roche moutonnée (also Microfeature)	RN
rock fall (also Microfeature)	--
rock avalanche	--
rock glacier	RO
rock pediment	--
rock spread	--
rock topple	--
rotational debris slide	--
rotational earth slide	--
rotational rock slide	--
rotational slide	RP
saddle	SA
sag (also Microfeature)	--
sag pond (water body; also Microfeature)	--
salt marsh	SM
salt pond (water body; also Microfeature)	WQ
sand flow	RW
sand ramp	--
sand sheet	RX
scarp	RY
scarp slope	RS
scree slope	--
sea (water body; also Landscape)	--
sea cliff	RZ
seif dune	SD
semi-open depression	--
shield volcano	--
shoal (water body)	WR
shoal (relict)	SE
shore	--
sill	RT
sinkhole	SH
slackwater (water body)	WS
slick rock (also Microfeature)	--
slide	SJ
slot canyon	--
slough (ephemeral water)	SL
slough (permanent water)	WU
slump	SK
slump block	SN
snowfield	--
soil fall	--
solution platform	--
solution sinkhole	--
sound (water body; also Landscape)	--
spit	SP
spur	SQ
stack [coast]	--
stack [geom]	SR
star dune	--
steptoe	ST
stock	--
stoss and lee	--
strait (water body; also Landscape)	--
strand plain	SS
strath terrace	SU
stratovolcano	SV
stream (water body)	--
stream terrace	SX
strike valley	--
string bog	SY
structural bench	SB
submerged back-barrier beach	--
submerged mainland beach	--
submerged point bar [coastal]	--
submerged-upland tidal marsh	--
submerged wave-built terrace	--
submerged wave-cut platform	--
swale (also Microfeature)	SC
swallow hole	TB
swamp	SW
syncline	SZ
talus cone	--
talus slope	--
tarn (water body; also Microfeature)	--
terminal moraine	TA
terrace	TE
thermokarst depression	TK
thermokarst lake (water body)	WV
tidal flat	TF
tidal inlet	--
tidal marsh	--
till-floored lake plain	--
till plain (also Landscape)	TP
toe (also Microfeature)	--
tombolo	TO
topple	--
tor	TQ
Toreva block	--
translational debris slide	--
translational earth slide	--
translational rock slide	--
translational slide	TS
transverse dune	TD
trough	TR
tunnel valley	TV
tunnel-valley lake (water body)	--
U-shaped valley	UV
valley	VA
valley-border surfaces	--
valley flat	VF
valley floor	VL
valley floor remnant	--
valley side	VS
valley train	VT
volcanic cone	VC
volcanic dome	VD
volcanic field (also Landscape)	--
volcano	VO
V-shaped valley	VV
wash	WA
washover fan	WF
washover-fan flat	--
washover-fan slope	--
wave-built terrace	WT
wave-cut platform	WP
wind gap	WG
window	--
wind-tidal flat	--
yardang (also Microfeature)	--
yardang trough (also Microfeature)	--

3. Microfeatures (discrete, natural, earth-surface features too small to delineate at survey scales)

bar	--
channel (also Landform)	--
closed depression (also Landform)	--
corda	--
cutter	--
dune slack (also Landform)	--
dune traces	--
earth pillar	--
ephemeral stream (also Landform)	--
finger ridge	--
flute (also Landform)	--
frost boil	--
glacial groove	--
groove	--
gully	--
hillock	--
hoodoo	--
interdune (also Landform)	--
intermittent stream (water body; also Landform)	--
karren	--
lava flow unit (also Landform)	--
lava trench (also Landform)	--
main scarp (also Landform)	--
minor scarp	--
mound	M
nivation hollow	--
open depression (also Landform)	--
patterned ground (see below)	PG

Patterned ground microfeatures (used in association with the landform “patterned ground” or PG):

1. Periglacial patterned ground microfeatures:

circle	--
earth hummocks	--
high-center polygons	--
ice wedge polygons	--
low-center polygons	--
non-sorted circles	--
palsa (palsen = plural; = peat hummocks)	--
polygons	--
sorted circles	--
stripes	--
turf hummocks	--

2. Other patterned ground microfeatures:

bar and channel	--
circular gilgai	--
elliptical gilgai	--
linear gilgai	--
gilgai	G
hummocks	--
intermediate position (gilgai)	--
mima mounds	--
pimple mounds	--

perennial stream (water body; also Landform)	--
pinnacle	--
playa dune (also Landform)	--
playa floor (also Landform)	--
playa rim (also Landform)	--
playa slope (also Landform)	--
playa step (also Landform)	--
playette	--
pond (water body)	--
pool (water body)	--
pothole (also Landform)	--
pressure ridge (volcanic)	--
rib	--
rill	--
ripple mark	--
roche moutonnée (also Landform)	--
rockfall (also Landform)	--
sag (also Landform)	--
sag pond (water body; also Landform)	--
sand boil	--
scour (mark)	--
shoreline	--
shrub-coppice dune	--
slick rock (also Landform)	--
slip face	--
solifluction lobe	--
solifluction sheet	--
solifluction terrace	--
solution chimney	--
solution corridor	--
solution fissure	--
solution pipe	--
spatter cone	--
spiracle	--
strandline	--
swale (also Landform)	--
swash zone	--
tank (water body)	--
tarn (water body; also Landform)	--
terracettes	T
toe [mass move.] (also Landform)	--
tree-tip mound	--
tree-tip pit	--
tumulus (tumuli = plural)	--
vernal pool (seasonal water body)	--
yardang (also Landform)	--
yardang trough (also Landform)	--
zibar	--

4. Anthropogenic Features [discrete, human-made or modified, earth-surface features]

artificial collapsed depression	G
artificial levees	A
beveled cut	--
borrow pit	--
burial mound	B
cut (road, railroad)	--
cutbank	--
ditch	--
dredged channel	--
dredge-deposit shoal	--
dredge spoil bank	--
dump	--
fill	--
filled marshland	--
floodway	--
gravel pit	--
impact crater	--
landfill (see sanitary landfill)	-
leveled land	--
log landing	--
midden	H
openpit mine	--
pond (human-made)	--
quarry	--
railroad bed	D
reclaimed land	--
rice paddy	E
road bed	I
road cut	--
sand pit	--
sanitary landfill	--
scalped area	--
sewage lagoon	--
skid trail	--
spoil bank	--
spoil pile	--
surface mine	--
tillage features (see below)	F

Tillage Management features (common types):

conservation terrace (modern)	--
double-bedding mound	--
drainage ditch	--
furrow	--
hillslope terrace (e.g., archeological features)
inter-furrow	--
truncated soil	--
urban land	--

truncated soil	--
urban land	--

2. Geomorphic Environments and Other Groupings (Landscape, Landform, and Microfeature terms grouped by geomorphic process (e.g. Fluvial) or setting e.g. Water Bodies). These lists are not mutually exclusive; some features occur in more than one environment or setting.)

1. Coastal Marine and Estuarine (wave or tidal control on near-shore / shallow marine)

Landscapes:

bay [coast] (water body; also Landform)	--
coastal plain	CP
barrier island (also Landform)	--
estuary (water body; also Landform)	--
fluviomarine terrace (also Landform)	--
gulf [coast] (water body; also Landform)	--
island (also Landform)	--
lagoon [coast] (water body; also Landform)	--
lowland	--
marine terrace (also Landform)	--
ocean (water body; also Landform)	--
peninsula	--
sea (water body; also Landform)	--
shore complex	--
sound (water body; also Landform)	--
strait (water body; also Landform)	--

Landforms:

atoll	AT
back-barrier beach	--
back-barrier flat	--
backshore	AZ
bar	BR
barrier beach	BB
barrier cove	--
barrier flat	BF
barrier island (also Landscape)	BI
bay [coast] (water body; also Landscape)	WB
bay bottom	--
beach	BE
beach plain	BP
beach ridge	BG
beach terrace	BT
berm	BM
bluff	BN
chenier	CG
chenier plain	CH
coastal plain	CP
coral island	--
delta	DE
delta plain (also Landscape)	DC
drainhead complex	--
flat	FL
flatwoods	--
fluviomarine terrace (also Landscape)	--
foredune	FD
fringe-tidal marsh	--
gulf [coast] (water body; also Landscape)	--
headland	HE
island (also Landscape)	--
lagoon [relict]	WI
lagoon (water body)	--
longshore bar [relict]	LR
mangrove swamp	--
marine lake (water body)	--
marine terrace (also Landscape)	MT
mud flat	MF
point bar [coastal]	--
raised beach	RA
reef	RF
salt marsh	SM
sea (water body; also Landscape)	--
sea cliff	RZ
semi-open depression	--
shoal (relict)	SE
shore	--
sound (water body; also Landscape)	--
spit	SP
stack [coast]	SR
strait (water body; also Landscape)	--
strand plain	SS
tidal flat	TF
tidal marsh	--
tombolo	TO
washover fan	WF
wave-built terrace	WT
wave-cut platform	WP
wind-tidal flat	--

Microfeatures:

ripple mark	--
shoreline	--
swash zone	--

2. Lacustrine (related to inland water bodies)

Landscapes:

island (also Landform)	--
lake plain (also Landform)	--
peninsula	--
shore complex	--

Landforms:

backshore	AZ
bar	BR
barrier beach	BB
barrier flat	BF
barrier island	BI
beach	BE
beach plain	BP
beach ridge	BG
beach terrace	BT
berm	BM
bluff	BN
delta	DE
delta plain (also Landscape)	DC
flat	FL
flood-plain playa	FY
foredune	FD
headland	HE
island (also Landscape)	--
lagoon [relict]	WI
lakebed [relict]	LB
lakebed (water body)	LB
lake plain (also Landscape)	LP
lake terrace	LT
longshore bar [relict]	LR
mud flat	MF
oxbow lake (ephemeral)	OL
playa	PL
playa floor (also Microfeature)	--
playa rim (also Microfeature)	--
playa slope (also Microfeature)	--
playa step (also Microfeature)	--
pluvial lake [relict]	PQ
raised beach	RA
reworked lake plain	--
salt marsh	SM
shoal (relict)	SE
shore	--
spit	SP
stack [coast]	--
strand plain	SS
till-floored lake plain	--
tombolo	TO
wave-built terrace	WT
wave-cut platform	WP

Microfeatures:

bar	--
playa floor (also Landform)	--
playa rim (also Landform)	--
playa slope (also Landform)	--
playa step (also Landform)	--
playette	--
ripple mark	--
shoreline	--
strandline	--
swash zone	--
vernal pool	--

3. Fluvial [dominantly related to concentrated water flow (channel flow); includes erosional and depositional features, but excluding glaciofluvial landforms (see Glacial), and permanent water features (see Water Bodies)]

Landscapes:

alluvial plain	--
alluvial plain remnant	--
badlands	BA
bajada	BJ
breaks	BK
canyonlands	--
delta plain	--
fan piedmont	FP
meander belt	MB
river valley	--
scabland	SC

Landforms:

alluvial cone	--
alluvial fan	AF
alluvial flat	AP
arroyo	AY
axial stream (water body)	--
backswamp	BS
bajada	BJ
bar	BR
basin-floor remnant	BD
block stream	BX
box canyon	--
braided stream	BZ
canyon	CA
channel	CC
coulee	CE
cutoff	CV
delta	DE
delta plain (also Landscape)	DC
drainageway	DQ
drainhead complex	--
draw	DW
ephemeral stream (also Microfeature)	--
fan apron	--
fan collar	--
fanhead trench	FF
fan remnant	--
fan skirt	FI
flood plain	FP
flood-plain playa	FY
flood-plain splay	FM
flood-plain step	FO
giant ripple	GC
gorge	GO
gulch	GT
gut (valley)	GV
inset fan	IF
intermittent stream (also Microfeature)	--
levee [streams]	LV
meander scar	MS
meander scroll	MG
natural levee	NL
overflow stream channel	--
oxbow	OX
oxbow lake (ephemeral)	OL
paleoterrace	--
point bar	PR
ravine	RV
river valley (also Landscape)	--
semi-open depression	--
slot canyon	--
strath terrace	SU
stream terrace	SX
valley border surfaces	--
valley flat	--
valley floor remnant	--
wash	WA
wind gap	WG

Microfeatures:

bar	--
bar & channel	--
channel	--
ephemeral stream (also Landform)	--
groove	--
gully	--
intermittent stream (also Landform)	--
ripple mark	--
swash zone	--

4. Solution (dominated by dissolution, and commonly, subsurface drainage)

Landscapes:

cockpit karst	--
cone karst	--
fluviokarst	--
glaciokarst	--
karst	KP
kegel karst	--
sinkhole karst	--
thermokarst	TK
tower karst	--

Landforms:

blind valley	VB
cockpit	--
collapse sinkhole	--
interior valley	--
karst cone	--
karst tower	--
karst valley	--
mogote	--
pavement karst	--
pinnacle	--
sinkhole	SH
solution platform	--
solution sinkhole	--
swallow hole	TB
thermokarst depression (also Microfeature)	TK
yardang (also Microfeature)	--
yardang trough (also Microfeature)	TK

Microfeatures:

cutter	--
karren	--
solution chimney	--
solution corridor	--
solution fissure	--
solution pipe	--
thermokarst depression (also Landform)	--
yardang (also Landform)	--
yardang trough (also Landform)	--

5. Eolian (dominantly wind related, erosional, or depositional)

Landscapes:

dune field	--
sandhills	SH
sand plain	--

Landforms:

barchan dune	BQ
blowout	BY
climbing dune	--
deflation basin	DB
dune	DU
dune field (also Landscape)	--
dune lake (water body)	--
dune slack (also Microfeature)	--
falling dune	--
foredune	FD
interdune	ID
loess bluff	LO
loess hill	LQ
longitudinal dune	--
paha	PA
parabolic dune	PB
parna dune	PD
playa dune (also Microfeature)	--
sand ramp	--
sand sheet	RX
seif dune	SD
slick rock (also Microfeature)	--
star dune	--
transverse dune	TD
yardang (also Microfeature)	--
yardang trough (also Microfeature)	--

Microfeatures:

dune slack (also Landform)	--
dune traces	--
interdune (also Landform)	--
playa dune (also Landform)	--
playette	--
shrub-coppice dune	--
slick rock (also Landform)	--
slip face	--
yardang (also Landform)	--
yardang trough (also Landform)	--
zibar	--

6. Glacial ( includes ice contact, glaciofluvial, glaciolacustrine, glaciomarine, and outwash features)

Landscapes:

continental glacier	--
drumlin field	--
glaciokarst	--
hills	HI
ice-margin complex	--
outwash plain (also Landform)	--
till plain (also Landform)	TP

Landforms:

alpine glacier	--
arete	AR
cirque	CQ
cirque floor	--
cirque headwall	--
cirque platform	--
col	CL
collapsed ice-floored lakebed	CK
collapsed ice-walled lakebed	CN
collapsed lake plain	CS
collapsed outwash plain	CT
crag and tail	--
crevasse filling	CF
disintegration moraine	DM
drumlin	DR
drumlinoid ridge	--
end moraine	EM
esker	EK
fjord (water body)	FJ
flute (also Microfeature)	FU
fosse	FV
giant ripple	GC
glacial drainage channel	GD
glacial lake [relict]	GL
glacial lake (water body)	--
glacial-valley floor	--
glacial-valley wall	--
glacier	--
ground moraine	GM
hanging valley	HV
head-of-outwash	--
ice-contact slope	--
ice-marginal stream	--
ice-pushed ridge	--
interdrumlin	--
kame	KA
kame moraine	KM
kame terrace	KT
kettle	KE
lateral moraine	LM
medial moraine	MH
moraine	MU
nunatak	NU
outwash delta	--
outwash fan	OF
outwash plain (also Landscape)	OP
outwash terrace	OT
paha	PA
pitted outwash plain	PM
pitted outwash terrace	--
pothole (also Microfeature)	PH
pressure ridge (ice)	--
proglacial lake [relict]	--
proglacial lake (water body)	--
recessional moraine	RM
reworked lake plain	--
roche mountonnée (also Microfeature)	RN
rock glacier	RO
snowfield	--
stoss and lee	--
tarn (water body; also Microfeature)	--
terminal moraine	TA
till-floored lake plain	--
till plain (also Landscape)	TP
tunnel valley	TV
tunnel-valley lake (water body)	--
underfit stream	--
valley train	VT
U - shaped valley	UV

Microfeatures:

flute (also Landform)	--
glacial groove	--
ice wedge	--
ice wedge cast	--
nivation hollow	--
pothole [glacial]	--
roche moutonnée (also Landform)	--
swale (also Landform)	--
tarn (water body; also Landform)	--

7. Periglacial [related to non-glacial, cold climate (modern or relict), including periglacial forms of patterned ground.  Note: consider “patterned ground” as a Landform, but treat specific types of patterned ground, singular or plural, as Microfeatures.]

Landscapes:

coastal plain (e.g., North Slope, AK)	CP
hills	HI
plains	PL
thermokarst	TK

Landforms:

alas	AA
block field	BW
muskeg	MX
patterned ground (see Microfeatures for types)	PG
peat plateau	PJ
pingo	PI
rock glacier	RO
string bog	SY
thermokarst depression	TK
thermokarst lake (water body)	--

Microfeatures:

circle	--
earth hummocks	--
frost boil	--
high-center polygons	--
ice wedge polygons	--
low-center polygons	--
nivation hollow	--
non-sorted circles	--
palsa (palsen = plural; = peat hummocks)	--
polygon	--
solifluction lobe	--
solifluction sheet	--
solifluction terrace	--
sorted circles	--
stripes	--
turf hummocks	--

8. Mass Movement (Mass Wasting) (dominated by gravity, including creep forms)

Landscapes:  (these generic Landscapes are not Mass Movement features per say, but are commonly modified by, and include localized areas of, Mass Movement)

foothills	FH
hills	HI
mountain range	--
mountains	MO

Landforms:

ash flow	AS
avalanche chute	AL
block glide	--
block stream	BX
colluvial apron	--
complex landslide	--
creep	--
debris avalanche	--
debris fall	--
debris flow	DF
debris slide	--
debris spread	--
debris topple	--
earth flow	EF
earth spread	--
earth topple	--
fall	FB
flow	--
lahar	LA
landslide	LK
lateral spread	--
main scarp (also Microfeature)	--
mudflow	MW
rock fall (also Microfeature)	--
rockfall avalanche	--
rock spread	--
rock topple	--
rotational debris slide	--
rotational earth slide	--
rotational rock slide	--
rotational slide	RP
sag (also Microfeature)	--
sag pond (water body; also Microfeature)	--
sand flow	RW
scree slope	--
slide	SJ
slump	SK
slump block	SN
soil fall	--
talus cone	--
talus slope	--
toe [mass move.] (also Microfeature)	--
topple	--
Toreva block	--
translational debris slide	--
translational earth slide	--
translational rock slide	--
translational slide	TS

Microfeatures:

main scarp (also Landform)	--
minor scarp	--
rockfall (also Landform)	--
sag (also Landform)	--
sag pond (also Landform)	--
sand boil	--
solifluction lobe	--
solifluction sheet	--
solifluction terrace	--
terracettes	T
toe [mass move.] (also Landform)	--

9. Volcanic and Hydrothermal

Landscapes:

foothills	FH
hills	HI
lava field (also Landform)	--
lava plain (also Landform)	--
lava plateau (also Landform)	--
mountains	MO
volcanic field (also Landform)	--

Landforms:

`a`a lava flow	--
ash flow	AS
block lava flow	--
caldera	CD
cinder cone	CI
crater [volcanic]	CR
diatreme	--
fissure vent	--
geyser	--
geyser basin	--
geyser cone	--
hot spring	--
kipuka	--
lahar	LA
lava field (also Landscape)	--
lava flow-unit (also Microfeature)	--
lava flow	LC
lava plain (also Landscape)	LN
lava plateau (also Landscape)	LL
lava trench (also Microfeature)	--
lava tube	--
louderback	LU
maar	--
mawae	--
mud pot	--
neck [volcanic]	--
pahoehoe lava flow	--
pillow lava flow	--
plug [volcanic]	--
plug dome	PP
pressure ridge [volcanic] (also Microfeature)	PU
pyroclastic flow	--
pyroclastic surge	--
shield volcano	--
steptoe	ST
stratovolcano	SV
volcanic cone	VC
volcanic dome	VD
volcanic field (also Landscape)	--

Microfeatures:

corda	--
lava flow unit (also Landform)	--
lava trench (also Landform)	--
pressure ridge [volcanic] (also Landform)	--
spatter cone	--
spiracle	--
tumulus (tumuli = plural)	--

10. Tectonic and Structural (related to regional or local bedrock structures, or crustal movement. In Soil Survey, tectonic and structural features are only recognized if they have some expression at or near the land surface)

Landscapes:

batholith	--
bolson	BO
fault-block mountains	--
foothills	FH
hills	HI
intermontane basin	IB
mountain range	--
mountains	MO
mountain system	--
plateau	PT
rift valley	--
semi-bolson	SB
tableland	TB
valley	VA

Landforms:

anticline	AN
canyon bench	--
cuesta	CU
cuesta valley	--
diapir	DD
dike	DK
dipslope	DL
dome	DO
fault-line scarp	FK
fault-block	--
fault zone	--
fold	FQ
graben	GR
half graben	--
hogback	HO
homoclinal ridge	--
horst	HT
louderback	LU
meteorite crater	--
monocline	MJ
scarp slope	RS
sill	RT
stock	--
strike valley	--
structural bench	SB
syncline	SZ
window	--

Microfeatures:

sand boil

--

11. Slope (generic terms or those that describe slope form, geometry, or arrangement of land features, rather than any particular genesis or process)

Landscapes:

badlands	BA
breaks	BK
canyonlands	--
foothills	FH
hills	HI
mountain range	--
mountains	MO
mountain system	--
piedmont	PI
piedmont slope	--
plateau (also Landscape)	PT
tableland	TB
upland	UP

Landforms:

beveled base	--
block stream	BX
bluff	BN
broad interstream divide	--
butte	BU
canyon bench	--
cliff	CJ
colluvial apron	--
cuesta	CU
dome	DO
escarpment	ES
faceted spur	FS
fault-line scarp	FK
free face (also Geom. Component - Hills, Mtns.)	FW
gap	GA
headwall	HW
high hill	--
hill (plural = Landscape)	HI
hillslope	--
hogback	HO
interfluve (also Geom. Component - Hills)	IV
knob	KN
knoll	KL
ledge	LE
low hill	--
mesa	ME
mountain (plural = Landscape)	MM
mountain slope	MN
mountain valley	MV
notch	NO
paha	PA
peak	PK
pediment	PE
plain (plural = Landscape)	PN
plateau (also Landscape)	PT
ridge	RI
rim	RJ
rock pediment	--
scarp	RY
scarp slope	--
scree slope	--
slick rock (also Microfeature)	--
spur	SQ
stack [Geom.]	SR
talus cone	--
talus slope	--
tor	TQ
valley	VA
valley floor remnant	--
wind gap	WG

Microfeatures:

finger ridge	--
mound	M
rib	--
rill	--
slick rock (also Landform)	--

12. Erosional (related dominantly to water erosion but excluding perennial, channel flow (i.e., fluvial, glaciofluvial), or eolian erosion)

Landscapes:

badlands	BA
breaks	BK
canyonlands	--
foothills	FH
hills	HI
mountain range	--
mountains	MO
piedmont	PI
piedmont slope	--
plateau (also Landscape)	PT
tableland	TB

Landforms:

ballena	BL
ballon	BV
basin floor remnant	BD
beveled base	--
canyon bench	--
col	CL
colluvial apron	--
cuesta	CU
cuesta valley	--
eroded fan remnant	--
eroded fan-remnant sideslope	--
erosion remnant	ER
free face (also Geom. Comp. - Hills, Mtns.)	FW
gap	GA
hogback	HO
inselberg	IN
monadnock	MD
notch	NO
paha	PA
partial ballena	PF
peak	PK
pediment	PE
plateau (also Landscape)	PT
rock pediment	--
saddle	SA
scarp slope	RS
slick rock (also Microfeature)	--
stack [Geom.]	-
strike valley	--
structural bench	SB
tor	TQ
valley border surfaces	--
valley floor remnant	--
wind gap	WG
window	--

Microfeatures:

earth pillar	--
finger ridge	--
groove	--
gully	--
hoodoo	--
pinnacle	--
rib	--
rill	--
slick rock (also Landform)	--
swale	--

13. Depressional (low area or declivity features, excluding permanent water bodies)

Landscapes:

basin	BS
basin floor (also Landform)	--
bolson	BO
semi-bolson	SB
valley	VA

Landforms:

alluvial flat	AP
basin floor (also Landscape)	BC
basin floor remnant	BD
box canyon	--
canyon	CA
closed depression (also Microfeature)	--
col	CL
coulee	CE
cove [Geom.]	CO
cuesta valley	--
depression	DP
drainageway	DQ
drainhead complex	--
gap	GA
gorge	GO
gulch	GT
gut (valley)	GV
intermontane basin	IB
kettle	KE
mountain valley	MV
open depression (also Microfeature)	--
playa	PL
playa floor (also Microfeature)	--
playa rim (also Microfeature)	--
playa slope (also Microfeature)	--
playa step (also Microfeature)	--
pothole (intermittent water; also Microfeature)	PH
ravine	RV
saddle	--
sag (also Microfeature)	--
semi-open depression	--
slot canyon	--
strike valley	--
swale (also Microfeature)	SC
trough	TR
U-shaped valley	UV
valley	VA
valley floor	VL
V-shaped valley	VV

Microfeatures:

closed depression (also Landform)	--
open depression (also Landform)	--
playa floor (also Landform)	--
playa rim (also Landform)	--
playa slope (also Landform)	--
playa step (also Landform)	--
pothole (intermittent water; also Landform)	-
swale (also Landform)	--
tree-tip pit	--

14. Wetlands (Related to vegetated and/or shallow wet areas, and wet soils. Provisional list: conventional, geologic definitions; not legalistic or regulatory usage.)

Landscapes (generally, there is no appropriate Landscape term for wetlands; by default, choose the most appropriate Landscape term from another Process Environment or Other Grouping):

estuary (also Landform)	--
everglades	--

Landforms:

alas	AA
backswamp	BS
bog	BO
Carolina Bay	CB
dune slack (also Microfeature)	--
ephemeral stream (also Microfeature)	--
estuary (also Landscape)	WD
fen	FN
flood-plain playa	FY
fringe tidal marsh	--
highmoor bog	HB
intermittent stream (also Microfeature)	--
lowmoor bog	LX
mangrove swamp	--
marsh	MA
mud flat	MF
muskeg	MX
oxbow lake (ephemeral)	OL
peat plateau	PJ
playa (intermittent water)	PL
pocosin	PO
pothole (intermittent water; also Microfeature)	PH
raised bog	RB
ribbed fen	RG
salt marsh	SM
slough (intermittent water)	SL
string bog	SY
swamp	SW
tidal flat	TF
tidal marsh	--

Microfeatures:

dune slack (also Landform)	--
ephemeral stream (also Landform)	--
intermittent stream (also Landform)	--
playette	--
pothole (intermittent water; also Landform)	--
vernal pool (seasonal water)	--

15. Water Bodies [discrete “surface water” features, primarily permanent open water, which in Soil Survey Reports are commonly treated as the general map unit “water” (e.g., lake), or as a spot / line symbol (e.g., perennial stream)]

Landscapes:

bay [coast] (water body; also Landform)	--
estuary (water body; also Landform)	--
lagoon [coast] (water body; also Landform)	--

Landforms:

axial stream	--
bay [coast]	WB
bayou	WC
cove [coast]	--
dune lake	--
estuary	WD
fjord	FJ
glacial lake	WE
gulf [coast]	--
gut [stream]	WH
ice-marginal stream	--
inlet	--
lagoon (water body; also Landscape)	WI
lagoon channel	--
lake	WJ
marine lake (water body)	--
ocean	--
oxbow lake	WK
perennial stream (also Microfeature)	--
playa lake	WL
pluvial lake	WM
pothole [lake] (also Microfeature)	WN
proglacial lake	WO
relict-tidal inlet (water body)	--
river	--
sag pond (also Microfeature)	--
salt pond (also Microfeature)	WQ
sea	--
shoal	WR
slackwater	WS
slough (permanent water)	WU
sound	--
strait	--
stream (permanent water)	--
tarn (also Microfeature)	--
thermokarst lake	WV
tidal inlet	--
tunnel-valley lake	--

Microfeatures:

channel (permanent water)	--
perennial stream (also Landform)	--
pond	--
pool	--
pothole (permanent water; also Landform)	--
sag pond	--
salt pond (also Landform)	--
tank	--
tarn	--

16. Subaqueous Features [Discrete, relatively shallow underwater features that commonly can support rooted plants, and adjacent features, ordinarily found below permanent open water. Historically, in Soil Survey Reports these underwater features have been included in the generic map unit “water” ]. Subaqueous “Landscape” terms are obviously not terrestrial, but are Earth surface features.

Landscapes:

bay [coast] (water body; also Landform)	--
gulf [coast] (water body)	--
estuary (water body; also Landform)	--
lagoon [coast] (water body; also Landform)	--
ocean (water body)	--
sea (water body)	--
sound (water body)	--
strait (water body)	--

Landforms:

barrier cove	--
bay [coast] (water body; also Landscape)	--
bay bottom	--
cove [coast]	--
dredged channel (Anthropogenic Feature)	--
dredge-deposit shoal (Anthro. Feature)	--
estuary (water body; also Landscape)	WD
flood-tidal delta	--
flood-tidal delta flat	--
flood-tidal delta slope	--
fluviomarine bottom	--
inlet	--
lagoon [coast] (water body; also Landscape)	WI
lagoon bottom	--
lagoon channel	--
? lake	WJ
mainland cove	--
marine lake	--
reef	RF
relict-tidal inlet	--
shoal	--
submerged back-barrier beach	--
submerged mainland beach	--
submerged point bar [coastal]	--
submerged wave-built terrace	--
submerged wave-cut platform	--
tidal inlet	--
washover-fan flat	--
washover-fan slope	--

Microfeatures:

channel (permanent water)

--

List of Materials or Material-Related, Structure, or Morphological-Feature Terms Contained in the Glossary (Exhibit 629-2)

(NR - terms that are NOT RECOMMENDED; NP - terms that are NOT PREFERRED)

Genesis - Process Terms and Geologic Time Terms Contained in the Glossary (Exhibit 629-3)

(NR - terms that are NOT RECOMMENDED; NP - terms that are NOT PREFERRED)

North American Glacial Episodes and General Geologic Time Scale (Exhibit 629-4)

(Schoeneberger, et al., 2002; After Morrison; In: Sibrava, et al., 1986; and Harland, et al., 1990)

*    ka = x 1,000;  **Ma = x 1,000,000
≈   “approximately”
¹    Oxygen isotope

References

Harland, W.B., R.L. Armstrong, L.E. Craig, A.G. Smith, and D.G. Smith. 1990. A geologic time scale. Press Syndicate of University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK. 1 sheet.

Morrison, R.B. (ed.). 1991. Quaternary nonglacial geology: conterminous United States. Geological Society of America, Decade of North American Geology, Geology of North America, Vol. K-2. 672 p.

Schoeneberger, P.J., D.A. Wysocki, E.C. Benham, and W.D. Broderson. 2002. Field book for describing and sampling soils, Version 2.0. Natural Resource Conservation Service, USDA, National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, NE.

Sibrava, V., D.Q. Bowen, and D.Q. Richmond (eds.). 1986. Quaternary glaciations in the Northern Hemisphere: final report of the International Geological Correlation Programme, Project 24. Quaternary Science Reviews, Vol. 5, Pergamon Press, Oxford. 514 p.
 

Till Terms (Exhibit 629-5)

Genetic classification and relationships of till terms commonly used in soil survey. (Schoeneberger, et al., 2002; adapted from Goldthwaite and Matsch, 1988.)

¹ Ablation till and basil till, generic terms that only describe “relative position” of deposition, have been widely replaced by multiple, more specific terms that convey both relative position and process. Ablation till (any comparatively permeable, non-sorted debris deposited within or above stagnant ice) is replaced by supraglacial melt-out till, supraglacial flowtill, etc. Basal till (any dense, non-sorted, subglacial till) is replaced by lodgment till, subglacial melt-out till, subglacial flowtill, etc.

² Additional (proposed) till terms that have not gained wide acceptance, and are therefore considered to be Not Preferred, and should not be used (shown for completeness).

³ Also called gravity flowtill (Not Preferred).

References

Goldthwaite, R.P. and Matsch, C.L. (eds.). 1988. Genetic classification of glacigenic deposits: final report of the commission on genesis and lithology of glacial quaternary deposits of the International Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA). A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam. 294 p.

Jackson, J.A. (ed.). 1997. Glossary of geology, 4th Ed. American Geological Institute, Alexandria, VA. 769 p.

Schoeneberger, P.J., D.A. Wysocki, E.C. Benham, and W.D. Broderson. 2002. Field book for describing and sampling soils, Version 2.0. Natural Resource Conservation Service, USDA, National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, NE.
 

Pyroclastic Terms (Exhibit 629-6)

Pyroclastic Terms:  Size and compositional relationships of pyroclastic terms commonly used in soil survey. (Schoeneberger, et al., 2002; adapted from Fisher, 1989.)

¹ These size breaks are taken from geological literature (Fisher, 1989) and based on the modified Wentworth scale. The 0.062 mm break is very close to the USDA’s 0.05 mm break between coarse silt and very fine sand (soil Survey Staff, 1993). The 64 mm “geologic break” is relatively close to the USDA’s 76 mm break between coarse gravel and cobbles. [See the chart “Comparison of Particle Size Classes in Different Systems” in the “Profile/Pedon Description Section” under “Soil Texture” in the Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils (Schoenberger, et al., 2002).]

² A minimum size limit of 2 mm is required in Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1994; p. 54), but is not required in geological usage (Fisher, 1989).

³ The descriptor for pumice smaller than 2 mm, as used in Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1999). Geological usage is based solely upon composition and does not include any size restrictions.

References

Fisher, R.V. 1989. Pyroclastic sediments and rocks. AGI Data Sheet 25.2. In: Dutro, J.T., R.V. Dietrich, and R.M. Foose. 1989. AGI data sheets for geology in the field, laboratory, and office, 3rd edition. American Geological Institute, Washington, D.C.

Jackson, J.A. (ed.). 1997. Glossary of geology, 4th Ed. American Geological Institute, Alexandria, VA. 769 p.

Schoeneberger, P.J., D.A. Wysocki, E.C. Benham, and W.D. Broderson. 2002. Field book for describing and sampling soils, Version 2.0. Natural Resource Conservation Service, USDA, National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, NE.

Soil Survey Staff. 1994. Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 6th Ed. USDA - Natural Resources Conservation Service.

Soil Survey Staff. 1998. Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 8th Ed. USDA - Natural Resources Conservation Service, Pocahantas Press, Inc., Blacksburg, VA.  524 pp.
 

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