5. NOISE BARRIER MATERIALS AND SURFACE
TREATMENTS
A variety of materials may be used for noise wall panels and posts. This section provides
details of some of
the more common materials: including a description of the material, its features, examples of
typical use,
special considerations, typical quality verification, and regional considerations, where applicable.
n addition,
because the selection of a particular surface treatment texture can depend on a number of factors
including
aesthetic requirements of both sides of the barrier, constructability issues, maintenance concerns,
and
particularly the type of barrier material, this section also discusses barrier surface treatments. For
example,
selection of a form liner finish on both sides of a barrier could negate the ability to use
horizontally cast
precast barrier elements and require the use of either vertically cast precast elements or
cast-in-place barriers.
5.1 Concrete
Concrete is one of the world's most common and versatile construction materials (see Figures 70
and 71). It
is a mixture produced by combining Portland cement, coarse and fine aggregates, and water, and
may also
include specific additives to modify curing rate, air entrainment, strength, fluidity, and porosity.
For cast-in-place operations, concrete is normally delivered on-site premixed by concrete truck,
but for small quantities,
it can be mixed on-site. For precast products, the plants usually have their own batch plants
capable of
providing sufficient quantities to match production.
|
|
Figure 70. Concrete noise wall photo
#634 |
Figure 71. Concrete noise wall photo
#1239 |
Features - Almost half of the noise walls constructed in North America to
date are made of concrete.
The proliferation of the use of concrete is not without reason. Concrete, if formulated, cast
(precast or
cast-in-place), and cured properly, is considered to be one of the most durable materials currently
used
for many highway products, including noise barriers. It is rugged and able to withstand severe
temperatures, intense sunlight, moisture, ice, and salt. It is a versatile material capable of being
shaped,
molded, and textured to take on the appearance of anything from weathered wooden boards to
rock face
to stone blocks to virtually any sculpted mural topic imaginable. Its mass, even at a thickness of
only 12
mm (0.5 in.), is well within any Sound Transmission Class requirement (see Section 3.4.2).
Concrete products lend themselves well to coloring or tinting by either incorporating
pigments into the
concrete mix before pouring or afterwards by applying a stain onto the surface of the cured
products.
For more details, see Section 5.9.2.1
Typical Use - The versatility of concrete also extends to the shape and the size
with which the panels can be produced (e.g., precast stacked panels, cast-in-place and precast full
height panels, and precast concrete block). In addition, concrete allows for a complete range of
installation techniques including post and panel, post integral with the panel, free standing, direct
buried, and on top of spread footings, continuous footings, traffic barriers, and retaining walls.
Cast-in-place concrete walls have been typically used on bridges and retaining walls because of
their flexibility of design, high structural strength, and resistance to vehicle impact damage.
5.1.1 Special Considerations.
-
Mix Design - There are 2 basic types of concrete mix produced, dry cast and
wet cast. Both are generally composed of aggregate, Portland cement, and water. The major
difference between the two is the amount of water used.
- Wet Cast Concrete - Mix contains enough moisture to allow proper
chemical reaction between all the ingredients in the mix to form a sufficiently strong bond
between each other. The concrete mix must be allowed to set in the mold before it can be
removed, typically about 8 hours. Wet cast concrete flows better in a mold than the dry cast mix
allowing the use of finely detailed form liners.
This type of mix is suitable for both cast-in-place and plant production products.
- Dry Cast Concrete - Mix contains significantly less water and only enough
to allow the mixture to retain its shape after being compacted into a mold. This allows the
product to be removed immediately from the mold after pouring. The product is then hydrated by
the introduction of steam during the curing process. Since it is not as fluid as the wet cast
concrete, it is not suitable for panels requiring fine surface details. This type of mix typically has
superior strength capabilities over the wet cast mix. It is much more suitable for mass production
processes under controlled plant conditions.
-
Size Limitations
- Precast - Precast panel sizes are typically confined in one direction to
approximately 4.5 m (15 ft) due to limitations in shipping, with no limit on length other than by
size and weight for handling. The minimum thickness is usually directly related to the amount of
concrete cover required over the reinforcing
bars or mesh, but is typically about 100 mm (4 in) plus an additional 25 mm (1 in) in total to allow
for the reinforcing and any surface texturing.
- Cast-in-Place - The minimum wall thickness is approximately 150 to 200
mm (6 to 8 in) due to the space requirements needed to place and vibrate the concrete around the
reinforcing steel.
-
Precast vs Cast-in-Place - Precast panels can be erected quickly if crane and
truck access are readily available. Traffic hold-ups can be minimized with off-site panel
fabrication and landscape damage can be avoided by the use of proper sized cranes which can
span over the landscaping when setting the panels. On the other hand, the presence of a crane and
truck haulage unit together, which are necessary during erection of the panels, can become a
traffic problem, sometimes necessitating a lane closure.
-
Reuse of Precast Panels - Precast concrete walls have the potential to be
relocatable and have been
used for temporary walls as well as permanent installations.
-
Off-Site Casting Yard vs Off-Site Casting Plant - Casting yards are typically
established by the manufacturer as a temporary manufacturing facility for a specific project,
usually to reduce shipping costs when the permanent casting plant is too far from the site.
Casting plants inherently have a higher level of quality control in the manufacturing, handling, and
hauling than can be achieved at a casting yard. As a result, a greater number of imperfections will
appear in products supplied from a temporary casting yard and will have to be dealt with on site
through a more active quality assurance process.
-
Regional Differences - Concrete products are suitable for any climate condition
imaginable. However, the emphasis on specific characteristics of concrete may vary from region
to region. For example, in the northern regions, freeze/thaw and salt scaling resistance is critical.
Where as, in the southern or warmer climates, expansion
coefficients and proper curing practices are more important. In coastal regions, the
emphasis would be on density which helps to repel the penetration of salt laden moisture.
5.1.2 Verification of Quality.
For all testing, it is important to select samples which are a true representation of the finished
products or of the material(s) being used in the casting of the noise barrier components.
he following are standard tests, normally conducted at the casting plant, on concrete to verify
overall quality and to confirm desired properties of the products. The tests discussed within this
section are described in detail in Section 10. which discusses
product evaluation of all types of barrier materials. Although most of these tests are suitable for
both wet and dry cast concrete, some are more suitable for one type as compared with the other.
Suitability of the test is noted where applicable.
-
Slump Test (Suitable for Wet Cast Concrete Only) - This test determines the
stiffness and consistency of freshly mixed concrete and, in general, is a good indicator of the
amount of water in the mix.
-
Air Content (Suitable for Wet Cast Concrete Only) - This test determines the
amount of air in cured concrete. It is, primarily, a good indicator of durability of concrete which
may be frequently exposed to freezing and thawing conditions.
-
Compressive Strength - This test determines the maximum compressive
strength of cured concrete samples.
-
Air Void Analysis (Suitable for dry-cast concrete products) - This test
determines the shape and size of air voids in cured concrete samples.
-
Freeze-Thaw/Salt Scaling - This test is a combination of two tests, which
determines, to some degree, the cured concrete's resistance to salt scaling and also to frequent
freezing and thawing cycles. It is a very good indicator of the quality of the curing process.
-
Density - Determining the density of the concrete material provided
information related to the degree of compaction
the concrete mix was subjected to in the mold before curing. The denser the product, the better
the quality of concrete, assuming that a suitable mix design was used and the product was cured
properly.
-
Water Absorption - This test determines the amount of water the sample can
absorb over a given time period. Generally, the more water absorbed, the poorer the quality.
-
Minimum Cover Over Reinforcing - Panels and posts should be checked to
ensure that the minimum concrete cover over the reinforcing is maintained during the casting
operation. Adequate cover is critical in preventing or slowing down the penetration rate of salt
laden moisture from reaching the reinforcing bars. This results in the corrosion of the bars and
subsequent spalling of the concrete surface along
with the drastic deterioration of the structural properties of the components.
-
Dimensions - All precast or cast-in-place concrete products should be checked
for proper dimensioning
of key features (see Section 11.5.1).
-
Visual Inspection - All precast and cast-in-place concrete products should be
visually examined to identify any unusual and unwanted features which will affect the structure,
durability, and performance of the noise barrier wall, such as honey combing, knuckling, cracks,
and voids.
-
Color Consistency - A consistent color from panel to panel may be difficult to
achieve; however, it is an important aesthetic factor in achieving a successful barrier system. To
ensure a panel-to-panel color consistency, a surface-applied stain may be more effective than the
use of integral colors or pigments in the concrete mix.
5.2 Brick and Masonry Block |
Brick (see Figure 72) is typically
manufactured using a clay and sand mix which is fired in a kiln to increase the brick's strength and
durability. Bricks can be produced in varying sizes but most commonly in 70 x 95 x 200 mm (2 x
3¾ x 8 in). |
|
Figure 72. Brick noise barrier photo
#6511 |
Masonry block (see Figure 73) is
manufactured using a dry-cast concrete mix. These blocks can be produced in any size but with
the most common in the range of 200 to 300 mm (8 to 12 in) thick by 200 to 250 mm
(8 to 10 in) high and 355 to 460 mm (14 to 18 in) long. |
|
Figure 73. Masonry block noise
barrier photo #2456 |
Features - Both brick and masonry block walls can be either hand-laid or
preassembled by machine.
Hand-laid walls have greater versatility in their ability to conform to the variety of ground
contours
encountered in the roadway environment and in their layout than do the preassembled panels with
their
fixed panel sizes and heavy equipment requirements. Preassembled panels have an advantage in
speed
of erection, provided that the site environment allows for easy maneuvering of the necessary
cranes and
transport vehicles. In addition, brick and masonry block walls can be constructed satisfactorily
with no
special leveling courses on grades of up to 6 percent. In some cases, brick is used as a facing or
veneer
on masonry block or cast-in-place walls.
5.2.1 Special Considerations. |
All brick and masonry walls,
whether they are hand or machine laid,
require a continuous concrete foundation (see Figure 74). The wall must be anchored to the
foundation with
reinforcing bars. Vertical and horizontal reinforcing bars are also needed in the wall itself to
provide
structural strength. Preassembled panels usually must be braced while the supporting concrete
gains its
strength. |
|
Figure 74. Barrier concrete
foundation photo #568 |
-
Scaffolding for Installation - In most cases, scaffolding is needed to install
brick and masonry block
noise barriers (see Figure 75). Cranes may be used to install prefabricated or preassembled
panels, but
crews are still needed on scaffolding to fasten the panels to the posts and framework. Scaffolding
needs
room, a good solid foundation, and a considerable amount of effort and time to install. All of
these
factors should be considered before this type of material is selected for a specific site.
|
|
Figure 75. Scaffolding for barrier
installation photo #2455 |
-
Regional Differences - Masonry blocks are less suited for the more northern
regions where the blocks
would come into frequent contact with substantial amounts of deicing salts, which tend to
deteriorate the
blocks and the bonding mortar between them.
5.2.2 Verification of Quality.
The tests
discussed within this section are described in detail in Section
10 which discusses product evaluation of all types of barrier materials.
-
Compressive Strength - The compressive strength of the brick or masonry
block, the concrete used to
fill the voids inside the wall, and the concrete used in the foundation should be tested, since these
are the
structural components of the wall system.
-
Dimensions - Since concrete blocks and bricks are shipped on pallets, it may
only be necessary to check
the dimensions of one unit per pallet (see Section 11.5.1).
-
Mortar - The mortar used in most concrete block noise barriers is an integral
part of the structural
strength of the wall enabling, it to withstand lateral forces against the wall. Therefore, the quality
of the
mortar becomes quite critical and should be checked to assure adherence to project specifications.
5.3 Metals
Three type of metals are most commonly used: (1) steel; (2) aluminum; and (3) stainless steel.
Steel - Steel is the least expensive and most common of all metals used in
construction (see Figure 76). It is
composed of a mixture, in varying proportions, of iron ore, carbon, and small amounts of other
metals depending on the physical characteristics desired.
Most steel panels, posts, and girts are either: (1)
coated with plastisols, bonded powders, enamel paints, or galvanizing material; or (2)
manufactured as a self protecting weathering
steel. |
|
Figure 76. Metal noise barrier photo
#158 |
Aluminum -
Aluminum is a lightweight alloy commonly made from bauxite and is typically coated with a
bonded powder, enamel paints or anodized (see Figure 77). It is not compatible with galvanized
coatings.
|
|
Figure 77. Metal noise barrier photo
#5692 |
Stainless Steel - Stainless steel is a highly durable and corrosion resistant
metal alloy. It is a mixture of steel
carbon, nickel, and chrome (in varying proportions). Since this material is virtually corrosion
resistant, the
surface does not need to be coated.
Features - Metal panels have a weight advantage which makes them
particularly useful for vertical
extensions of existing sound walls, for mounting on existing retaining walls which have limited
residual
strength, or on bridge structures, because of their light weight.
Typical Use - This type of material can be used anywhere. However, bridges
and retaining walls are
ideal locations for the use of these light-weight type of panels.
5.3.1 Special Considerations.
-
Weathering Steel - Such unpainted, rusting panels are found to stain adjacent
concrete.
-
Adjacent Vegetation - Plantings do not grow well next to sun-heated metal
panels. In addition, vines
have difficulty in gaining a foothold on coated panels.
-
Non-compatibility of Various Metal Combinations - Care should be taken to
ensure that differing
metal which come in contact with each other do not have an adverse effect on one another. This
is
particularly true for aluminum coming in contact with steel. The aluminum acts similarly to the
zinc in
the galvanizing material where it is the sacrificial element and will eventually disintegrate over a
short
period of time.
-
Sound Transmission Class (STC) - Most metal sheeting materials do not meet
the typical minimum
panel weight and/or sound transmission class required in typical noise barrier specifications (see
Section
3.4.2). However, adding corrugations or ribs to the profile of the panel material tends
to improve the
sound transmission class of the panel.
-
Appearance - Occasionally, metal walls impart an industrial appearance which
is considered undesirable
by some residential neighborhoods. This is particularly true for the back side where the girts and
posts
are exposed to the view of the residents. To overcome this perception, a double faced wall may
be used.
This system incorporates the use of steel panels on both sides of the post and framework.
-
Climbability - The girts, in combination with horizontally mounted corrugated
or ribbed metal panels,
provide an opportunity for the wall to be climbed from the side containing the girts or ribs (see
Figure
78). This can be prevented by the addition of a sheet of metal facing to cover the girts and posts
on this
side of the wall
|
|
Figure 78. Metal barrier: climbability photo
#157 |
-
Glare - All metal barriers are susceptible to glare from opposing light sources.
This issue is addressed in
more detail in Section 9.6.
-
Conductivity - Since all metals are electrically conductive, the installation of
metal noise barrier walls
should be avoided near power lines unless all metal components can be properly grounded.
-
Scaffolding for Installation - In most cases, scaffolding is needed to install
metal noise barriers. Cranes
may be used to install prefabricated or preassembled panels, but crews are still needed on
scaffolding to
fasten the panels to the posts and framework. Scaffolding needs room, a good solid foundation,
and a
considerable amount of effort and time to install. All of these elements should be considered
before this
type of material is selected for a specific site.
-
Panel Thickness - Metal noise barrier panels are typically in the range of 18 to
22 gauge thickness
making them quite susceptible to damage from vandalism, debris, errant vehicles, snow plow
operations,
and other maintenance equipment. Therefore, consideration should be given to the thickness of
the
panel, the structural strength that can be achieved through corrugations, and the distance from the
roadway that they are installed.
5.3.2 Verification of Quality.
The tests discussed within this section are described in detail in Section 10 which discusses
product evaluation of all types of barrier materials.
-
Dimensions - The panel, profiles, size, and gauge should be verified since any
deviation from that specified in the design plans will effect the structural strength, durability, and
performance of the noise barrier system (see Section
11.5.1).
-
Coating Thickness - Coating thickness, whether it is a galvanized, painted,
sprayed, or dipped, must be verified to ensure durability.
-
Accelerated Weathering - This test provides information on how well coatings
withstand extreme moisture, high temperatures and harsh light conditions. The test method
normally involves exposing the samples to prolonged water spray and high doses of ultraviolet
light, all carried out under high temperatures (approximately 63 degrees Celsius or 145 degrees
Fahrenheit). Although accelerated test methods are not true representations of actual conditions,
it does provide a reasonable tool to compare product performances and to be able to reasonably
predict the results of long term exposure to harsh climatic conditions.
-
Corrosion Resistance - This is another procedure used to test coatings, but is
used mostly for testing their effectiveness in preventing corrosion of metal surfaces to which they
are applied. The typical test method subjects a coated metal sample to constant exposure of salt
and moisture.
-
Structural Strength - Single, thin, flat sheets of metal usually do not have the
structural strength to resist the wind loads to which noise barrier panels are normally subjected.
Therefore, panels made of this type of material may require some form of stiffening before they
are able to meet local structural design and testing procedure requirements.
-
Metal Properties - Brittleness, hardness, and tensile strength should be verified
by appropriate standard test method. Mill classification certificates should be available for all
metal components.
5.4 Wood
Most wood noise barrier walls are constructed of pressure
preservative treated lumber, plywoods (see
Figure 79), and glue laminated products (see
Figure 80).
|
|
Figure 79. Plywood noise barrier photo
#657 |
Figure 80. Glue laminated post and plank noise barrier
photo #736 |
A number of different species of wood have the potential for being used as a noise barrier
product, but this
does not mean that all perform equally. Some species, such as the pines, are well suited for
pressure
treatment. Whereas, it may be difficult to obtain a deep, uniform penetration of the preservative
in spruces.
Some of the more common species used are as follows:
Pacific Coast Douglas Fir
Interior Douglas Fir
White Fir
Western and Eastern Hemlock
Western Larch
Jack Pine
Red Pine
Ponderosa Pine
|
Eastern White Pine
Lodgepole Pine
Western White Pine
Southern Yellow Pine
Red Spruce
White Spruce
Poplar
Red Alder
|
Features - Panels can be either installed piece by piece in the field or
partially assembled in a plant or on
the ground prior to attachment to the post. Power nailers, which are commonly used in the plant
as well
as in the field, make quick work of assembly. Some wood barriers can also be easily dismantled if
future
highway changes are needed. This material blends well with natural or residential background and
does
not conduct electricity.
5.4.1 Special Considerations.
-
Safety - Consideration to safety issues, such as shatter resistance, should be
given when mounting wood
noise barrier walls on traffic barriers.
-
Burning Characteristics - Wood noise barrier walls will burn under the same
conditions as any other
wooden fence. The smoke and emissions that are generated from burning treated wood are
considered
toxic. The ash left from the burning of this type of wood is also toxic and can leach into the
surrounding soil and water supply.
-
Warping and Shrinkage - Wood products are not dimensionally stable and tend
to warp/shrink leaving
open cracks between joints, particularly if they have not been properly seasoned or kiln dried.
The
thicker the wood products are, the more problematic warping can become.
-
Tongue and Groove Planking (see Figure 81) - To prevent the occurrences of
gaps between planks as
the walls weather and the planks shrink or warp, specifications for wood plank walls should
include
deeper tongues and grooves than the industry standards.
|
|
Figure 81. Wood barrier:tongue and groove
planking photo #411 |
-
Pressure Treating - Most wood will decay rapidly when in
contact with moisture. To combat this, the common practice is to pressure treat the wood with a
chemical preservative. There are several acceptable chemical solutions used, all with relatively
equal performance. Some of the more common ones are ACC, ACA, CCA, Penta, and Creosote.
ACC
|
Acid Copper Chromate.
|
ACA |
(Ammoniacal Copper Arsenate) is a bright greenish colored waterborne
preservative.
|
CCA |
(Chromated Copper Arsenate) is a mild green colored waterborne preservative. This
cannot be used on fir wood.
|
Penta |
(Pentachlorophenol) comes in either a gas or oil borne formula. Colors vary, with the
gas borne generally being lighter in color. This product has a distinct odor for a season and tends
to draw out natural pitch leaving deposits and streaks on the wall facing.
|
Creosote |
is a Coal Tar based oil borne preservative, usually dark brown in color.
|
-
Glue laminated posts and planks - Due to the chemical composition of the
glues commonly used to fabricate glue-laminated post and planks, these products are not suitable
for treatment with water based preservatives, only the oil based Penta is recommended for this
product.
-
Cutting - Cutting pressure treated wood will expose untreated interior portions
to the elements. These
areas should be retreated with a compatible brush-on preserving solution.
-
Fasteners - Fasteners used to assemble a wood noise barrier can either be
staples, nails, lag bolts, carriage bolts, nuts and bolts, or screws. Ideally, they should be made of a
non-corroding metal such as stainless steel or aluminum. However, aluminum and steel have been
known to react unfavorably with some types of pressure treating chemicals; steel nails are also
susceptible to this type of chemical reaction.
-
Scaffolding for Installation - In most cases, scaffolding is needed to install
wood noise barriers. Cranes may be used to install prefabricated or preassembled panels, but
crews are still needed on scaffolding to fasten the panels to the posts. Scaffolding needs room, a
good solid foundation, and a
considerable amount of effort and time to install. All of these issues should be considered before
this type of material is selected for a specific site.
-
Wood Posts - Large posts have a tendency to check or split
open, exposing untreated surfaces to decay and attack by insects. Checking can be minimized by
allowing the posts to season properly before being pressure-treated. In addition, the butt end of
the post should be kerfed to allow deeper penetration
of the preservative solution.
-
Color - Initial color is a problem with timber walls since it is usually governed
by the type of preservative chosen. These barriers will eventually fade to a weathered brown or
gray color. The waterborne preservatives are initially green with some fading rapidly and more
uniformly than others. Repairs to
damaged sections will be conspicuous unless repair planks are acquired at the time of construction
and allowed to weather in the yard.
Some saw mills stain their products with a preservative having an identifying hue or "mill
bright." This practice creates visual chaos when different-sourced products are mixed in one
installation.
5.4.2 Verification of Quality.
The tests discussed within this section are described in detail in Section 10 which discusses product evaluation of all types of
barrier materials.
-
Structural Grade - Specifying a good structural grade of lumber does not
guarantee that all pieces of wood will be straight enough to permit the tight fit normally required
for wood barriers. Therefore it is essential to visually confirm the grade of the wood used and
removing any pieces that are warped,
checked, split, or have excessive knots.
-
Dimensional Stability - Structural graded lumber does not ensure that the
product will never shrink, particularly if the wood has not been properly seasoned or kiln dried
before pressure treating. Therefore, all wood components, particularly large members, should be
checked for dimensional tolerances (see
Section 11.5.1).
-
Determination of Penetration - This test determines the depth of penetration of
the preservative into the wood. The penetration rate may vary between species.
-
Moisture Content - This test determines the amount of moisture in the wood.
It is a nondestructive test and should be conducted on all larger pieces and those where warping,
checking, and splitting may be un-preventable or may have a serious impact on the overall
performance of the wall.
5.5 Transparent Panels |
The typical transparent noise barrier
(see Figure 82) may use panel material made of either glass or a clear plastic product such as
Plexiglas, Butacite, Surlyn, Lexan, or Acrylic. Glass panels are commonly made of single
tempered or laminated tempered glass sheets. Both plastics and glass can be tinted and can also
be etched or given a frosty appearance.
Tempering of the glass is a heat treating process which strengthens the glass, producing a
much more shatter resistant product. When it does shatter, the shards are small and granular in
appearance, with pieces typically not larger than 12 mm (½ in). These are much safer than
the long knife-like shards produced from
shattering common non-heat treated glass. In addition to the tempering, the glass panels can also
be laminated. This type of glass panel is produced by adhering two sheets of tempered glass
sheets to both sides of a clear rubbery type flexible sheeting. When this type of glass panel is
shattered, the glass will break into small granular-like pieces, where the pieces will remain adhered
to the sheeting. |
|
Figure 82. Transparent panel noise
barrier photo #1981 |
Features - The transparent panel materials are an ideal way of reducing or
virtually eliminating the visual
impact of a noise barrier.
Typical Use - Transparent barriers are normally only built for 3 reasons:
- To prevent hindering the scenic view for the driving public;
- To prevent hindering the scenic view for the residents adjacent to the roadway; or
- To prevent hindering the view of retail establishments for the driving public.
Since transparent noise barriers costs can be as much as 20 times that of common concrete or
steel panels,
the decision to use transparent noise barriers should not be made lightly. Possibly, the only other
reasons for
their use would be to improve safety, where opaque noise barrier walls may have an adverse affect
on
stopping sight distance, visibility in merge areas, lighting, and shading.
5.5.1 Special Considerations. |
Transparent noise barriers come
with their own unique set of engineering, safety, and environmental considerations which are
significantly different than most other types of material normally used for noise barrier panels.
-
Vandalism - Plastic panels are particularly susceptible to vandalism (see
Figure 83), not only from the typical paint can, but also from knives, lighters, or matches.
|
|
Figure 83. Transparent panel barrier:
vandalism photo #1947 |
-
Mounting - Depending on the type of material used for the panels, (glass,
acrylic, etc.) and the size, the method of mounting can vary significantly. The general principle
for mounting this type of thin, flat sheeting is that the method used must sufficiently reduce or
remove the stresses on the material to
eliminate the possibility of the panels breaking or falling out from between the supports. It is
recommended that the manufacturer be contacted to obtain the best mounting method to be used
for their specific product on every site.
-
Dimensions - In order to enhance transparency, it would be preferable to use
large pieces of material and to limit the number of supporting brackets. While transparent plastic
sheeting materials are available in lengths exceeding 5 m (16 ft), the same is not true for tempered
or laminated glass. Manufacturing constraints limit the maximum dimensions of glass plates. In
addition, as the area of the panel increases, the thickness must also be increased to maintain
structural integrity, thus increasing weight and cost (see Section
11.5.1). To reduce the need for thicker material, it is common to use smaller post
spacing and/or framed panels that can be stacked between posts. Size of panels is also limited by
handling capabilities.
-
Edge Conditioning - To avoid thermal and stress cracking, all edges must be
smooth and without defects. This is extraordinarily critical if the edges are not cut in a straight
line.
-
Ultraviolet Light Stabilizers - Some of transparent plastic sheeting materials
are sensitive to ultraviolet light. If exposed to sunlight for extended periods of time without being
protected by UV stabilizer additives or coatings, the sheeting will haze and discolor, leaving them
translucent or even opaque in
some cases. Even with the stabilizers, the sheeting will eventually be affected by the light.
Acrylic based sheetings are much less sensitive to sunlight and tend to stay transparent for a
longer period.
Note that glass, by itself, is not affected by sunlight. However, if laminating material is used,
this material may be sensitive to ultraviolet light.
-
Shatter Resistance - Although most commonly used plastic products are
relatively shatter resistant, glass is not; even when the glass is tempered and/or laminated, the
panel will shatter
-
Glare - All transparent barriers are susceptible to glare from opposing light
sources. This issue is addressed in Section 9.6.
-
Road Debris Damage - These types of panels are more susceptible to damage
from flying debris than most other types of barrier materials. They are also very susceptible to the
abrasive damage caused by the sand blasting action from stirred up road dirt.
-
Cost - Depending on the size and type of material selected, the cost of
transparent barrier sheeting can be anywhere from 10 to 20 times more than that of other barrier
panel materials. However, in some areas of the country where the use of transparent barriers are
prevalent, the costs may be much lower,
even comparable to that of other barrier panel materials.
-
Cleaning - To maintain their transparency, these types of panels need to be
washed on a regular basis. This is of particular concern if the wall or the individual panels are
tilted, which tends to hinder the natural cleaning process provided by rain on the underside of the
panel. Access for cleaning of the panels is normally not a problem on the traffic side, which is
usually the dirtier side of the wall. However, the opposite side may not be as accessible, and, in
some cases, cleaning may not be feasible at all. This limitation should be considered when
selecting barrier material. Cleanliness is particularly critical if the transparent noise barrier was
constructed for safety reasons such as to improve visibility for stopping sight distance or merging.
-
Breakage - Damaged panels cannot be repaired by patching. The only option
is to replace the damaged sections.
-
Regional Differences - There are generally no climatic restrictions for the use
of any of the transparent sheeting materials.
5.5.2 Verification of Quality.
The tests discussed within this section are described in detail in Section 10 which discusses product evaluation of all types of
barrier materials.
-
Dimensions - The panel, profiles, size, and thicknesses should be verified since
any deviation from that specified in the design plans will effect the structural strength, durability,
and performance of the noise barrier system (see Section
11.5.1). Of particular importance with the transparent sheeting material, whether it is
glass or one of the plastics, is the strict adherence to the tolerances for the mounting hardware
and the sealants to avoid uneven stress points which can result in material fracturing or warping.
Such consequences can occur if a panel is placed between two posts with insufficient room for
expansions or inappropriate expansion or caulking material. If too much room is provided at the
panel-to-post connection points, the panel can actually become separated from the posts under
certain conditions which will result in substantial contraction of the barrier material and/or
excessive panel movement caused by vibration or wind.
5.6 Plastics |
There are several types of plastic
materials available for use as a barrier material, including Polyethylene, PVC, and fiberglass (see
Figure 84).
Features - The most unique features of plastic products are their versatility and
moldability. This material can be produced to perform and appear the same as almost any
construction material on the market today. Its light weight nature improves ease of handling both
in the plant and in the field. In
addition, most of these products are recyclable.
|
|
Figure 84. Plastic noise barrier photo
#782 |
Typical Use - Plastic noise barrier panels can be installed in almost any
situation. However, due to there light weight characteristics, they are particularly suitable for
structure mounted applications.
5.6.1 Special Considerations.
-
Burning Characteristics - Plastic noise barrier walls tend to be more flammable
than barriers made of other materials. The smoke and emissions that may be generated from
burning plastics should be considered toxic. The ash left from any burnt material should also be
considered as toxic and can leach
into the surrounding soil and water supply.
-
Shrinkage - Some plastic products are not dimensionally stable and may tend
to shrink leaving open cracks between joints or may be susceptible to accelerated creep and deformation.
-
Ultraviolet Protection - Some plastic products are very sensitive to ultraviolet
light and tend to cause rapid deterioration of pigments, surface appearance, and material strength.
To avoid this, it is possible to slow down the deterioration process by adding ultraviolet
protection into the composition of the plastic
at the time of molding.
-
Creep - Creep, which is evident in most plastics to varying degrees, should be
considered during the design of the barrier system by reducing the amount of strain to which the
plastic components may be subjected.
-
Vandalism - Plastic panels are particularly susceptible to vandalism from paint,
knives, and lighters.
-
Shatter Resistance - Although most commonly used plastic products are
relatively shatter resistant, this characteristic tends to deteriorate over time, and the product
becomes more brittle and may shatter on impact by flying objects or vehicles. Damaged panels
can usually not be repaired by patching. The only
option is to replace the damaged sections, thus increasing the cost of repairs and possibly
jeopardizing the appearance of the barrier if similarly molded panels are no longer available or are
difficult to reproduce at a reasonable cost.
-
Glare - Depending on the surface texturing applied to the plastic surfaces, the
barrier panels may be susceptible to glare from opposing light sources. This issue is addressed
further in Section 9.6.
5.6.2 Verification of Quality.
There are countless standard test methods published to assist in the verification of plastic
products. Each of these test methods are normally only relevant to very specific plastic
formulations. The tests discussed within this section are described in detail in Section 10 which discusses
product evaluation of all types of barrier materials. This handbook will not attempt to list or
describe these and suggests current testing information be obtained from other sources.
-
Dimensions - The panel's profile, size, and thickness should be verified since
any deviation from design specifications will affect the structural strength, durability, and
performance of the noise barrier system. Of particular importance is the strict adherence to the
tight tolerances for the mounting hardware and the sealants to avoid uneven stress points (see Section 11.5.1).
5.7 Recycled Rubber |
The issue of using recycled rubber
from tires in products used for roadway construction has been under
investigation for many years by numerous government agencies, world wide. The results of their
efforts indicate widely varying success in trying to adapt this type of material into a usable
product (see Figure 85).
Recycled rubber can refer to a wide range of products, made from an equally wide range of
rubber compounds. In practice, however, the rubber waste stream is dominated by scrap tires.
There are two other significant sources: (1) tire trim and off-spec tires from tire production and
(2) buffings from rubber product manufacturers.
|
|
Figure 85. Recycled rubber noise barrier
photo #3124 |
5.7.1 Special Considerations.
-
Flammability and Smoke - Rubber is notorious for its high flammability and the
dense smoke which is produced when it burns. If a noise barrier made from this material should
ignite as a result of such incidents as grass fires, accidents, or vandalism, the accelerated flame
spread and the dense smoke produced could result in safety and legal issues. To reduce rubber's
susceptibility to these concerns, flame and smoke retardants are available that can be added to the
mixture during the manufacturing process.
-
Toxicity - Recycled rubber tire material has been found to be nontoxic under
leachate testing. However, additives, such as binders, retardants, coatings, and coloring, included
in the mix to form and enhance the material, can create potential toxicity problems. These
additives are, in some cases, proprietary with the specific formulations kept in confidence by the
manufacturer.
-
Structural Strength - Rubber material, on its own, does not have sufficient
rigidity to be considered as a structural component of a noise barrier panel. Therefore, bonding
agents must provide adequate stiffness to enable the panels to be considered strong enough to
withstand wind loading, or the rubber
material must be firmly attached to a suitable stiffener, such as channel backings, cores, or
casings.
-
Binders - Rubber and some binders tend to oxidize over time when exposed to
the elements. They may also be susceptible to certain chemical or petroleum products. This
increases the potential of premature disintegration of the panels. If concrete is used as a binder,
concrete modifiers and special treatment of
the crumb rubber are required before they will bond properly to each other. This is particularly
important when these panels are exposed to salt, cold weather, and flexing for a long period of
time.
-
Coatings - Some coatings suitable for rubber have a questionable life
expectancy. They have a tendency to oxidize prematurely, particularly when used in conjunction
with certain pigments. If the surfaces of the noise barrier panels are being manufactured to be
sound absorptive, the coatings may clog the
surface openings thereby reducing the Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC).
-
Sound Transmission Class (STC) - Although the weight of the panels may be
sufficient to meet general requirements for minimum STC ratings, it may not be sufficient when
produced as a porous panel. Even when stiff backers or cores are used, the nature of this material
may require the cores or backers to be extensively perforated to promote bonding.
-
Recyclability - The recyclability of the final product may have been reduced
drastically by the type of additives needed to alter the physical properties of the panel so that it
can meet the various fundamental requirements for an effective, safe, and durable noise barrier
product.
5.7.2 Verification of Quality.
The tests discussed within this section are described in detail in Section 10 which discusses product evaluation of all types of
barrier materials.
-
Flame Retardants - To ensure that the retardants are adequate, the minimum
allowable rate of flame spread and smoke generated should not be greater than the rate for a
typical fence material, such as pine.
-
Toxicity - Concerns for environmental damage and health hazards should be
addressed by requesting leachate testing or other methods to determine the toxicity of the final
noise barrier panel material.
-
Structural Strength - The structural strength of the panel must be verified
through load testing on a production panel.
-
Bonding - To optimize the bond between the rubber crumb particles, it is
necessary to ensure that the rubber crumb is new or has been protected from the elements. The
binders used should be stable under prolonged exposure to ultraviolet light. The manufacturing
process should ensure that each rubber
particle is completely encapsulated by the binder. If cement is used, the rubber surface should be
treated or impregnated with a bonding agent compatible with both the rubber and the concrete.
Or, the concrete should contain modifiers that will allow it to firmly bond to the rubber and be
able to stand the test of time.
-
Coatings - The coated panels should be subjected to weatherometer testing to determine the
longevity of the coating.
-
Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) - If the panels are to be coated, the NRC
rating should be verified after the panels have been coated.
-
Sound Transmission Class (STC) - The assembled noise barrier system should
be tested to verify the STC rating. Even though the mass requirement for a suitable STC has been
theoretically met, the finished panel may be two porous to actually achieve the desired STC.
5.8 Composites
Composite noise barrier materials, in general terms, can be defined as any product composed of
two or more primary materials, such as plywood with a fiberglass skin (see Figure 86), or wood
mixed with concrete and then layered onto concrete (see Figure 87). Since the possibilities are
almost endless, this section will mainly
focus on the special considerations which should be used in evaluating their safety, durability, and
performance.
|
|
Figure 86. Composite noise barrier photo
#132 |
Figure 87. Composite noise barrier photo
#707 |
5.8.1 Special Considerations.
The combining of basic materials has a tendency to change the performance, durability, and, in
some cases, the safety characteristics of the final product. These changes should be investigated
thoroughly before the composite materials are used in an actual installation.
-
Burning Characteristics - Some composite materials may have a tendency to
burn, or be severely damaged under certain conditions. The smoke and emissions that may be
generated from burning materials might also be toxic. The ash left from any burnt material may
also be considered as toxic and will most likely leach into the surrounding soil.
-
Shrinkage - The shrinkage rate of the primary materials differ significantly and
may cause dimensional instability and leave open cracks between joints or promote accelerated
creep, warping, or delamination.
-
Ultraviolet Protection - Some products are very sensitive to ultraviolet light
and tend to cause rapid deterioration of pigments, surface appearance, and material strength. To
avoid this, it is possible to slow down the deterioration process by adding ultraviolet protection
into the composition of the material at
the time of molding.
-
Creep - If plastic is part of the composite material, creep should be considered
during the design of the barrier system by reducing the amount of strain which the plastic
components may be subjected to.
-
Vandalism - Some materials are particularly susceptible to vandalism from
paint, knives, and lighters.
-
Shatter Resistance - Although most commonly used products are relatively
shatter resistant, this characteristic tends to deteriorate over time and the product becomes more
brittle and may shatter on impact by flying objects or vehicles. Damaged panels can usually not be
repaired by patching. The only option is to replace the damaged sections, thus increasing the cost
of repairs and possibly jeopardizing the appearance of the barrier if similarly molded panels are no
longer available or are difficult to reproduce at a reasonable cost.
-
Structural Strength - Some primary used in composite panels do not have
sufficient rigidity to be considered as a structural component of a noise barrier panel. Therefore
bonding agents must provide adequate stiffness to enable the panels to be considered strong
enough to withstand wind loading, or the
material must be firmly attached to a suitably stiff backing, core, or casing.
-
Binders - Some binders tend to oxidize over time when exposed to the
elements. They may also be susceptible to certain chemical or petroleum products. This increases
the potential of premature disintegration of the panels. If concrete is used as a binder, concrete
modifiers, and special treatment of
the crumb rubber are required before they will bond properly to each other. This is particularly
important when these panels are exposed to salt, cold weather, and flexing for a long period of
time.
-
Coatings - Many coatings have a questionable life expectancy. They have a
tendency to oxidize prematurely, particularly when used in conjunction with certain pigments. If
the surface of the noise barrier panels are being manufactured to be sound absorptive, the coatings
may clog the surface openings thereby reducing the Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC).
-
Sound Transmission Class (STC) - Although the weight of the panels may be
sufficient to meet general requirements for minimum STC ratings, it may not be sufficient when
produced as a porous panel. Even when stiff backers or cores are used, the nature of some
materials may require the cores or backers to be extensively perforated to promote bonding.
-
Recyclability - The recyclability of the final product may have been reduced
drastically by the type of additives needed to alter the physical properties of the panel so that it
can meet the various fundamental requirements for an effective, safe, and durable noise barrier
product.
-
Future Disposal - The nature of the primary materials or when combined with
other materials may render the final product unsuitable for future disposal in land fill sites.
-
Safety - Consideration to safety issues, such as shatter resistance, should be
given when panels are mounted on traffic barriers, such as Jersey barriers.
5.8.2 Verification of Quality.
Some combinations may not have sufficient in-field performance history to be able to determine
the long term durability, safety, and performance of specific composites.
Therefore testing is much more critical for these types of materials than most others used for
noise barrier panels. There are countless standard test methods published to assist in the
verification of various materials. Each of which are normally only relevant to very specific
material formulations. This handbook will not attempt to list or describe these and suggests
current testing information be obtained from other sources. The tests discussed within this
section are described in detail in Section 10 which discusses product evaluation of all types of
barrier materials. However, the following fundamental tests should be considered for all of these
types of materials.
-
Dimensions - The panel's profile, size, and thickness should be verified since
any deviation from design specifications will effect the structural strength, durability, and
performance of the noise barrier system (see Section
11.5.1).
-
Flame Retardants - To ensure that the inherent, or added, flame retardants are
adequate, the minimum allowable rate of flame spread and smoke generated should not be greater
than the rate for a typical fence material, such as pine.
-
Toxicity - Concerns for environmental damage and health hazards should be
addressed by requesting leachate testing or other methods to determine the toxicity of the final
noise barrier panel material.
-
Structural Strength - The structural strength of the panel must be verified
through load testing on a production panel.
-
Bonding - To optimize the bond between the composites, it is necessary to
ensure that the primary materials and binders used are stable under prolonged exposure to
ultraviolet light and that the proper binders are used for the specific materials.
-
Coatings - The coated panels should be subjected to weatherometer testing to
determine the longevity of the coating.
-
Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) - If the panels are to be coated, the NRC
rating should be verified after the panels have been coated.
-
Sound Transmission Class (STC) - The assembled noise barrier system should
be tested to verify the STC rating.
-
Freeze-Thaw/Salt Scaling - This test is a combination of two tests, which
determines the material's resistance salt scaling and also to frequent freezing and thawing cycles.
It provides a good indicator as to how the final material combination(s) will perform under harsh
weather conditions.
5.9 Barrier Surface Treatment
This section describes various surface treatments, including textures, colors, and coatings which
may be applied to a noise wall.
5.9.1 Textures. |
A vast majority of surface textures
are available to the noise barrier designer (see Figure 88). In many cases, such treatments can be
applied to several elements of the barrier systems (e.g., posts, panels, caps, etc.). Different
barrier surface treatments can be obtained by having different combinations of treatments on these
separate barrier elements. The intent of the following discussion is not to address all possible
combinations of treatment, but rather, to discuss the more common surface texture types
available. The following discussion of texture types is categorized by material type. |
|
Figure 88. barrier surface treatment
textures photo #512 |
5.9.1.1 Concrete. |
-
Smooth Surface - Such a surface is produced by traditional concrete finishing
techniques (see Figure 89). The top side of precast panels cast in a horizontal precast bed are
typically "floated" to a smooth texture. Obtaining a smooth surface on the bottom side of such a
panel or on either side of a vertically formed panel requires finishing after the initial concrete cure,
including filling of voids and final "rubbing" of the concrete with a thin cement mixture.
|
|
Figure 89. Concret:smooth surface photo
#996 |
-
Exposed Aggregate - A stone aggregate surface is typically obtained using
precast concrete barrier elements (see Figure 90). The surface is obtained using the selected type,
color, and gradation of aggregate in the barrier's concrete mix itself. Care must be taken to assure
that the aggregate selected for its aesthetic appearance also meets the required structural
requirements related to strength, angular size, shape, etc. Also, the aggregate should be
sufficiently screened, graded, and inspected to assure the removal of any iron ore aggregate which
could give the appearance of rust bleeding from the panel. Prior to the panel being cast, a
retarding chemical is placed on the form work of the surface which will ultimately have the
exposed aggregate finish. The retarder extends the curing time of the concrete on the surface to
which it is applied. Different grades of retarder are available which provide varying degrees of
penetration into the concrete surface and thus will provide varying degrees of exposure of the
aggregate. Following the initial cure of the panel to a degree of strength which enables it to be
lifted out of the horizontal form to a vertical position, the surface treated with retarder is power
washed with a high pressure (2,000 psi) water wash. This process removes the "retarded" (soft)
concrete and exposes the aggregate. An acceptable exposed aggregate surface is most easily
obtained on the bottom (down side of a precast panel). Obtaining an acceptable exposed
aggregate surface on the top side of a panel is significantly more difficult and may require seeding
of the top surface with additional aggregate in addition to the application of a retarder directly to
the top panel surface immediately after its pour. Producing consistently acceptable exposed
aggregate panels is an art requiring experience on the part of the precaster as well as an emphasis
on quality control.
|
Figure 90. Concrete: exposed
aggregate photo #1180 |
-
Form Liners - A wide variety of surface treatments can be obtained by the use
of form liners (see Figure 91 to 93). Form liners are essentially sheets of material (usually a
flexible material such as rubber, but also may be made of wood, metal, or other material) which
have been fabricated or molded with one flat side and one side containing the "mold" of the
desired surface treatment. These sheets are made to be re-useable for multiple applications.
While form liner treatments
(related to noise barriers) are most often applied on the down side of panels cast in a precast
plant, they can be applied to one or both sides of a panel if cast in a vertical position. Recent
innovations have produced machinery capable of pressing a form liner onto the top side of a
panel, thus allowing form liner finishes on both sides.
|
|
Figure 91. Concrete: form
liner photo #1180 |
|
|
Figure 92. Concrete: form liner photo
#498 |
Figure 93. Concrete: form liner photo
#698 |
Care must be taken when such
form liner sheets are butted together such as in long precast bays where bulkheads may be moved
to produce the required lengths of individual noise barrier panels. In such an application, the
joints between form liners will occur mid-panel on many of the noise panels (see Figure 94). To
avoid unsightly joint lines which can interrupt the desired surface texture, care must be taken to
assure that the joints are tight, adequately secured to the form work, and "lined up" in terms of
the form liner pattern. The potential for such joint lines is greatest with form liners having slight
relief (depth of pattern). A deep relief pattern such as a deep rib texture can more easily hide such
joints, assuming that the rib patterns are carefully lined up at the joints. Since such form liners by
nature create non-smooth surfaces, care must be taken to avoid jagged edges at the ends and sides
of the panels. This is particularly critical if the concrete will be painted or stained since any jagged
edges can more easily be chipped or broken off, exposing areas of unpainted or unstained
concrete.
|
|
Figure 94. Concrete: form liner panel
joints photo #7029 |
-
Raked, Broomed or Other Applied Finishes - These types of treatments are
applicable to the top side of precast panels (see Figure 95). They can result in various degrees of
patterns created by hand-applied techniques, with less or equal effort as compared to "floating" a
smooth concrete surface.
|
|
Figure 95. concrete: raked finish photo
#508 |
-
Stamped Finish - It is possible, with specialized techniques, to press or stamp a
design into the top surface of a horizontally poured panel (see Figures 96 and 97). Such
techniques have been used (in conjunction with the use of a pigmented surface layer of cement) to
create a brick-type surface. Such a treatment is somewhat more labor-intensive than other
treatments, particularly if a grout-type look is desired. Any stamping process also requires that
the aggregate in the panel be sufficiently deep to allow such stamping.
|
|
Figure 96. Concrete: stamped finish photo
#6512 |
Figure 97. Concrete: stamped finish photo
#6514 |
-
Inserts - Special and unique aesthetic treatments can be obtained by the use of
panel inserts (see Figures 98 and 99). These inserts are typically precast or manufactured
separately from the concrete panel and either imbedded in the panel during the pouring process or
set into an equal size and shape indentation
within the precast panel. In either case, care must be taken to assure an adequate
bond/attachment between the insert and the noise barrier panel. Such bonds are best
accomplished by mechanical attachments (studs or anchors) although chemical bonding
techniques may also be employed.
|
|
Figure 98. Concrete: inserts photo
#8014 |
Figure 99. Concrete: inserts photo
#8015 |
-
Veneers - In the context of this discussion, veneers are meant to represent a
separately manufactured material applied to the surface of a concrete noise barrier. Such
materials are usually applied for aesthetic reasons although certain veneers may be applied to
make the surface sound absorptive. Examples of such veneers include full width and thin brick,
ceramic tile, and porous composite sound absorptive materials. The primary concern of the use of
veneers is related to assuring an adequate attachment bond as discussed above.
-
Stucco - Stucco is a finish coat of cementitious material which can be textured
in a variety of ways. It bonds directly to the concrete noise barrier without any additional
attachments. As such, the cleanliness and roughness of the concrete noise barrier surface is
critical in order to assure an adequate bonding surface for the stucco (see Figure 100).
|
|
Figure 100. Masonry block: stucco photo
#1066 |
5.9.1.2 Masonry Block.
-
Exposed Aggregate - Compared to the variety of exposed aggregate textures
available in a concrete panel, such treatments with masonry blocks are significantly limited. This
is due to the limited range of aggregate used in the mass production of concrete blocks.
- Form Liners - While some molds may be applied to the production of
concrete blocks, their use is rare and limited.
- Veneers - Veneers can be applied to concrete block in a manner
similar to that of concrete panels.
- Fractured Fin - A common means of achieving a rough, textured
surface in concrete block is through the use of fractured fin surfaced block (see Figure 101). This
surface is achieved by mechanically sheering the block to create a rough surface.
- Stucco - Stucco can be applied to concrete block in a manner similar
to that of concrete panels (see Figure 102).
|
|
Figure 101. Masonry block: fractured
fin photo #948 |
Figure 102. Masonry block: stucco photo
#1061 |
5.9.1.3 Brick.
- Type of Brick - Literally hundreds of types of brick are available
for use in the construction of noise barriers (see Figures 103 and 104). These include more
common types of standard brick, including pavers, plus the slump stone and adobe style of brick.
Bricks may be laid up with mortar in multiple courses or used to face concrete or concrete block
walls as discussed above. Whether bonded to other brick courses or to concrete or block walls,
bonding straps of some form are used to secure the system components to each other.
|
|
Figure 103. Brick: surface texture photo
#560 |
Figure 104. Brick: surface texture photo
#6518 |
- Type of Mortar - Various colors and types of mortar are
available for bonding bricks.
- Type of Bond - Similarly, various styles or patterns (known as bonds)
are used to construct brick or brick-faced barriers. The most common are stacked bond and
running bond. Bricks of different widths, styles, and colors may also be employed to create
unique and interesting patterns and/or to create designs representative of area landmarks, themes,
etc.
5.9.1.4 Metal. |
- Mechanically
Formed Shapes - Most textures created in metal noise barriers are via the use of
roll-formed mechanical brakes, benders, and similar factory operated devices (see Figure 105). A
variety of such formed shapes are available for both preassembled components as well as for
components assembled in the field. Although different styles and shapes are possible on each side
of the noise barrier (through the use of double-faced panels), surface treatments are most often
similar on both sides.
|
|
Figure 105. Metal: surface texture photo
#1708 |
- Pressed (dimpled) surfaces - Smaller relief impressions in metal
panels may also be obtained by plant-applied processes.
5.9.1.5 Wood.
- Plank Orientation - Different visual appearances can be obtained
via the orientation of wood planks used in noise barrier construction. Horizontal, vertical, and
diagonal configurations have been employed (see Figures 106 and 107). Planks of different
widths and depth can also create interesting visual effects.
|
|
Figure 106. Wood: horizontal plank photo
#745 |
Figure 107. Wood: vertical plank photo
#730 |
- Battens -
As well as providing a mechanism for preassembling panels on the ground (prior to their
attachment to posts) battens can also be employed to create patterns in the noise wall design (see
Figure 108).
- Grain - Selection of wood grain and roughness can also create the
desired surface texture treatment.
|
|
Figure 108. Wood: patterns on battens attached to
panels photo #471 |
- Lamination - Various design patterns are possible
with laminated panels through the particular orientation of the laminated component elements
(see Figure 109). Designs with such a system will most often be similar on both sides of the
barrier.
|
|
Figure 109. Wood: pattern on laminated
panels photo #663 |
- Post Type and Orientation - Wood posts of various shapes and
sizes have been employed in the construction of noise barriers. Circular, square, and rectangular
post sections are common (see Figures 110 and 111). The exposure or concealment of the post
can create different textural and
shading patterns.
|
|
Figure 110. Wood: circular post type
photo #744 |
Figure 111. Wood: square post type photo
#435 |
5.9.1.6 Transparent Materials. |
Surface texture treatments are
limited to aesthetic type designs (stencils) applied to such barriers (see Figure 112). |
|
Figure 112. Transparent: surface stencil
design photo #1954 |
5.9.1.7 Plastics. |
Surface textures of plastic panels are
generally limited to shapes and textures
which can be accomplished via the panel component molding process (see Figure 113). |
|
Figure 113. Plastic: surface texture photo
#792 |
5.9.1.8 Rubber.
Similarly, barriers constructed of recycled rubber materials are limited to shapes obtainable
through molding of their components. The surface texture of such panels is also influenced to
some degree by the density and porosity of the rubber (see Figures 114 and 115).
|
|
Figure 114. Rubber: surface texture photo
#2948 |
Figure 115. Rubber: surface texture photo
#2949 |
5.9.1.9 Composites
.
Composite panel texture treatment opportunities reflect the availabilities and constraints of the
particular components used to form the outside barrier face (see Figures 116 and 117).
|
|
Figure 116. Composite: surface
texture photo #136 |
Figure 117. Composite: surface
texture photo #708 |
5.9.1.10 Other Applications
- Planted Walls - Textures of planted walls are limited to what can
be accomplished via the planted vegetation within the wall system.
- Gunite on
Reinforced Chain Link Fence - A unique texture treatment has been successfully used in
a noise barrier application for over twenty-five years. This system consists of a chain link fence
which was reinforced with expanded metal mesh and then sprayed with gunite to provide the
appearance of a stucco wall (see Figure 118). While such a treatment is probably not advisable
close to travel lanes, where it is more prone to damage from airborne debris or vehicular hits, it
appears to be a viable and economical technique for use in areas somewhat removed from active
travel lanes. The particular wall shown has also withstood several major and many minor
earthquakes with little or no damage.
|
|
Figure 118. Gunite: surface
texture photo #2243 |
5.9.1.11 Special Considerations.
As discussed briefly in the introduction of Section 5, the selection of a particular surface treatment
texture depends on a number of factors including aesthetic
requirements of both sides of the barrier, constructability issues, maintenance concerns, and the
type of barrier material. The selection of a form liner finish on both sides of a barrier requires
specialized equipment, could negate the ability to use horizontally cast precast barrier elements
and could require the use of either vertically cast precast elements or cast-in-place barriers. The
inability to use full height precast panels (in a situation where placing such panels is restricted due
to overhead wires or other factors) could limit the barrier type, material, and therefore the surface
texture options. Texture treatments used with stacked panels should be coordinated so that the
joints are either concealed by the pattern or become a part of the pattern (see Figures 119 and
120).
|
|
Figure 119. photo #902 |
Figure 120. photo #533 |
5.9.2 Color.
The desired color of noise barriers is provided by one of the following two general techniques or a
combination thereof:
-
by the natural color of the noise barrier material being used (possibly enhanced by a clear coating)
-
by application of a paint, stain, pigmented coating, or integral pigment added to the noise barrier
material.
Options related to colors of noise barriers are discussed below for various types of barrier
materials.
5.9.2.1 Concrete and Masonry Block |
These types of materials are quite
versatile in their ability to be colored (see Figures 121 to 123). The color of their natural elements
(sand, stone, and cement) can be varied to obtain different earth tone colors. Addition of a
pigment to such a coating can provide a uniform color to a plain concrete surface wall. Pigments
can also be added to the mix prior to the forming of barrier components. Quality control and
consistency are critical in the production of pigmented concrete since unevenness and blotchiness
can become apparent, particularly on smooth surfaces. A consistent color from panel to panel is
an important aesthetic factor in achieving a successful barrier system. To ensure a panel-to-panel
color consistency, a surface-applied stain may be more effective than the use of integral colors or
pigments in the oncrete mix. Natural and pigmented barriers have the advantage of not showing
damaged areas (from chips, scrapes, etc.) as much as painted or stained surfaces. The maximum
protection against the visual effects of such damage can be provided by use of a pigmented panel
with a surface stain of a matching color. This reduces any unevenness in the pigmenting process
while providing for consistent color throughout the panel. The added cost of such a dual
treatment may, however, not be warranted in many cases.
|
|
Figure 121. Concrete:
color photo #2337 |
|
|
Figure 122. Concrete: color photo
#1218 |
Figure 123. Masonry block: color photo
#2373 |
5.9.2.2 Brick. |
While many variations in color are
available with these types of materials, the color is limited to the that of the material itself (see
Figure 124). |
|
Figure 124. Brick color photo
#2655 |
5.9.2.3 Metal. |
Except in cases where a natural
(e.g., aluminum, stainless steel, etc.) or rusted look (e.g., weathering steel) appearance is desired,
color on metal panels is usually obtained by painting or application of some bonded type of
surface coating (see Figure 125). In many cases, barrier elements (particularly posts) are designed
with their protective galvanized finish as the ultimate color. This process protects the post while
negating any maintenance requirements associated with paint. When colors are desired on metal
barriers they may be either applied at the origin of manufacture or in the field. If applied where
the barriers are manufactured, such coatings may be applied using a variety of techniques such as
a baked enamel finish, a sprayed-on finish, by using a plastisol (a poured-on PVC emulsion), or
via a bonded powder coating applied via an electrostatic process. In any coating application
process, surface preparation is critical. Such preparation needs to consider the initial,
intermediate, and final coats in terms of their undercoating and surface preparation requirements.
Manufacturers' requirements (related to both coating and material coated) such as extent of sand
blasting (white blast, grey blast, etc.), cleaning materials, temperature and moisture controls, etc.
need to be adhered to closely. Certain coatings may also allow for easier removal of graffiti
without any detrimental effects to panel aesthetics.
|
|
Figure 125. Metal:
color photo #1720 |
5.9.2.4 Wood. |
A wide variety of natural colors is
available in wood products (see Figure 126). The selection of a particular wood species for its
color attributes must also consider other factors of the wood. While a particular wood species
may have the exact natural color desired, its qualities related to other areas of concern (durability,
warping, rot resistence, etc.) may be unacceptable. Most woods can be stained or painted to
obtain a desired color. Clear and pigmented preservative treatments are also available. The type
of treatment, stain, or paint must be compatible with the type of wood, nails, and other fasteners
used in the barrier assembly, and with the environment in which the barrier will be placed.
Chemical reactions between steel nails and certain wood preservative treatments have caused
these nails to corrode, requiring their replacement with stainless steel fasteners. Moisture content
at the time of paint or stain application is also critical. It is essential that a wood barrier be
properly seasoned before application of any paint or stain, and that no such protective materials
are applied when the barrier is damp. Specific requirements will vary for each coating material,
necessitating strict compliance with the specifications of the coating manufacturer.
|
|
Figure 126. Wood:
color photo #464 |
5.9.2.5 Plastics, Fiberglass, and Acrylics. |
Color of these materials is most
often obtained through the pigmentation of the emulsifiers used in the molding process of barrier
elements (see Figure 127). A scratch coat may also be added for protective purposes. |
|
Figure 127. Plastic: color photo
#1728 |
5.9.2.6 Rubber.
Recycled rubber material generally cannot be pigmented. Rubber can be coated (usually with a
more expensive polyurethane coating) to obtain a desired color.
5.9.2.7 Composites. |
Composite panel color treatment
opportunities reflect the availabilities and constraints of the particular components used to form
the outside barrier face (see Figure 128). Particular concern should be paid to ensure
compatibility between the barrier materials (including any glues, attaching devices, etc.) and the
applied coating to negate any potential for damaging chemical reactions. |
|
Figure 128. Composites: color photo
#2533 |
5.9.2.8 Planted Walls.
Color in such walls can be obtained by the selection of the appropriate plants. Different colors and
patterns can be obtained with changes in season.
5.9.3 Coatings.
The discussion in this section is limited to coatings on concrete and masonry barriers, since
coatings on other types of barriers are inherently addressed within the discussions of color found
in Section 5.9.2.
Coatings are typically applied to concrete or masonry barriers for protective and/or aesthetic
reasons. Protection against the elements (wind, rain, salt spray, ultraviolet light, etc.) and
potential vandalism (anti-graffiti) are common reasons for application of such coatings. While
coatings can significantly enhance the appearance of a barrier or be its primary aesthetic element,
care should be taken in application to assure positive results. Addition of a clear protective
coating can have positive benefits in terms of enhancing the color and brilliance of a concrete
exposed aggregate surface. Conversely, application of the same clear protective coating on a
plain concrete barrier can have a negative impact by making the barrier surface look wet and
enhancing any unevenness or blotchiness.
5.9.3.1 Anti-Graffiti Coatings. |
A number of products are on the
market which can provide varying degrees of protection against graffiti. Few, if any, barriers can
be made graffiti-proof. Quick removal (within 24 hours) of the graffiti may discourage "artists"
who try to return to embellish upon the previous night's work. Rougher surfaced and darker
colored barriers and barriers covered with vegetation or vines may also provide more resistence to
being "hit" by graffiti artists as compared to light colored, non-planted, and/or smooth-surfaced
barrier surfaces. However, there is no guarantee that a barrier will not be susceptible to graffiti.
Once hit with graffiti, an unprotected concrete or masonry surface can be marred for life due to
staining and penetration of the graffiti paint into the concrete substrate, even if the graffiti is
"removed." Anti-graffiti coatings are meant to prevent such penetration and to make the removal
of the graffiti somewhat easier. Anti graffiti coatings may be clear or pigmented. Clear coatings
are usually applied to architectural surfaces such as exposed aggregate or brick (see Figure 129),
where the source of the barrier's color is in the natural barrier material itself. In some instances,
such coatings applied to exposed-aggregate surfaces tended to enhance its appearance by
deepening the aggregate colors. Pigmented coatings are typically applied to natural (unpainted,
unstained, un-pigmented) concrete surfaces. Application of coatings is usually done by spraying,
although rolling and brushing may occasionally be performed, especially in areas where over-spray
is a concern. Anti-graffiti coatings may be of either the permanent or sacrificial variety as
described below: |
|
Figure 129. Anti-graffiti
coating photo #5332 |
- Permanent Type - This type of treatment is aimed at providing a
coating which will enable multiple removals of graffiti by high pressure water wash and/or
chemical washing techniques without having to replace the coating. Such coatings may be either
urethane or water based and usually require a two- or three-coat application process.
- Sacrificial Type - This treatment type provides a coating which itself
is wholly or partially removed along with the graffiti during the cleaning process. Certain
sacrificial coatings may be capable of several cleanings before they must be reapplied. These
types of coatings are typically one-coat, water-based or wax-type systems. They are generally
less expensive, but do require re-application following a certain degree of graffiti removal.
5.9.3.2 Stains.
In addition to providing the desired color in a noise barrier, a concrete stain can provide a degree
of protection against the elements as well as be reapplied to areas "tagged" with graffiti. Stains
can be either oil-based or water-based, with the latter being more widely used for concrete
applications.
5.9.3.3 Application Process.
Coating of precast barrier elements may be performed at the point of their manufacture (normally
a precast plant) prior to their erection or in the field after their
erection. Only on rare occasions would coating of precast barrier elements be performed in the
field prior to the erection of the barrier. Coating of cast-in-place noise barriers must occur in the
field. If coating is done at the plant, conditions may be better controlled, but barrier elements
must be stored during drying or between coats at a location free of dust and potential damage
from plant operations. Additional care must also be taken during transport of coated panels to the
job site and during their erection process to protect them against possible damage. It is for these
reasons that the majority of coating is performed in the field following the erection of the barrier.
Even in this situation, coating must be done when conditions (rain, temperature, wind) are
acceptable.
5.9.3.4 Relationship of Coating Type to Maintenance
Philosophy.
Anti-graffiti coatings should only be applied if the responsible organization has a policy which
dictates the removal of graffiti from barriers. If the standard operating procedure related to the
treatment of graffiti is to paint over it, then anti-graffiti coating is not only a waste of money, but
also creates a surface to which the
"paint over" paint will not easily adhere. With this maintenance philosophy, the use of stains
appears to be more consistent and cost-effective.
5.9.3.5 Relationship of Coating to Barrier's Acoustical Performance.
In addition to the factors listed above, it is essential that the coating be compatible with the
intended acoustical performance of the barrier. If the barrier is designed to be sound reflective
(see Section 3.5.4), then any type of coating may be
applied without affecting its acoustical erformance. However, if the barrier is to perform a sound
absorptive function, any coating used must not interfere with the barrier's sound absorptive
characteristics. For instance, coating a sound absorptive, porous surface with a paint or a
urethane-based anti-graffiti coating could seal up the voids which provide the barrier's sound
absorptive
characteristics. A water-based penetrating stain may be an appropriate coating in this instance.
Before applying any coating to a sound-absorptive surface, research and coordination with
both the barrier manufacturer and the coating supplier is strongly recommended.
5.9.3.6 Health and Environmental
Issues.
While significant benefits in several areas can be realized by the use of coatings, there are health
and environmental issues which need to be addressed in association with their use. As a general
rule, products should be stored, applied, and disposed of in strict compliance with the
recommendations of the manufacturer and in accordance with all applicable federal, state, and
local regulations. Urethane-based coatings require particular attention due to their higher content
of volatile organic compounds (VOC) and their more potent odors. Water-based and other more
recently developed coatings will have little or no VOCs and less of an odor problem. They also
have less toxicity. Over spray is still a factor requiring careful consideration where barriers are in
close proximity to either residences or vehicles or where coating application is being performed
near water courses or swales leading to such sources of water. Adequate covering of the ground
with tarpaulins can help to minimize ground and water contamination.
Section Summary
Noise Wall Materials. |
Item# |
Main Topic |
Sub-Topic |
Consideration |
See Also Section |
5-1 |
Concrete |
Aesthetic |
For cast-in-place: form liners and architectural inserts must be placed on vertical surfaces of
the form work which can increase the chance of imperfections in the wall surface. |
5.1 |
For cast-in-place: application of concrete retarding chemicals to the vertical form work
surfaces for the purposes of obtaining an exposed aggregate finish is difficult. |
5.1 |
For cast-in-place: other surface textures obtained through raking, brushing, or stamping of
concrete are not possible. |
5.1 |
Surface textures:
-
Smooth Surface - Ensure a smooth surface by performing a final "rubbing" of the concrete
with a thin cement mixture.
-
Exposed Aggregate - Provide sufficient screening, grading, and inspection to ensure the
removal of any iron ore aggregate which
could give the appearance of rust "bleeding" from the panel.
-
Form Liners - The joints must be tight, adequately secured to the form work, and "lined up"
in terms of the form liner pattern. Care
must be taken to avoid jagged edges at the ends and sides of the panels.
-
Inserts - Care must be taken to ensure an adequate bond/attachment between the insert and
the noise barrier panel.
-
Veneers - The primary consideration of the use of veneers is related to assuring an adequate
attachment bond.
-
Stucco - The cleanliness and roughness of the concrete noise barrier surface is critical in order
to ensure an adequate bonding surface for the stucco. |
5.9.1.1 |
Quality control and consistency is critical in the production of pigmented concrete since
unevenness and blotchiness can become apparent, particularly on smooth surfaces. The maximum
protection against the visual effects of damage can be provided by use of a pigmented panel with a
surface stain of a matching color. The added cost of such a dual treatment may, however, not be
warranted in many cases. |
5.9.2.1
5.9.3 |
Drainage and
Utility |
Application of concrete retarding chemicals to the vertical form work
surfaces for the purposes of obtaining an exposed aggregate finish is
difficult. |
5.1 |
Safety |
Consider on-site material testing and inspection during construction. |
5.1 |
Installation |
For precast , consider size limitations, shipping requirements, traffic
implications, reusability of precast panels, quality assurance process |
4.1.2.3.1
5.1 |
For cast-in-place, consider on-site material testing and inspection procedures during
construction, and weather concerns for on-site casting and curing. |
4.1.2.6
5.1 |
Maintenance |
For free-standing noise walls, consider access for landscaping. |
4.1.2.6 |
5-2 |
Brick and Masonry Block |
Aesthetic |
Surface textures:
Exposed Aggregate - Consider limited use due to mass production constraints.
Form Liners - While some molds may be applied to the production of concrete blocks, their
use is rare and limited.
Veneers - Ensure an adequate attachment bond.
Stucco - The cleanliness and roughness of the noise barrier surface is critical in order to
ensure an adequate bonding surface for the stucco. |
5.2
5.9.1.2 |
Quality control and consistency is critical in the production of pigmented blocks since
unevenness and blotchiness can become apparent, particularly on smooth surfaces. |
5.2
5.9.2.1
5.9.3 |
Structural |
Consider the need for a continuous concrete foundation. |
5.2
8.4 |
Consider the compressive strength of the concrete materials. |
5.2 |
Installation |
Hand-laid versus preassembled panels:
Consider each type's versatility to conform to ground contours.
Consider each type's speed of erection.
Consider special leveling courses on grades of up to 6 percent.
Consider the scaffolding requirements for hand-laid panels. |
5.2
11.1 |
5-3 |
Metal |
Acoustical |
Consider the Sound Transmission Class requirements. |
5.3 |
Aesthetic |
Consider the possible "industrial" appearance of metal walls. |
5.3 |
Consider weathering steel concerns because unpainted rusting panels can stain adjacent
concrete. |
5.3 |
Manufacturers' requirements (related to both coating and material coated) such as extent of
sand blasting, cleaning materials, temperature and moisture controls, etc. need to be adhered to
closely. |
5.9.2.3
5.9.3 |
Structural |
Consider the non-compatibility of various metal combinations. |
5.3 |
Ensure corrosion resistance. |
5.3 |
Consider the metal's structural strength. |
5.3 |
Safety |
Consider the possible glare due to on-coming vehicles. |
5.3 |
Consider implementing a deterrent for climbing on barrier girts. |
5.3 |
Maintenance |
Debris and errant vehicles easily causes noticeable damage. |
5.3 |
5-4 |
Wood |
Acoustical |
Consider possible shrinkage and warping causing noise leakage through gaps. |
5.4 |
Ensure a tight fit for tongue and groove planking to avoid noise leakage. |
5.4 |
Aesthetic |
Selection of a wood species for its color attributes must also consider durability, warping, rot
resistence, etc. The type of treatment, stain, or paint must be compatible with the type of wood,
nails, etc. used in the barrier assembly, and with the environment in which the barrier will be
placed. Chemical reactions between steel nails and wood preservative treatments may corrode
nails. Moisture content at the time of paint or stain application is also critical. |
5.9.2.4
5.9.3 |
Safety |
Consider the wood's burning characteristics when choosing a wood. |
5.4 |
Consideration should be given to a wood's shatter resistance. |
5.4 |
5-5 |
Transparent Panels |
Structural |
Consider the various methods of mounting. |
5.5 |
Consider edge conditioning the panels. |
5.5 |
Safety |
Consideration should be given to shatter resistance. |
5.5 |
Consider the possible glare due to on-coming vehicles. |
5.5 |
Maintenance |
Consider the methods of cleaning the panels. |
5.5 |
Consider the maintenance concerns related to vandalism and scratches. |
5.5 |
Consider the need for ultraviolet light protection. |
5.5 |
Debris and errant vehicles easily causes noticeable damage. |
5.5 |
Cost |
Transparent noise barriers costs can be more costly than common concrete or steel
panels. |
5.5 |
5-6 |
Plastics |
Acoustical |
Consider the possible shrinkage in plastic materials. |
5.6 |
Safety |
Consideration should be given to the material's shatter resistance. |
5.6 |
Consider the possible glare due to on-coming vehicles. |
5.6 |
Consider the burning characteristics of the materials. |
5.6 |
Maintenance |
Consider the need for ultraviolet light protection. |
5.6 |
Consider the maintenance concerns related to vandalism and scratches. |
5.6 |
5-7 |
Recycled
Rubber |
Acoustical |
Consider possible coating interference with the material's Noise
Reduction Coefficient. |
5.7 |
Ensure an adequate Sound Transmission Class. |
5.7 |
Recycled rubber material generally cannot be pigmented. Rubber can be coated (usually with
a more expensive polyurethane coating) to obtain a desired color. |
5.9.2.6
5.9.3 |
Structural |
Consider the panel's structural strength requirements. |
5.7 |
Consider the material's bonding requirements. |
5.7 |
Safety |
Consider the need for flame retardants. |
5.7 |
Consider the material's possible toxicity concerns. |
5.7 |
5-8 |
Composites |
N/A |
(Refer also to concerns for individual materials within composites)
Particular concern must be paid to ensure compatibility between the
barrier materials (including any glues, attaching devices, etc.) and the
applied coating to negate any potential for damaging chemical reactions. |
5.8
5.9.3 |