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Book I: THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY PART ONE: THE ANCIENT PERIOD: THE SHAPING OF THE PHILOSOPHIC MIND 1. Socrates' Predecessors: Philosophy and the Natural Order 2. Socrates and the Sophists: The Problems of Truth and Goodness 3. Plato 4. Aristotle 5. Classical Philosophy After Aristotle PART TWO: THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD: THE CONFLUENCE OF PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY 6. St. Augustine's Christian Philosophy 7. Philosophy in the Dark Ages: Boethius, Pseudo-Dionysius, Erigena 8. Early Statements of Major Problems 9. The Apex of Medieval Philosophy: The Scholastic System of St. Thomas Aquinas PART THREE: THE MODERN PERIOD: PHILOSOPHY AND THE UNFOLDING WORLD OF SCIENCE 10. The Renaissance Interlude 11. Advocates of the Method of Science: Bacon and Hobbes 12. Rationalism on the Continent: Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibniz 13. Empiricism in Britain: Locke, Berkeley, and Hume 14. Rousseau: A Romantic in the Age of Reason 15. Kant: Critical Mediator between Dogmatism and Skepticism 16. Hegel: Absolute Idealism 17. Schopenhauer: Prophet of Pessimism 18. Comte: The Rise of Positivism in France 19. Utilitarianism of Bentham and Mill PART FOUR: THE CONTEMPORARY PERIOD: THE RESHAPING OF THE PHILOSOPHI MIND 20. Pragmatism 21. Karl Marx: Dialectical Materialism 22. Nietzsche 23. Two Twentieth-Century Metaphysicians: Bergson and Whitehead 24. Analytic Philosophy 25. Existentialism BOOK II: PHILOSOPHICAL PROBLEMS Introducing Philosophy: THE SOCRATIC METHOD. 1. The Problem of Definition. Plato, Euthyphro: A Model of the Socratic Method. 2. The Problem of Clarification. Plato, The Apology: The Socratic Method as a Sustained Argument. 3. The Problem of Intellectual and Moral Consistency. Plato, Crito: The Socratic Method Regarding Obedience to Law. PART ONE: THE NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE: HOW DO WE KNOW? 4. The Beginnings of Knowledge. Bertrand Russell, Appearance and Reality. 5. The Ascent to True Knowledge. Plato, The Republic: The Divided Line and Cave. 6. Certainty and the Limits of Doubt. Rene Descartes, Meditations. 7. The Origin of All Our Ideas in Experience. John Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding. 8. Empiricism and the Limits of Knowledge. David Hume, Inquiry Concerning Human Knowledge. 9. How Knowledge is Possible. Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason. 10. Pragmatism and the Enterprise of Knowing. William James, Pragmatism's Notion of Truth. PART TWO: ATOMS VERSUS IDEAS: WHAT IS THERE? 11. Matter and Space: The Basis of All Things. Lucretius, On the Nature of Things. Sir Arthur Eddington, The Two Tables. 12. Consciousness, Not Matter, The True Reality. George Berkeley, Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous. PART THREE: CONCERNING THE EXISTENCE OF GOD: CAN WE PROVE THAT GOD EXISTS? 13. The Ontological Argument. Anselm, Proslogium. 14. Proving God's Existence From Experience. Aquinas, Summa Theologica. 15. Rejecting the Proof From Design. William Paley, The Analogy of the Watch. David Hume, Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion. PART FOUR: THEORIES OF ETHICS: HOW SHOULD WE BEHAVE? 17. Basing Ethics on Human Nature. Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics. 18. Love of God as the Highest God. Saint Augustine, The Morals of the Catholic Church. 19. The Categorical Imperative Immanuel Kant, The Metaphysics of Morals. 20. The Utilitarian Calculus of Pain and Pleasure. John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism. 21. Turning Values Upside Down. Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil. 22. Is There a Characteristically Feminine Voice Defining Morality? Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice. 23. Is There a Universal Standard for Ethics? Walter T. Stace, Absolutism and Relativism in Ethics. PART FIVE: CONCERNING THE FREEDOM OF THE WILL: ARE WE REALLY ABLE TO CHOOSE? 24. How Can We Explain Judgments of Regret? William James, The Dilemma of Determinism. 25. Human Beings as Controlled Puppets. John Hospers, Behavior Set from the Beginning. 26. Is Determinism Compatible with Freedom of the Will? W.T. Stace, Does the Presence of Any Cause Mean Determinism? 27. The Freedom of the Will. John Searle, Minds, Brains, and Science. PART SIX: POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY: WHY SHOULD WE OBEY? 28. The Natural Basis of Society. Aristotle, Politics. 29. The Political Consequences of Biological Difference. Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex. Plato, The Equality of Women. Joyce Trebilcot, Sex Roles: The Argument from Nature. 30. The Moral Dimension of Law. Aquinas, The Treatise on Law. 31. The Basis of Sovereign Authority. Thomas Hobbes, De Cive. 32. Natural Rights and civil Society. John Locke, Second Treatise of Civil Government. 33. The Individual and the Limits of Government. John Stuart Mill, On Liberty. 34. The Clash of Class Interests. Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto. 35. Justice as Fairness. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice. PART SEVEN: DISCOVERING HUMAN NATURE: MIND AND BODY: WHAT AM I? 36. The Distinction Between Mind and Body. Rene Descartes, Meditations and The Passions of the Soul. 37. Descartes' Myth. Gilbert Ryle, The Concept of Mind. 38. The Mind-Body Problem: A Contemporary View. John Searle, Minds, Brains and Science. 39. Do Minds Survive After Death? Plato, Phaedo. Bertrand Russell, Death as the Final Event of the Self. John Perry, A Dialogue on Personal Identity and Immortality. PART EIGHT: THE QUESTION OF HUMAN DESTINY: DOES LIFE HAVE A MEANING? 40. The Inevitability of the Question: "What Is the Meaning of Life?" Leo Tolstoy, My Confession. 41. An Ethical-Religious View of LIfe. David F. Swenson, The Dignity of Human Life. 42. The Absence of a Larger Design or Destiny. A.J. Ayer, The Meaning of Life. 43. The Human Condition. Jean-Paul Sartre, The Humanism of Existentialism. Glossary. Bibliography. Index.