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Table of contents Chapter 1 1 Pressure Sensors 1 1.1. Introduction 1 1.2. Pressure 2 1.2.1. Pressure as a physical quantity 2 1.2.1.1. Static pressure 2 1.2.1.2. Units 3 1.2.2. Absolute, relative and differential sensors 3 1.2.3. Fluid physical properties 5 1.2.3.1. Liquids 5 1.2.3.2. Gases 5 1.2.3.3. Sensor pneumatic connection influence 6 1.3. Pressure ranges 6 1.3.1. Vacuum and ultra-vacuum 6 Various vacuum gauges 7 1.3.2. Middle range pressure 8 1.3.3. High pressure 10 1.4. Main physical principles 10 1.4.1. The sensing device 11 1.4.2. Sensors with elastic element 13 1.4.2.1. Conversion by resistance variation 13 1.4.2.1.1. Potentiometer 13 1.4.2.1.2. Metal strain gauges 15 1.4.2.1.3. Gauges with deposited film 16 1.4.2.1.4. Gauges with diffused piezoresistors 17 1.4.2.1.5. Taut wire gauges 18 1.4.2.1.6. Industrial examples 18 1.4.2.2. Conversion by capacitance variation 21 1.4.2.2.1. Standard capacitive pressure sensors 21 1.4.2.2.2. Capacitance thin - film sensors 23 1.4.2.2.3. Industrial example 24 Model PTA 427 analog barometer from VAISALA 24 MODEL P165 from KAVLICO 25 1.4.2.3. Conversion by inductance variation 26 1.4.2.3.1. Industrial example 26 1.4.2.4. Conversion by piezoelectric effect 27 1.4.2.4.1. Industrial example 29 1.4.2.5. Conversion by oscillators 30 1.4.2.5.1. Oscillator with vibrating blade or cylinder 30 1.4.2.5.2. quartz oscillator 32 1.4.2.5.3. SAW pressure sensors 35 1.4.5.2.4. Industrial example 37 Model RPT series and sensing element in silicon document DRUCK 37 Pressure sensor with vibrating resonant beam principle P90 from THALES 38 1.4.2.6. Optical conversion 38 1.4.2.6.1. Industrial example 39 MODEL PSI Glow from OPTRAND 39 1.4.2.7. Servo controlled sensors with balance of force 40 Principle 40 1.4.3. Vacuum sensors 41 1.4.3.1 Ionization pressure sensors 41 1.4.3.2. Heating effect sensors 42 1.5. Calibration: pressure standards 43 1.5.1. Low pressure standard 43 1.5.2. High pressure standard 43 1.6. Choosing a pressure sensor 45 1.7. References 45 1.8. Other pressure sensors manufacturers 46 1.9 Bibliography 46 Chapter 2 49 Optical Sensors 49 Introduction 49 2.1. Optical waveguides and fibers 49 2.2. Light sources and detectors 51 2.2.1. Light sources 51 2.2.1.1. Semiconductor sources of light 51 Light Emitting Diode Structure 52 2.2.1.2. Lazer diodes 53 2.2.2. Light detectors 54 2.2.2.1. Photoresistors 54 2.2.2.2. Photodiodes 54 Photoconductive mode of operation 55 Photovoltaic mode of operation 55 PIN photodiode 57 2.2.2.3. Phototransistor 57 2.2.2.4. Position Sensitive photo-Detectors (PSD) 57 2.2.2.5. Charged compted device image sensors 59 One-dimensional CCD image sensors 60 Two-dimensional CCD image sensors (2D-CCD sensors) 61 2.3. Sensors of position and movement 62 2.3.1. Position sensors using the principle of triangulation 62 2.3.2. Incremental sensors of position or displacement 63 2.3.2.1. General principles 63 2.3.2.2. Linear incremental encoder 63 2.3.2.3. Optical sensors of displacement with absolute encoding disk 65 2.3.2.4. Sensors with pseudorandom coding 65 2.3.3. Photoelectric switches 66 2.3.3.1. Through beam PES 66 2.3.3.2. Diffuse reflective PES 67 2.3.3.3. Retro-reflective PES 68 2.3.3.4. PES for detection of colors or color marks 70 2.4. Optical sensors of dimensions 71 2.4.1. Dimensional gauge with scanned beam 71 Dimension measurement by means of the light sheet 73 Dimension measurement with digitalized video signal 73 2.5. Optical sensors of pressure and force 74 2.5.1. Pressure sensor using the optical resonator 74 2.6. Optical fiber sensors 75 2.6.1. Introduction and classification of sensors with optical fibers 75 2.6.2. Optical fiber sensors with amplitude modulation 75 Sensors with deformation of fiber 75 Optical liquid level detector 76 Reflective optical fiber sensors of displacement 76 2.6.2. Sensor with wavelength modulation 77 Fiber Bragg Grating sensors (FBG) 77 2.6.4. Optical sensors with phase modulation 78 Interferometers with optical fibers 78 2.6.5. Perspective of optical fiber sensors 79 2.7. Optical chemical sensors 79 2.7.1. Introduction 79 2.7.2. Chemical sensors based on the absorbency measurement 79 2.7.3. Turbidity sensors 80 2.8. Bibliography 82 2.8.1. Books 82 Optics-physical principles 82 Light sources and photodetectors 82 Optical sensors - monographs 82 Books including topics related to "optical sensors" 82 Magazines publishing articles related to Optical sensors 83 2.8.2. Physical background - websites 83 Chapter 3 85 3.1. Introduction 85 3.1.1. Volume flow and mass flow 85 3.1.2. Influences on the flow 87 3.1.3. Bernoulli equation 88 3.2. Flow measurements based on the principle of difference in pressure 90 3.2.1. The Pitot and Prandtl tube 91 3.2.1.1. Principle 91 3.2.1.2. Practical set-up 93 3.2.1.4. Characteristics 95 3.2.2. The orifice plate 95 3.2.2.1. Principle 95 Calculating the flow 96 3.2.2.2. Practical installation 97 3.2.3. The flow nozzle 101 3.2.4. The Venturi tube 101 3.2.5. The Dall tube 102 3.2.6. General guidelines for a correct reading 103 3.3. Flow measurements based on variable passage 105 3.3.1. The float flow meter (rotameter) 105 3.3.1.1. Principle 105 3.3.1.2. Characteristics 106 3.3.2. Target flow meter 107 3.3.2.1. Principle 107 3.3.2.2. Characteristics 108 3.4. Turbine flow meter 108 3.4.1. Principle 108 3.4.2. Practical installation 110 3.4.3. Characteristics 111 3.5. The mechanical flow meter (positive displacement) 112 3.5.1. Principle 112 The oval cogwheel meter 113 The annular piston meter 113 3.5.2. Characteristics 114 3.6. Magnetic flow meter 115 3.6.1. Principle 115 3.6.2. Construction of the measuring instrument 116 3.6.3. Practical installation 118 3.6.5. Characteristics 120 3.7. The vortex flow meter 121 3.7.1. Principle 121 3.7.2. Construction of the vortex flow meter 122 3.7.3. Practical installation 125 3.7.4. Characteristics 126 Specific applications 127 3.8. Ultrasonic flow meter 127 3.8.1. Principle 127 Measuring the flow following the execution time principle 128 Measurements based on the Doppler effect 128 3.8.2. Practical installation 130 3.8.3. Characteristics 130 3.9. Coriolis mass-flow meters 131 3.9.1. Principle 131 3.9.2. Applications 133 3.9.3. Practical installation 133 3.9.4. Characteristics 133 3.10. Flow measurements for solid substances 134 3.10.1. Flow measurement of solids by means of an impact plate 135 Characteristics 136 3.10.2. Flow measurement of solids based on the weighing method 137 3.10.3. Capacitive flow measurement of solid substances 137 Characteristics 138 3.10.4. Detection of solid substances using microwaves 138 Characteristics 139 3.11. Flow measurement for open channels with weirs 139 This type of flow meter is based on the decline in height. 139 3.12. Choice and comparison of flow measurements 141 3.13. Bibliography 141 1. John, H.: Low Reynolds Number Hydrodynamics, Martinus Nijhoff, 1983. 141 2. Wolfgang, R., Bergeles, G.: Engineering Turbulence Modelling and Experiments 3, Elsevier Science, 1996. 141 3. Borer J.: Instrumentation and Control for the Process Industries, Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, 1985. 141 4. Doeblin Ernest, O.: Measurement systems: Application and Design, McGraw-Hill International Book Company, 1991. 141 5. Endress + Hauser technical documentation. 141 6. Hoffman, K. Eine Einfuhrung in die Technik des Messens mit Dehnungsmebstreifen, HSM, Darmstadt, 1987. 141 7. ISA: Process Instrumentation Terminology: Apendix A, ISA, 1979. 141 8. Johnson Curtis, D.: Process control instrumentation technology, Wiley and Sons, New York, 2nd ed., 1982. 141 9. WIKA: Handbook of Pressure Measurement, with Resilient Elements, Gottlob Volkhardtsche Druckerei, Anorback, 1981. 141 3.14 Website references 142 Turbines 142 Mechanical 142 Electro-magnetic 142 Ultrasonic 142 Mass-flow (liquids) 142 Mass-flow (gases) 142 Weirs 142 Reynolds number 142 Bernouilli's equation 143 Vortex 143 Pitot tube 143 Venturi tube 143 Chapter 4 145 Intelligent Sensors and Sensor Networks 145 4.1. Introduction 145 4.2. Intelligent sensors 146 4.2.1. Sensors and transducers 147 4.2.1.1. Variable voltage or current source 147 4.2.1.2. Variable resistance 147 4.2.1.3. Variable impedance or mutual impedance 148 4.2.1.4. Charge generator 148 4.2.2. Signal conditioning (SC) 148 4.2.2.1. Amplification and signal conversion 149 4.2.2.2. Sensor insulation 149 4.2.2.3. Filtration 149 4.2.2.4. Detection 149 4.2.2.5. Correction of non-linearity 149 4.2.2.6. Correction of influence of disturbing quantities 150 4.2.2.7. Sensor excitation 150 4.2.3. A/D Conversion 150 4.2.3.1. SAR converters 150 4.2.3.2. Sigma-delta modulator converters 151 4.2.3.3. Flash (pipelined flash) converters 151 4.2.4. Data processing 151 4.2.5. Human Machine Interface 152 4.2.6. Communication interface 152 4.2.6.1. IEEE 1451 152 4.2.7. Industrial examples 153 4.2.7.1. Micronas HAL805 Hall sensor 153 4.2.7.2. Yokogawa DPharp family of pressure sensors 154 4.3. Sensor networks and interfaces 155 4.3.1. Centralized and distributed industrial systems 156 4.3.2. Hierarchical structure of distributed communication 158 4.3.3. Data communication basics 159 4.3.3.1. Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model 159 4.3.3.2. Physical layer 161 4.3.3.2.1. Baseband and RF band 161 4.3.3.2.2. Channel capacity sharing 162 4.3.3.2.3. Data flow direction 162 4.3.3.2.4. Physical topologies 163 4.3.3.3. Data link layer 164 4.3.3.3.1. MAC control methods 164 4.3.3.3.2. Data link layer addressing 166 4.3.3.3.3. Error control mechanisms 166 4.3.3.4. Network layer 167 4.3.3.5. Transport layer 168 4.3.3.6. Session layer 168 4.3.3.7. Presentation layer 168 4.3.3.8. Application layer 168 4.3.3.9. Data distribution models 169 4.3.4. Simple sensor interfaces 170 4.3.4.1. Analog interfaces 170 4.3.4.2. Digital interfaces 171 4.3.4.2.1. EIA-232 172 4.3.4.2.2. EIA-423 173 4.3.4.2.3. EIA-422 173 4.3.4.2.4. EIA-485 173 4.3.4.2.5. Digital current loop 174 4.3.5. Sensor networks 175 4.3.5.1. AS-Interface 175 4.3.5.1.1. AS-I physical layer protocols 175 4.3.5.1.2. AS-I data link layer protocols 176 4.3.5.1.3. AS-I application layer protocols 177 4.3.5.1.4. AS-I summary 177 4.3.5.2. CAN (Controller Area Network) and CANopen 177 4.3.5.2.1. CAN physical layer protocols 177 4.3.5.2.2. CAN data link layer protocols 178 4.3.5.2.3. CAN application layer protocols 179 4.3.5.2.4. CAN and CANopen Summary 183 4.3.5.3. HART (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer) 184 4.3.5.3.1. HART physical layer protocols 184 4.3.5.3.2. HART data link layer protocols 184 4.3.5.3.3. HART application layer protocols 185 4.3.5.3.4. HART summary 185 4.3.5.4. Foundation Fieldbus (FF) 185 4.3.5.4.1. FF physical layer protocols 186 4.3.5.4.2. FF data link layer protocols 186 4.3.5.4.3. FF application and user layer protocols 187 4.3.5.4.4. FF summary 188 4.3.5.5. Interbus 188 4.3.5.5.1. Interbus physical layer protocols 188 4.3.5.5.2. Interbus data link layer protocols 189 4.3.5.5.3. Interbus application layer protocols 189 4.3.5.5.4. Interbus summary 190 4.3.5.6. M-Bus 190 4.3.5.6.1. M-bus physical layer protocols 190 4.3.5.6.2. M-bus data link layer protocols 190 4.3.5.6.3. M-bus network layer protocols 191 4.3.5.6.4. M-bus application layer protocols 191 4.3.5.6.5. M-Bus summary 192 4.3.5.7. Profibus 192 4.3.5.7.1. Profibus physical layer protocols 193 4.3.5.7.2. Profibus data link layer protocols 193 4.3.5.7.3. Profibus application and user layer protocols 193 4.3.5.7.4. Profibus summary 194 4.3.5.8. Other standards 194 4.3.6. Wireless sensor networks 194 4.3.6.1. IEEE 802.15.4 194 4.3.6.2. ZigBee 195 4.3.6.3. IEEE 802.15.4 and ZigBee summary 196 4.3.6.4. Other wireless standards 196 Chapter 5 197 Accelerometers and Inclinometers 197 5.1. Introduction 197 Absolute accelerometer 197 Relative accelerometer 197 5.2. Acceleration 198 5.2.1. Physical quantity 198 5.2.2. Application to velocity and position measurements 202 Gimbaled navigation systems 202 Strapdown navigational system 202 5.2.3. Application to position measurements 203 5.2.4. The inclinometers 204 5.3. Application ranges 205 5.3.1. Static and low-frequency acceleration 205 5.3.2. Vibrations 206 5.3.3. Shocks 207 5.3.4. Inclination 208 5.4. Main models of accelerometers 209 5.4.1. Piezoelectric accelerometers 210 Natural crystals 211 Ferroelectric crystals 211 Piezoelectric coefficients 211 Maximum temperature 211 Resonance frequency 211 5.4.1.1. General principle 212 5.4.1.2. Accelerometers with compression 212 5.4.1.3. Shear-mode accelerometers 213 5.4.1.4. Features and limits of these accelerometers 213 Influence of the environment 214 1. High and low temperatures 214 2. Thermal fluctuations 214 3. Moisture 214 4. Noise due to connection cables 214 5.4.2. Piezoresistive accelerometers 217 5.4.2.1. General principle 217 5.4.2.2. Silicon semiconductor strain gauges 217 Assembly of the gauges 218 Design examples (Figure 5.18) 220 5.4.2.3. Features and limits of these accelerometers 221 2. Bandwidth 221 1. Influence of temperature 222 2. Technological limitations: connecting cable 222 3. Technological limitations: shocks and vibrations 222 5.4.3. Accelerometers with resonators 223 5.4.3.1. Principle 223 5.4.3.2. Features and limits of these accelerometers 224 5.4.4. Capacitive accelerometers 225 5.4.4.1. Principle 225 EXAMPLES: 226 1. Pendular capacitive detection accelerometer 226 2. Ultra-sensitive Accelerometers 227 5.4.4.2. Features and limits of these accelerometers 228 5.4.5. Potentiometric accelerometers 228 5.4.5.1. Principle 228 5.4.5.2. Features and limits of these Accelerometers 229 5.4.6. Optical detection accelerometers 229 5.4.6.1. Principle 229 5.4.6.2. Features and limits of these accelerometers 230 5.4.7. Magnetic detection Accelerometers 231 5.4.7.1. Principle 231 5.4.7.2. Features and limits of these accelerometers 231 5.4.8. Servo accelerometers with controlled displacement 232 5.4.8.1. Principle 232 5.4.8.2. Servo accelerometers with balance of torque 233 5.4.8.3. Servo accelerometers with balance of force 234 5.4.8.4. Features and limits of these accelerometers 235 5.5. The signal processing associated with accelerometers 235 5.6 Manufacturing process 236 5.6.1. The monolithic processes 236 1. CMOS (Complementary MOS) - BICMOS standard (Bipolar Technology and MOS) 236 2. CMOS - BICMOS standard + back etching 237 3. Above IC 237 4. Specific process 237 5.6.2. Hybrid process 238 5.6.3. Packaging 238 5.7 The calibrations: 239 5.7.1. Inclinometers and accelerometers with range lower than 1 g 239 5.7.2. Acceleration range higher than 1 g 239 The centrifuge 240 The vibrating pot 240 5.8. Examples of accelerometers and inclinometers 240 QAT160/T185 Q-Flex(r) Accelerometers - HONEYWELL 242 245 Series 3701 Single Axis Capacitive Accelerometers 245 5.9. List of Manufacturers of Accelerometers 246 5.10. References 247 5.11. Bibliography 247 3. Campbell S.A. and Lewerenz H.J.: Semiconductor Micromachining Vol. 2: Techniques and Industrial Applications, Lavoisier, 1998. 248 4. Chauffleur X.: Modelisation par la Methode des Elements finis du Comportement Thermomecanique de Capteurs de Pression Capacitifs et Piezoresistifs en Silicium, Thesis, 9th January 1998. 248 5. Esashi M.: Sensors: a comprehensive Survey Pressure Sensors, ed. by Bau H.H., de Rooij N.F., Kloeck B., Vol. 7, pp 331-358, 1994. 248 6. Mathieu J.P., Kastler A., Fleury P.: Dictionnaire de physique, Masson & Eyrolles, 1998. 248 7. Middelhoek S.: Celebration of the tenth transducers conference: The past, present and future of transducer research and development, Sensors and Actuators, A: Physical 2000, 82:1-3:2-23. 248 8. MST Benchmarking Mission to the USA - 13-25 November 1979. Proceedings: Actes de la 1ere journee Nanotechnlogie et Industrie - 13th April 1999 248 10. Jornod R.A., Bergqvist J. and Leuthold H.: Precision Accelerometers with g Resolution, Sensors and Actuators, 1990, pp. 297-302. 249 11. Second France-Japan Workshop, ATRIA Hotel Toulouse, 8-10 November 1998, Book of Abstracts. 249 12. Van Drieenhuizen B.P., Maluf N.I., Opris I.E. and Kovacs G.T.A.: Force-Balanced Accelerometer with mG Resolution, Fabricated using Silicon Fusion Bonding and Deep Reactive Ion Etching, International Conference on Solid-State, Sensors and Actuators, pp.1229-30, 1997. 249 13. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH: Sensors A Comprehensive Survey, Vol. 6, Optical Sensors, Lavoisier, 1996. 249 Chapter 6 249 6.1. Introduction 249 6.2. What is involved in developing a sensor? 253 6.2.1. Molecular recognition 254 6.2.2. Immobilization of host molecules 256 6.2.3. Transduction of signal 257 6.3. Electrochemical sensors 257 6.3.1. Amperometric and voltammetric sensors 258 6.3.1.1. Cyclic voltammetry 260 6.3.1.2. Hydrodynamic amperometry 261 6.3.2. Potentiometric sensors 262 6.3.2.1. Ion-selective electrodes 263 6.3.2.2. Coated-wire electrodes and polymer-membrane electrodes 264 6.3.2.3. Potentiometric sensor arrays 266 6.3.3. Resistance, conductance and impedance sensors 267 6.4. Optical sensors 269 6.4.1. Methods of detection 269 6.4.1.2. Evanescent wave sensors 270 Figure 6.12. Single mode of guided light in an optical fiber 271 271 6.4.2. Reagent-mediated sensors 272 Figure 6.14. Schematic diagram of a membrane-based optrode system 273 6.5. Acoustic (mass) sensors 273 6.5.1. Quartz crystal microbalance sensors 274 6.5.2. Sensor arrays 276 6.6. Biosensors 278 6.6.1. Affinity biosensors 279 6.6.1.1. Electrochemical transduction 279 6.6.1.2. Piezoelectric transduction 280 6.6.1.3. SPR biosensors 282 6.6.1.4. Proteomics 287 6.6.1.5. IAsys biosensor 287 6.6.1.6. Miniature TI-SPR sensor 288 6.6.2. Catalytic biosensors 289 6.6.2.1. Electrochemical transduction 290 6.6.2.2. Calorimetric transduction 294 6.7. Future trends 294 6.7.1. Microanalytical instruments as sensors 295 6.7.1.1. Design considerations 296 6.7.1.2. On-chip chromatographic and electrophoretic separations 298 6.7.2. Autonomous sensing devices 302 6.7.3. Sub-micron dimensioned sensors 302 6.7.3.1. Microamperometric sensors 302 6.7.3.2. Microelectrodes in biological systems 303 6.8. Conclusions 305 6.9. References 306 Chapter 7 309 Level, Position and Distance 309 7.1. Introduction 309 7.1.1. Classification of LPD sensors 309 7.2. Resistive LPD sensors 310 7.2.1. Potentiometer 310 7.2.2. Angular position measurement 311 7.2.3. Draw wire sensors 312 7.2.4. Inclination detectors 312 7.2.5. Application of potentiometers 313 7.3. Inductive LPD sensors 313 7.3.1. Linear variable differential transformers 314 7.3.2. Inductosyns 315 7.3.3. Resolvers 316 7.3.4. Selsyn 317 7.3.5. Inductive sensors of angular velocity 317 7.3.6. Eddy current distance sensors 318 7.4. Magnetic LPD sensors 320 7.4.1. Magnetic field sensors 320 Anisotropic magnetoresistive (AMR) sensors 320 7.4.2. Reed switches 320 7.4.3. Hall sensors 321 7.4.4. Semiconductor magnetoresistors 322 7.4.5. Wiegand wire 322 7.4.6. Magnetostrictive sensor 323 7.5. Capacitive LPD sensors 323 7.5.1. Introduction 323 7.5.2. Signal conditioning circuits for capacitive sensors 324 7.5.3. Using capacitive sensors 325 7.6. Optical LPD sensors 327 7.6.1. Introduction 327 7.6.2. Photo-electric switches (PES) 327 7.6.3. LPD Sensors based on triangulation 331 7.6.4. Optical encoders 332 7.6.4.1. Incremental sensors 333 7.6.4.2. Absolute encoders 333 7.6.4.3. Gray Code 334 7.6.5. Interferometry 334 7.6.6. Optical LPD sensors based on travel time (time-of-fly) measurement 335 Typical parameters 336 Measurement range: up to km range. 336 Resolution: 1mm 336 7.6.7. Image-based measurement-machine vision, videometry 336 7. 6. 7.1. Introduction 336 7.6.7.2. Light sheet method 337 7.7. Ultrasonic sensors 338 7.7.1. Introduction 338 7.7.2. Travel time principle 338 7.7.3. Doppler effect 338 7.8. Microwave distance sensors (radar) 339 7.8.1. Introduction 339 7.8.2. Microwave sensors based on FMCW 340 7.8.3. Properties of microwave sensors 341 7.9 Level measurement 341 7.9.1. Introduction 341 7.9.2. Detection limits 342 7.9.2.1. Capacitive level switch 342 7.9.2.2. Ultrasonic switch 342 7.9.2.3. Vibrational switch 342 7.9.2.4. Conductive sensors 342 7.9.2.5. Floating switch 342 7.9.2.6. Fiber optics level switches 343 7.9.3. Continuous level measurement 343 7.9.3.1. Principles of measurement 343 7.9.3.2. Capacitive sensors 343 344 7.9.3.3. Ultrasonic sensors 345 7.9.3.4. Microwave sensors (radar) 346 7.9.3.5. Pressure difference (hydrostatic) sensors 346 7.10. Conclusions and trends 347 7.11. References 347 [1] Profos, Pfeifer: Handbuch der industriellen Messtechnik, Oldenbourg 1994. 347 [2] J. Hoffmann: Messen nichtelektrischer Gro?en, VDI-Verlag. 347 [3] J. Niebuhr: Physikalische Messtechnik mit Sensoren, Oldenbourg 2002. 347 [4] K. Bonfig: Sensoren und Mikroelektronik, expert Ehningen 1993. 347 [5] P. Hauptmann: Sensoren, Hanser Munchen 1990. 347 [6] E. Schoppnies: Lexikon der Sensortechnik, VDE-Verlag Berlin 1992. 347 [7] D. Bimberg: Messtechniken mit Lazern, expert Berlin 1993. 347 [8] Product information of MICRO-EPSILON MESSTECHNIK GmbH & Co. KG Konigbacher Stra?e 15 D-94496 Ortenburg http://www.wiresensor.de. 347 [9] Product information of Newall Measurement Systems Ltd. http://www.newall.co.uk. 347 7.12. Online references 348 Chapter 8 351 Temperature Sensors 351 8.1. Introduction 351 8.2. Thermal measuring techniques 352 8.2.1. Heat and temperature 352 8.2.2. Static and dynamic readings 352 8.2.3. Time constant and response time 353 8.2.4. Thermal units 353 8.2.5. Thermal equilibrium 354 8.2.6. Temperature measuring options 358 8.2.7. Quality of a measurement 359 8.3. Physical or direct temperature measurement 359 8.3.1. Glass thermometer 359 8.3.2. Liquid filled expansion thermometers 360 8.3.3. Gas filled expansion thermometer or pressure thermometer detector 362 8.3.4. Vapor-pressure systems 363 8.3.5. Bimetallic thermometer 365 8.4. Thermoelectric measurements (thermocouples) 366 8.4.1. Measuring principle: thermoelectricity 366 8.4.2. Thermoelectric laws 368 8.4.3. Practical temperature measurement with thermocouples 371 8.4.4. Technological realizations of thermocouples 374 8.4.5. Applications 377 8.4.6. Parallel and series connections of thermocouples 378 8.5. Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) 380 8.5.1. Principle 380 8.5.2. Used materials and construction 382 8.5.3. Applications 383 8.6. Thermistors 385 8.6.1. Principle 385 8.6.2. Thermistor technology 386 8.6.3. Application 387 8.7. Monolithic temperature sensors (IC sensor) 387 8.8. Pyrometers 388 8.8.1. Introduction 388 8.8.2. Basic principles of pyrometry 389 8.8.5. Measurement possibilities for pyrometers 390 8.8.6. Implementation and construction of pyrometers 392 List of symbols, acronyms and abbreviations 394 Chapter 9 397 9.1. Introduction 397 9.2. The angular rate 398 Let us consider a massive body in rotation with high initial angular rate ?i and an inertia (inertial moment) I. According to the Newton's second law, the angular momentum, I?i of a body remains unchanged unless it is acted by a torque. A moment of force ??produces a term ??t, where ??t is an interval of time. Let us suppose that this contribution is small, either because the moment of force is weak or because the interval of time ??t is short. By adding it vectorially to the great initial value ???i an end value ??f, is found, which is not very different from its initial value. Thus, a body in rotation has a kind of gyroscopic stability. Gyroscopic stability explains why a spinning top amazingly remains vertical on its pointed end, defying gravity. 398 9.2.2. Definition of rate gyro 402 9.2.3. Use of rate sensors 403 Gyro for automotive applications 403 9.3. Different ranges of rate gyro 404 9.3.1. Control of trajectory 404 9.3.2. Piloting and Stabilization 405 9.3.3. Guidance 405 9.3.4. Navigation 405 9.4. Main models of rate gyro 406 9.4.1. Rotary gyrometers 407 9.4.2. Vibrating gyrometers 407 9.4.2.1. Gyrometers with Elementary or coupled bars 409 Industrial example: the GYROSTAR from MURATA 409 Principle 411 9.4.2.2. Gyrometers with a tuning fork 412 Limits 413 9.4.2.3. Gyrometers with coplanar interdigitated comb fingers 414 Micromachined dual input axis angular rate sensor [8] 415 Industrial example: "Butterfly-Gyro" from SensoNor 416 Manufacturing process of the Butterfly-Gyro 417 9.4.2.4. Gyrometers with vibrating shell and cylinder 417 Gyrometer with an optical detector of the position of the nodes of vibration 420 9.4.2.5. Gyrometers with vibrating disk 421 9.4.2.6. Gyroscopes with vibrating ring 422 Features 422 9.4.3. Optical gyrometers 423 9.4.3.1. Ring lazer gyrometers 423 Theoretical difficulties 423 9.4.3.2. Fiber optic gyrometers (FOG) 424 Traditional fiber optic gyrometer 425 Noise and drift 426 Retroreflexion and retrodiffusion 426 Source 427 Coil 427 Detector 428 Conclusion 428 9.4.4. Other original principles 429 9.5. Calibration of rate sensors 429 9.6. General features of the gyrometers 430 9.7. The main manufacturers 432 9.8. References 434 [1] HECHT E., Physique, translation from 1st ed. by Becherrawy T., revision ny Joel Martin, ITP Deboeck University S.A. 1999. 434 9.9. Bibliography 435 10.1. Semiconductor magnetic sensors 437 10.1.1. Hall sensors 438 10.1.2. The Hall effect 439 10.2.3. New types of Hall sensors 441 10.2.3.1. High mobility InSb Hall elements 441 10.2.3.2. Integrated Hall sensors 441 10.3. AMR sensors 443 10.3.1. Operating principles of AMR effect 443 10.3.1.1. Geometrical linearization of the AMR 445 10.3.2. Measuring configuration of AMR 447 10.3.3. Flipping 448 10.3.4. Magnetic feedback 449 Sensor temperature drift of sensitivity 449 10.4. GMR sensors 451 10.4.1. Physical mechanism 453 10.4.2. Spin valves 454 10.4.3. Sandwiches and multilayers 456 10.4.3.1. Temperature characteristics 457 10.4.3.2. Cross-field error 457 10.4.3.3. Unpinned sandwich 457 10.4.3.4. GMR multilayer 457 10.4.4. SDT sensors 457 10.4.5. Linear GMR sensors 458 10.4.5.1. Bipolar response using biasing coils 459 10.4.5.2. GMR gradiometer 459 10.4.6. Rotational GMR sensors 460 10.5. Induction and fluxgate sensors 461 10.5.1. Induction coil sensors 461 10.5.2. Fluxgate sensors 462 10.5.2.1. Core shapes of fluxgates 464 10.5.2.2. Double-rod sensors 464 10.5.2.3. Ring-core sensors 464 10.5.2.4. Race-track sensors 465 10.5.2.5. Principles of fluxgate magnetometers 465 10.6 Other magnetic field sensors 467 10.6.1. Resonance sensors 467 10.6.1.1. Magnetic sensors based on electron spin resonance (ESR) 467 10.6.1.2. Overhauser magnetometers 468 10.7. Magnetic position sensors 468 10.7.1. Sensors using permanent magnets 468 10.7.1.1. Induction position sensors 469 10.7.2. Eddy current sensors 469 10.7.3. Linear and rotational transformers 470 10.7.3.1 Linear transformer sensors 470 LVDT 470 Variable gap sensors 471 PLCD sensor 471 Inductosyn 471 10.7.3.2. Rotation transformer sensors 471 Synchros 472 Resolvers 472 10.7.4. Magnetostrictive position sensors 472 10.7.5. Proximity switches 472 10.7.5.1. Reed contacts 473 10.7.5.2. Wiegand sensors 473 10.8 Contactless current sensors 474 10.8.1. Hall current sensors 475 10.8.2. Magnetoresistive current sensors 475 10.8.3. AC and DC Transformers 475 10.8.4. Current clamps 475 10.9 References 476 1.1. Introduction: MEMS 489 11.2. Materials 492 11.2.1. Passive materials 492 11.2.2. Active materials 493 11.2.3. Silicon 494 11.2.4. Other semiconductors 495 11.2.5. Plastics 496 11.2. 6. Metals 498 11.2.7. Ceramics 498 11.2.8. Glass 498 11.3. Silicon planar IC technology 499 11.3.1. The substrate: crystal growth 500 11.3.2. Diffusion and ion implantation 500 11.3.3. Oxidation 501 11.3.4. Lithography and etching 501 11.3.5. Deposition of materials 502 11.3.6. Metallization and wire bonding 502 11.3.7. Passivation and encapsulation 503 11.4. Deposition technologies 503 11.4.1. Introduction 503 11.4.2. Chemical reactions 504 11.4.3. Physical reactions 507 11.4.4. Epitaxial techniques for semiconductor device preparation 510 11.5. Etching processes 512 11.5.1. Wet etching/micromachining 513 11.5.2. Dry etching/micromachining 514 11.6. 3-D microfabrication techniques 515 11.6.1. LIGA 516 11.6.2. Lazer assisted etching (LAE) 516 11.6.3. Photo-forming and stereo lithography 517 11.6.4. Microelectrodischarging (MEDM and WEDG) 518 11.6.5. Microdrip fabrication 519 11.6.6. Manufacturing using scanning probe microscopes and electron microscopes 520 11.6.7. Handling of micro particles with lazer tweezers 520 11.6.8. Atomic manipulation 521 11.7. References 522 List of authors index
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Detectors -- Handbooks, manuals, etc.