1. A process for treating and oxidizing biological waste, comprising circulating ions of mediator oxidizing species in an
electrolyte through an electrochemical cell and affecting anodic oxidation of reduced forms of reversible redox couples into
oxidized forms, contacting the ions with the biological waste in an anolyte portion of the electrolyte in a primary oxidation
process, involving superoxidizer ions, having an oxidation potential above a threshold value of 1.7 volts at 1 molar, 25°
C. and pH1, wherein when said superoxidizers are present there is a free radical oxidizer driven secondary oxidation process,
adding energy from an energy source to the anolyte portion and augmenting the secondary oxidation processes, breaking down
hydrogen peroxide and ozone in the anolyte portion into hydroxyl free radicals, and increasing an oxidizing effect of the
secondary oxidation processes, wherein the mediator oxidizing species arc selected from the group consisting of (a.) simple
ion redox couples described in Table I as below; (b.) Type I isopolyanions complex anion redox couples formed by incorporation
of elements in Table I or mixtures thereof as addenda atoms; (c.) Type I heteropolyanions complex anion redox couples formed
by incorporation into Type I isopolyanions as heteroatoms any element selected from the group consisting of the elements listed
in Table II either singly or in combination thereof, or (d.) hereropolyanions complex anion redox couples containing at least
one heteroatom type element contained in both Table I and Table II below or (e.) combinations of the mediator oxidizing species
from any or all of (a.), (b.), (c.) and (d.)
| TABLE I |
| |
| Simple Ion Redox Couples |
|
| |
|
|
|
|
SPECIFIC |
| |
|
|
|
|
REDOX |
| |
SUB |
ELE- |
VAL- |
|
COU- |
| GROUP |
GROUP |
MENT |
ENCE |
SPECIES |
PLES |
| |
| I |
A |
None |
|
|
|
| |
B |
Copper |
+2 |
Cu−2 (cupric)
|
+2 |
| |
|
(Cu) |
|
HCuO2 (bicuprite)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
CuO2−2 (cuprite)
|
+3, +4 |
| |
|
|
+3 |
Cu+3 |
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
CuO2− (cuprate)
|
+3 |
| |
|
|
|
Cu2O3 (sesquioxide)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
+4 |
CuO2 (peroxide)
|
+4 Species |
| |
|
Silver |
+1 |
Ag+ (argentous)
|
+1 |
| |
|
(Ag) |
|
AgO− (argentite)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
+2 |
Ag−2 (argentic)
|
+2, +3 |
| |
|
|
|
AgO |
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
(argentic oxide) |
+2 |
| |
|
|
+3 |
AgO+ (argentyl)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
Ag2O3 |
+3 Species |
| |
|
|
|
(sesquioxide) |
| |
|
Gold (Au) |
+1 |
Au+ (aurous)
|
+1 |
| |
|
|
+3 |
Au+3 (auric)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
AuO− (auryl)
|
+3, +4 |
| |
|
|
|
H3AuO3− |
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
(auric acid) |
+3 |
| |
|
|
|
H2AuO3− |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
(monoauarate) |
+4 Species |
| |
|
|
|
HAuO3−2 (diaurate)
|
| |
|
|
|
AuO3−3 (triaurate)
|
| |
|
|
|
Au2O3 (auric oxide)
|
| |
|
|
|
Au(OH)3 |
| |
|
|
|
(auric hydroxide) |
| |
|
|
+4 |
AuO2 (peroxide)
|
| II |
A |
Magne- |
+2 |
Mg+2 (magnesic)
|
+2 |
| |
|
sium (Mg) |
+4 |
MgO2 |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
(peroxide) |
+4 Species |
| |
|
Calcium |
+2 |
Ca+2 |
+2 |
| |
|
(Ca) |
+4 |
CaO2 |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
(peroxide) |
+4 Species |
| |
|
Strontium |
+2 |
Sr+2 |
+2 |
| |
|
|
+4 |
SrO2 |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
(peroxide) |
+4 Species |
| |
|
Barium |
+2 |
Ba+2 |
+2 |
| |
|
(Ba) |
+4 |
BaO2 |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
(peroxide) |
+4 Species |
| II |
B |
Zinc (Zn) |
+2 |
Zn+2 (zincic)
|
+2 |
| |
|
|
|
ZnOH+ (zincyl)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
HZnO2− (bizincate)
|
+4 Species |
| |
|
|
|
ZnO2−2 (zincate)
|
| |
|
|
+4 |
ZnO2 (peroxide)
|
| |
|
Mercury |
+2 |
Hg+2 (mercuric)
|
+2 |
| |
|
(Hg) |
|
Hg(OH)2 (mercuric
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
hydroxide) |
+4 Species |
| |
|
|
|
HHgO2− |
| |
|
|
|
(mercurate) |
| |
|
|
+4 |
HgO2 (peroxide)
|
| III |
A |
Boron |
+3 |
H3BO3 |
+3 |
| |
|
|
|
(orthoboric acid) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
H2BO3−, HBO3−2,
|
+4.5, +5 |
| |
|
|
|
BO3−3 (orthoborates)
|
Species |
| |
|
|
|
BO2− (metaborate)
|
| |
|
|
|
H2B4O7 |
| |
|
|
|
(tetraboric acid) |
| |
|
|
|
HB4O7−/B4O7−2 |
| |
|
|
|
(tetraborates) |
| |
|
|
|
B2O4−2 (diborate)
|
| |
|
|
|
B6O10−2 |
| |
|
|
|
(hexaborate) |
| |
|
|
+4.5 |
B2O5− (diborate)
|
| |
|
|
+5 |
BO3−/BO2−•H2O
|
| |
|
|
|
(perborate) |
| |
|
Thallium |
+1 |
Tl+1 (thallous)
|
+1 |
| |
|
(Tl) |
+3 |
Tl+3 (thallic)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
TlO+, TlOH+2,
|
+3 or |
| |
|
|
|
Tl(OH)2+ |
+3.33 |
| |
|
|
|
(thallyl) |
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
Tl2O3 |
+3 |
| |
|
|
|
(sesquioxide) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
Tl(OH)3 (hydroxide)
|
+3.33 |
| |
|
|
+3.33 |
Tl3O5 (peroxide)
|
Species |
|
| |
B |
See Rare Earths and Actinides |
|
| IV |
A |
Carbon |
+4 |
H2CO3 |
+4 |
| |
|
(C) |
|
(carbonic acid) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
HCO3− |
+5, |
| |
|
|
|
(bicarbonate) |
+6 Species |
| |
|
|
|
CO3−2 (carbonate)
|
| |
|
|
+5 |
H2C2O6 |
| |
|
|
|
(perdicarbonic acid) |
| |
|
|
+6 |
H2CO4 (per-
|
| |
|
|
|
monocarbonic acid) |
| |
|
Germani- |
+4 |
H2GeO3 |
+4 |
| |
|
um (Ge) |
|
(germanic acid) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
HGeO3− |
+6 Species |
| |
|
|
|
(bigermaniate) |
| |
|
|
|
GeO3−4 (germinate)
|
| |
|
|
|
Ge+4 (germanic)
|
| |
|
|
|
GeO4−4 |
| |
|
|
|
H2Ge2O5 |
| |
|
|
|
(digermanic acid) |
| |
|
|
|
H2Ge4O9 |
| |
|
|
|
(tetragermanic acid) |
| |
|
|
|
H2Ge5O11 |
| |
|
|
|
(pentagermanic |
| |
|
|
|
acid) |
| |
|
|
|
HGe5O11− |
| |
|
|
|
(bipentagermanate) |
| |
|
|
+6 |
Ge5O11−2 |
| |
|
|
|
(pentagermanate) |
| |
|
Tin (Sn) |
+4 |
Sn+4 (stannic)
|
+4 |
| |
|
|
|
HSnO3− (bistannate)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
SnO3−2 (stannate)
|
+7 Species |
| |
|
|
|
SnO2 (stannic oxide)
|
| |
|
|
|
Sn(OH)4 |
| |
|
|
|
(stannic hydroxide) |
| |
|
|
+7 |
SnO4− (perstannate)
|
| |
|
Lead (Pb) |
+2 |
Pb+2 (plumbous)
|
+2, +2.67, |
| |
|
|
|
HPbO2− |
+3 |
| |
|
|
|
(biplumbite) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
PbOH+ |
+4 Species |
| |
|
|
|
PbO2−2 (plumbite)
|
| |
|
|
|
PbO (plumbus |
| |
|
|
|
oxide) |
| |
|
|
+2.67 |
Pb3O4 (plumbo-
|
| |
|
|
|
plumbic oxide) |
| |
|
|
+3 |
Pb2O3 (sequioxide)
|
| IV |
A |
Lead (Pb) |
+4 |
Pb+4 (plumbic)
|
+2, +2.67, |
| |
|
|
|
PbO3−2 |
+3 |
| |
|
|
|
(metaplumbate) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
HPbO3− |
+4 Species |
| |
|
|
|
(acid metaplumbate) |
| |
|
|
|
PbO4−4 |
| |
|
|
|
(orthoplumbate) |
| |
|
|
|
PbO2 (dioxide)
|
| IV |
B |
Titanium |
+4 |
TiO+2 (pertitanyl)
|
+4 |
| |
|
|
|
HTiO4− titanate)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
TiO2 (dioxide)
|
+6 Species |
| |
|
|
+6 |
TiO2+2 (pertitanyl)
|
| |
|
|
|
HTiO4− |
| |
|
|
|
(acid pertitanate) |
| |
|
|
|
TiO4−2 (pertitanate)
|
| |
|
|
|
TiO3 (peroxide)
|
| |
|
Zirconium |
+4 |
Zr+4 (zirconic)
|
+4 |
| |
|
(Zr) |
|
ZrO+2 (zirconyl)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
HZrO3− (zirconate)
|
+5, +6, |
| |
|
|
+5 |
Zr2O5 (pentoxide)
|
+7 Species |
| |
|
|
+6 |
ZrO3 (peroxide)
|
| |
|
|
+7 |
Zr2O7 (heptoxide)
|
| |
|
Hafnium |
+4 |
Hf+4 (hafnic)
|
+4 |
| |
|
(Hf) |
|
HfO+2 (hafnyl)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
+6 |
HfO3 (peroxide)
|
+6 Species |
| V |
A |
Nitrogen |
+5 |
HNO3 (nitric acid)
|
+5 |
| |
|
|
|
NO3− (nitrate)
|
species/ |
| |
|
|
+7 |
HNO4 |
+7 Species |
| |
|
|
|
(pernitric acid) |
| |
|
Phospho- |
+5 |
H3PO4 (ortho-
|
+5 |
| |
|
rus (P) |
|
phosphoric acid) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
H2PO4− (mono-
|
+6, |
| |
|
|
|
orthophosphate) |
+7 species |
| |
|
|
|
HPO4−2 |
| |
|
|
|
(diorthophosphate) |
| |
|
|
|
PO4−3 |
| |
|
|
|
(triorthophosphate) |
| |
|
|
|
HPO3 (meta-
|
| |
|
|
|
phosphoric acid) |
| |
|
|
|
H4P2O7 (pryo-
|
| |
|
|
|
phosphoric acid) |
| |
|
|
|
H5P3O10 |
| |
|
|
|
(triphosphoric acid) |
| |
|
|
|
H6P4O13 (tetra-
|
| |
|
|
|
phosphoric acid) |
| V |
A |
Phospho- |
+6 |
H4P2O8 |
+5 |
| |
|
rus (P) |
|
(perphosphoric acid) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
+7 |
H3PO5 (mono-
|
+6, |
| |
|
|
|
perphosphoric acid) |
+7 Species |
| V |
A |
Arsenic |
+5 |
H3AsO4 |
+5 |
| |
|
(As) |
|
(ortho-arsenic acid) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
H2AsO4− |
+7 species |
| |
|
|
|
(mono ortho- |
| |
|
|
|
arsenate) |
| |
|
|
|
HAsO4−2 |
| |
|
|
|
(di-ortho-arsenate) |
| |
|
|
|
AsO4−3 |
| |
|
|
|
(tri-ortho-arsenate) |
| |
|
|
|
AsO2+ (arsenyl)
|
| |
|
|
+7 |
AsO3+ (perarsenyl)
|
| |
|
Bismuth |
+3 |
Bi+3 (bismuthous)
|
+3 |
| |
|
(Bi) |
|
BiOH+2 (hy-
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
droxybismuthous) |
+3.5, +4, |
| |
|
|
|
BiO+ (bismuthyl)
|
+5 Species |
| |
|
|
|
BiO2− |
| |
|
|
|
(metabismuthite) |
| |
|
|
+3.5 |
Bi4O7 (oxide)
|
| |
|
|
+4 |
Bi2O4 (tetroxide)
|
| |
|
|
+5 |
BiO3− |
| |
|
|
|
(metabismuthite) |
| |
|
|
|
Bi2O5 (pentoxide)
|
| |
B |
Vanadium |
+5 |
VO2+ (vanadic)
|
+5 |
| |
|
(V) |
|
H3V2O7− |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
(pyrovanadate) |
+7, |
| |
|
|
|
H2VO4− |
+9 Species |
| |
|
|
|
(orthovanadate) |
| |
|
|
|
VO3− |
| |
|
|
|
(metavanadate) |
| |
|
|
|
HVO4−2 |
| |
|
|
|
(orthovanadate) |
| |
|
|
|
VO4−3 |
| |
|
|
|
(orthovanadate) |
| |
|
|
|
V2O5 (pentoxide)
|
| |
|
|
|
H4V2O7 |
| |
|
|
|
(pyrovanadic acid) |
| |
|
|
|
HVO3 |
| |
|
|
|
(metavanadic acid) |
| |
|
|
|
H4V6O17 |
| |
|
|
|
(hexavanadic acid) |
| |
|
|
+7 |
VO4− (pervanadate)
|
| |
|
|
+9 |
VO5− |
| |
|
|
|
(hypervanadate) |
| V |
B |
Niobium |
+5 |
NbO3− |
+5 |
| |
|
(Nb) |
|
(metaniobate) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
NbO4−3 |
+7 species |
| |
|
|
|
(orthoniobate) |
| |
|
|
|
Nb2O5 (pentoxide)
|
| |
|
|
|
HNbO3 (niobid acid)
|
| |
|
|
+7 |
NbO4− (perniobate)
|
| |
|
|
|
Nb2O7 |
| |
|
|
|
(perniobic oxide) |
| |
|
|
|
HNbO4 |
| |
|
|
|
(perniobic acid) |
| |
|
Tantalum |
+5 |
TaO3− |
+5 |
| |
|
(Ta) |
|
(metatantalate) |
species/ |
| |
|
|
|
TaO4−3 |
+7 species |
| |
|
|
|
(orthotanatalate) |
| |
|
|
|
Ta2O5 (pentoxide)
|
| |
|
|
|
HTaO3 |
| |
|
|
|
(tantalic acid) |
| |
|
|
+7 |
TaO4− (pentantalate)
|
| |
|
|
|
Ta2O7 (pertantalate)
|
| |
|
|
|
HTaO4•H2O
|
| |
|
|
|
(pertantalic acid) |
| VI |
A |
Sulfur (S) |
+6 |
H2SO4 |
+6 |
| |
|
|
|
(sulfuric acid) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
HSO4− (bisulfate)
|
+7, |
| |
|
|
|
SO4−2 (sulfate)
|
+8 Species |
| |
|
|
+7 |
S2O8−2 |
| |
|
|
|
(dipersulfate) |
| |
|
|
+8 |
H2SO5 (momo-
|
| |
|
|
|
persulfuric acid) |
| |
|
Selenium |
+6 |
H2Se2O4 |
+6 |
| |
|
(Se) |
|
(selenic acid) |
species/ |
| |
|
|
|
HSeO4− |
+7 Species |
| |
|
|
|
(biselenate) |
| |
|
|
|
SeO4−2 (selenate)
|
| |
|
|
+7 |
H2Se2O8 |
| |
|
|
|
(perdiselenic acid) |
| |
|
Tellurium |
+6 |
H2TeO4 |
+6 |
| |
|
(Te) |
|
(telluric acid) |
species/ |
| |
|
|
|
HTeO4− (bitellurate)
|
+7 species |
| |
|
|
|
TeO4−2 (tellurate)
|
| |
|
|
+7 |
H2Te2O8 |
| |
|
|
|
(perditellenic acid) |
| |
|
Polonium |
+2 |
Po+2 (polonous)
|
+2, +4 |
| |
|
(Po) |
+4 |
PoO3−2 (polonate)
|
species/ |
| |
|
|
+6 |
PoO3 (peroxide)
|
+6 Species |
| VI |
B |
Chromium |
+3 |
Cr+3 (chromic)
|
+3 |
| |
|
|
|
CrOH+2, Cr(OH)2+ |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
(chromyls) |
+4, +6 |
| |
|
|
|
CrO2−, CrO3−3 |
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
(chromites) |
+4 |
| |
|
|
|
Cr2O3 |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
(chromic oxide) |
+6 Species |
| |
|
|
|
Cr(OH)3 (chromic
|
| |
|
|
|
hydroxide) |
| |
|
|
+4 |
CrO2 (dioxide)
|
| |
|
|
|
Cr(OH)4 (hydroxide)
|
| |
|
|
+6 |
H2CrO4 |
| |
|
|
|
(chromic acid) |
| |
|
|
|
HCrO4− (acid
|
| |
|
|
|
chromate) |
| |
|
|
|
CrO4−2 (chromate)
|
| |
|
|
|
Cr2O7−2 |
| |
|
|
|
(dichromate) |
| |
|
Molybde- |
+6 |
HMoO4− |
+6 |
| |
|
num (Mo) |
|
(bimolybhate) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
MoO4−2 (molydbate)
|
+7 Species |
| |
|
|
|
MoO3 |
| |
|
|
|
(molybdic trioxide) |
| |
|
|
|
H2MoO4 |
| |
|
|
|
(molybolic acid) |
| |
|
|
+7 |
MoO4− |
| |
|
|
|
(permolybdate) |
| |
|
Tungsten |
+6 |
WO4−2 tungstic)
|
+6 |
| |
|
(W) |
|
WO3 (trioxide)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
H2WO4 |
+8 Species |
| |
|
|
|
(tungstic acid) |
| |
|
|
+8 |
WO5−2 (pertungstic)
|
| |
|
|
|
H2WO5 |
| |
|
|
|
(pertungstic acid) |
| VII |
A |
Chlorine |
+1 |
HClO |
+1 |
| |
|
(Cl) |
|
(hypochlorous acid) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
ClO− (hypochlorite)
|
+3, +5, +7 |
| |
|
|
+3 |
HClO2 |
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
(chlorous acid) |
+3 |
| |
|
|
|
ClO2− (chlorite)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
+5 |
HClO3 (chloric acid)
|
+5, +7 |
| |
|
|
|
ClO3− (chlorate)
|
Species; |
| |
|
|
+7 |
HClO4 |
+5 |
| |
|
|
|
(perchloric acid) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
ClO4−, HClO5−2,
|
+7 Species |
| |
|
|
|
ClO5−3, Cl2O9−4 |
| |
|
|
|
(perchlorates) |
| VII |
A |
Bromine |
+1 |
HBrO |
+1 |
| |
|
(Br) |
|
(hypobromous acid) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
BrO− |
+3, +5, +7 |
| |
|
|
|
(hypobromitee) |
Species; |
| |
|
|
+3 |
HBrO2 |
+3 |
| |
|
|
|
(bromous acid) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
BrO2− (bromite)
|
+5, +7 |
| |
|
|
+5 |
HBrO3 |
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
(bromic acid) |
+5 |
| |
|
|
|
BrO3− (bromate)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
+7 |
HBrO4 |
+7 Species |
| |
|
|
|
(perbromic acid) |
| |
|
|
|
BrO4−, HBrO5−2,
|
| |
|
|
|
BrO5−3, Br2O9−4 |
| |
|
|
|
(prebromates) |
| |
|
Iodine |
+1 |
HIO |
+1 |
| |
|
|
|
(hypoiodus acid) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
IO− (hypoiodite)
|
+3, +5, +7 |
| |
|
|
+3 |
HIO2 (iodous acid)
|
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
IO2− (iodite)
|
+3 |
| |
|
|
+5 |
HIO3 (iodic acid)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
IO3− (iodate)
|
+5, +7 |
| |
|
|
+7 |
HIO4 (periodic acid)
|
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
IO4−, HIO5−2,
|
+5 |
| |
|
|
|
IO5−3, I2O9−4 |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
(periodates) |
+7 Species |
| |
B |
Manga- |
+2 |
Mn+2 (manganeous)
|
+2 |
| |
|
nese (Mn) |
|
HMnO2− |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
(dimanganite) |
+3, +4, |
| |
|
|
+3 |
Mn+3 (manganic)
|
+6, +7 |
| |
|
|
+4 |
MnO2 (dioxide)
|
Species; |
| |
|
|
+6 |
MnO4−2 |
+3 |
| |
|
|
|
(manganate) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
+7 |
MnO4− |
+4, +6, +7 |
| |
|
|
|
(permanganate) |
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
|
+4 |
| |
|
|
|
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
|
+6, +7 |
| |
|
|
|
|
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
|
+6 |
| |
|
|
|
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
|
+7 Species |
| VIII |
Period 4 |
Iron (Fe) |
+3 |
Fe+3 (ferric)
|
+3 |
| |
|
|
|
Fe(OH)+2 |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
Fe(OH)2+ |
+4, +5, +6 |
| |
|
|
|
FeO2−2 (ferrite)
|
Species; |
| VIII |
Period 4 |
Iron (Fe) |
+4 |
FeO+2 (ferryl)
|
+4 |
| |
|
|
|
FeO2−2 (perferrite)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
+5 |
FeO2+ (perferryl)
|
+5, +6 |
| |
|
|
+6 |
FeO4−2 (ferrate)
|
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
|
+5 |
| |
|
|
|
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
|
+6 Species |
| |
|
Cobalt |
+2 |
Co+2 (cobalous)
|
+2 |
| |
|
(Co) |
|
HCoO2− |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
(dicobaltite) |
+3, +4 |
| |
|
|
+3 |
Co+3 (cobaltic)
|
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
Co2O3 |
+3 |
| |
|
|
|
(cobaltic oxide) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
+4 |
CoO2 (peroxide)
|
+4 Species |
| |
|
|
|
H2CoO3 |
| |
|
|
|
(cobaltic acid) |
| |
|
Nickel |
+2 |
Ni+2 (nickelous)
|
+2 |
| |
|
(Ni) |
|
NiOH+ |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
HNiO2− |
+3, +4, +6 |
| |
|
|
|
(dinickelite) |
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
NiO2−2 (nickelite)
|
+3 |
| |
|
|
+3 |
Ni+3 (nickelic)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
Ni2O3 |
+4, +6 |
| |
|
|
|
(nickelic oxide) |
Species; |
| |
|
|
+4 |
NiO2 (peroxide)
|
+4 |
| |
|
|
+6 |
NiO4−2 (nickelate)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
|
+6 Species |
| VIII |
Period 5 |
Rutheni- |
+2 |
Ru+2 |
+2 |
| |
|
um (Ru) |
+3 |
Ru+3 |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
Ru2O3 (sesquioxide)
|
+3, +4, |
| |
|
|
|
Ru(OH)3 |
+5, +6, |
| |
|
|
|
(hydroxide) |
+7, +8 |
| |
|
|
+4 |
Ru+4 (ruthenic)
|
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
RuO2 |
+3 |
| |
|
|
|
(ruthenic dioxide) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
Ru(OH)4 |
+4, +5, |
| |
|
|
|
(ruthenic hydroxide) |
+6, +7, +8 |
| |
|
|
+5 |
Ru2O5 (pentoxide)
|
Species; |
| |
|
|
+6 |
RuO4−2 (ruthenate)
|
+4 |
| |
|
|
|
RuO2+2 (ruthenyl)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
RuO3 (trioxide)
|
+5, +6, |
| |
|
|
+7 |
RuO4− |
+7, +8 |
| |
|
|
|
(perruthenate) |
Species; |
| |
|
|
+8 |
H2RuO4 |
+5 |
| |
|
|
|
(hyperuthenic acid) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
HRuO5− |
+6, +7, +8 |
| |
|
|
|
(diperruthenate) |
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
RuO4 (ruthenium
|
+6 |
| |
|
|
|
tetroxide) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
|
+7, +8 |
| |
|
|
|
|
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
|
+7 |
| |
|
|
|
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
|
+8 Species |
| |
|
Rhodium |
+1 |
Rh+ (hyporhodous)
|
+1 |
| |
|
(Rh) |
+2 |
Rh+2 (rhodous)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
+3 |
Rh+3 (rhodic)
|
+2, +3, |
| |
|
|
|
Rh2O3 (sesquioxide)
|
+4, +6 |
| |
|
|
+4 |
RhO2 (rhodic oxide)
|
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
Rh(OH)4 |
+2 |
| |
|
|
|
(hydroxide) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
+6 |
RhO4−2 (rhodate)
|
+3, +4, +6 |
| |
|
|
|
RhO3 (trioxide)
|
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
|
+3 |
| |
|
|
|
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
|
+4, +6 |
| |
|
|
|
|
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
|
+4 |
| |
|
|
|
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
|
+6 Species |
| |
|
Palladium |
+2 |
Pd+2 (palladous)
|
+2 |
| |
|
|
|
PdO2−2 (palladite)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
+3 |
Pd2O3 (sesquioxide)
|
+3, +4, +6 |
| |
|
|
+4 |
PdO3−2 (palladate)
|
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
PdO2 (dioxide)
|
+3 |
| |
|
|
|
Pd(OH)4 |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
(hydroxide) |
+4, +6 |
| |
|
|
+6 |
PdO3 (peroxide)
|
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
|
+4 |
| |
|
|
|
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
|
+6 Species |
| VIII |
Period 6 |
Iridium |
+3 |
Ir+3 (iridic)
|
+3 |
| |
|
(Ir) |
|
Ir2O3 |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
(iridium |
+4, +6 |
| |
|
|
|
sesquioxide) |
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
Ir(OH)3 |
+4 |
| |
|
|
|
(iridium hydroxide) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
+4 |
IrO2 (iridic oxide)
|
+6 Species |
| |
|
|
|
Ir(OH)4 |
| |
|
|
|
(iridic hydroxide) |
| |
|
|
+6 |
IrO4−2 (iridate)
|
| |
|
|
|
IrO3 |
| |
|
|
|
(iridium peroxide) |
| |
|
Platinum |
+2 |
Pt+2 (platinous)
|
+2, +3 |
| |
|
(Pt) |
+3 |
Pt2O3 (sesquioxide)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
+4 |
PtO3−2 (palatinate)
|
+4, +6 |
| |
|
|
|
PtO+2 (platinyl)
|
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
Pt(OH)+3 |
+4 |
| |
|
|
|
PtO2 |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
(platonic oxide) |
+6 Species |
| |
|
|
+6 |
PtO4−2 (Perplatinate)
|
| |
|
|
|
PtO3 |
| |
|
|
|
(perplatinic oxide) |
| IIIB |
Rare |
Cerium |
+3 |
Ce+3 (cerous)
|
+3 |
| |
earths |
(Ce) |
|
Ce2O3 |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
(cerous oxide) |
+4, +6 |
| |
|
|
|
Ce(OH)3 |
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
(cerous hydroxide) |
+4 |
| |
|
|
+4 |
Ce+4, Ce(OH)+3,
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
Ce(OH)2+2,
|
+6 Species |
| |
|
|
|
Ce(OH)3+ (ceric)
|
| |
|
|
|
CeO2 (ceric oxide)
|
| |
|
|
+6 |
CeO3 (peroxide)
|
| |
|
Praseo- |
+3 |
Pr+3 (praseodymous)
|
+3 |
| |
|
dymium |
|
Pr2O3 (sesquioxide)
|
species/ |
| |
|
(Pr) |
|
Pr(OH)3 (hydroxide)
|
+4 |
| |
|
|
+4 |
Pr+4 (praseodymic)
|
species |
| |
|
|
|
PrO2 (dioxide)
|
| |
|
Neodym- |
+3 |
Nd+3 |
+3 |
| |
|
ium |
|
Nd2O3 (sesquioxide)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
+4 |
NdO2 (peroxide)
|
+4 Species |
| |
|
Terbium |
+3 |
Tb+3 |
+3 |
| |
|
(Tb) |
|
Tb2O3 (sesquioxide)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
+4 |
TbO2 (peroxide)
|
+4 Species |
| IIIB |
Acti- |
Thorium |
+4 |
Th+4 (thoric)
|
+4 |
| |
nides |
(Th) |
|
ThO+2 (thoryl)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
HThO3− (thorate)
|
+6 Species |
| |
|
|
+6 |
ThO3 (acid
|
| |
|
|
|
peroxide) |
| |
|
Uranium |
+6 |
UO2+2 (uranyl)
|
+6 |
| |
|
(U) |
|
UO3 (uranic oxide)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
+8 |
HUO5−,
|
+8 Species |
| |
|
|
|
UO5−2 (peruranates)
|
| |
|
|
|
UO4 (peroxide)
|
| |
|
Neptuni- |
+5 |
NpO2+ |
+5 |
| |
|
um (Np) |
|
(hyponeptunyl) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
Np2O5 (pentoxide)
|
+6, +8 |
| |
|
|
+6 |
NpO2+2 (neptunyl)
|
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
NpO3 (trioxide)
|
+6 |
| |
|
|
+8 |
NpO4 (peroxide)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
|
+8 Species |
| |
|
Plutonium |
+3 |
Pu+3 |
+3 |
| |
|
(Pu) |
+4 |
(hypoplutonous) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
Pu+4 |
+4, +5, +6 |
| |
|
|
|
(plutonous) |
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
PuO2 (dioxide)
|
+4 |
| |
|
|
+5 |
PuO2+ |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
(hypoplutonyl) |
+5, +6 |
| |
|
|
|
Pu2O5 (pentoxide)
|
Species; |
| |
|
|
+6 |
PuO2+2 (plutonyl)
|
+5 |
| |
|
|
|
PuO3 (peroxide)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
|
+6 Species |
| |
|
Americi- |
+3 |
Am+3 |
+3 |
| |
|
um (Am) |
|
(hypoamericious) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
+4 |
Am+4 (americous)
|
+4, +5, +6 |
| |
|
|
|
AmO2 (dioxide)
|
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
Am(OH)4 |
+4 |
| |
|
|
|
(hydroxide) |
Species/ |
| |
|
|
+5 |
AmO2+ |
+5, +6 |
| |
|
|
|
(hypoamericyl) |
Species; |
| |
|
|
|
Am2O5 (pentoxide)
|
+5 |
| |
|
|
+6 |
AmO2+2 (americyl)
|
Species/ |
| |
|
|
|
AmO3 (peroxide)
|
+6 Species |
| |
| |
|
|
| TABLE II |
| |
| Elements Participating as Heteroatoms in Heteropolyanion Complex |
| Anion Redox Couple Mediators |
|
| |
SUB |
|
| GROUP |
GROUP |
ELEMENT |
| |
| I |
A |
Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), and |
| |
|
Cesium (Cs) |
| |
B |
Copper (Cu), Silver (Ag), and Gold (Au) |
| II |
A |
Beryllium (Be), Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), |
| |
|
Strontium (Sr), and Barium (Ba) |
| |
B |
Zinc (Zn), Cadmium (Cd), and Mercury (Hg) |
| III |
A |
Boron (B), and Aluminum (Al) |
| |
B |
Scandium (Sc), and Yttrium (Y) - (See Rare Earths) |
| IV |
A |
Carbon (C), Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), |
| |
|
Tin (Sn) and Lead (Pb) |
| |
B |
Titanium (Ti), Zirconium (Zr), and Hafnium (Hf) |
| V |
A |
Nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P), Arsenic (As), |
| |
|
Antimony (Sb), and Bismuth (Bi) |
| |
B |
Vanadium (V), Niobium (Nb), and Tantalum (Ta) |
| VI |
A |
Sulfur (S), Selenium (Se), and Tellurium (Te) |
| |
B |
Chromium (Cr), Molybdenum (Mo), and |
| |
|
Tungsten (W) |
| VII |
A |
Fluorine (F), Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), and |
| |
|
Iodine (I) |
| |
B |
Manganese (Mn), Technetium (Tc), and Rhenium (Re) |
| VIII |
Period 4 |
Iron (Fe), Cobalt (Co), and Nickel (Ni) |
| |
Period 5 |
Ruthenium (Ru), Rhodium (Rh), and Palladium (Pd) |
| |
Period 6 |
Osmium (Os), Iridium (Ir), and Platinum (Pt) |
| IIIB |
Rare |
All |
| |
Earths. |
| |
| |
|
|
