SEPTEMBER, 1898.
-
Years of harvest. Total sugar crop.
MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW.
R a i g h t p g
413
1888.. ........................................ 1 m .. ........................................ 1884.. ......................................... 1886. ....................................... 1881.. ......................................... 1899.. ........................................ 1889.. ........................................ 1887.. ......................................... 1894.. ......................................... 1890.. .......................................... 1 m ........................................... lesl .......................................... 1es.P ......................................... 1896. .......................................... 1889.. ...................................... 1682. ......................................... 1888 ...........................................
rainfall, as in the following table, we may perceive a clearer
connection between the rainfall and the sugar crop than was
shown in our previous article :
Kilograms. Inches. 102,376,271 57.25 119,711,492 68.39
117.sn9.610 78.68
124, y3.140 86.18
142,645,?22? 96.11
127, w, 339 15.55 115,299, a39 ‘7.13
139,751,810 80.39 120,396,858 %.OS
113, t93.319 m.11 130, E O , 273 88.94
113,813,075 96.61 6S,7lS, 573 98.78 152,677,973 108.54
124,564,951 108.71
116,719,997 118.37 132,172,968 125.40
Destructive hurricane.
By taking the means of these figures in groups we see that
there has been a steady increase in the sugar crop which
averaged 119 millions during the first four years and 137
millions during the last four years, which increase is nndoubt-
edly due to an increase of acreage. On the other hand, the
average for the four years of the least rainfall is 116 millions, and for the four years of greatest rainfall 131 millions. In
these latter averages the secular increase, due to acreage, has
little or ho influence, and the difference of 16 million kilo-
grams may be attributed to the increase of average rainfall
from 70 inches to 115 inches during the growing season, so
that an increase of three inches in the rainfall brings an
increase of 1 million kilograms in the crop.
-- CORRECTION.
It is said that the Editor seems to have been unnecessarily
severe in some remarks on page 316 of the MONTHLY WEATHER
REVIEW for July. He was trying to show how to define the
expression “ very violent thunderstorm,” so that the record
would show whether t,he violence referred to the thunder and
lightning, or the wind, or the rain or hail. He unintention-
ally misquoted the original report from Elgin, Ill. (where
the measured rainfall was 0.43 inch), but he did not intend to
say that a storm having so small a quantity as 0.043 inch
might not be a very violent storm. If the expression ‘‘ vio-
lent storm” is not misleading, it is, a t least, possible to re-
move its indefiniteness by stating wherein the storm was vio-
lent. The observer writes to say that 0.43 is the correct rain-
fall, “and the recollection of that stormy half-hour will
linger in the memory of thousands in. this city for a long
time, so, also, will its marks continue on our shade and for-
est trees.”
We infer that the measured rain fell within half an hour,
which brings it up nearly to the standard of excessive rain-
falls tabulated monthly by Mr. Henry in Table SI.
The Editor hopes that the observers will agree with him
that it is better for him to venture on an occasional critical
remark than not to remark a t all.
-0-
INSTRUCTION IN RESEARCH.
It will be recognized by those who carefully consider the
subject that progress in science consists not merely in the
diffusion of what is already known, but in the actual increase
of our knowledge. The grand structure called science has
been the growth of many thousands of years. It is said that
Pythagoras added to geometry his discovery of that impor-
tant theorem which is now BO familiar to every school boy, viz,
that the square of the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle
is equal to the sum of the square8 of the two sides. After
geometry and algebra and arithmetic had been studied for
two thousand years, the modern experimental sciences began
to develop more rapidly. Newton and Galileo discovered the
laws of forces and gave us the true basis for mechanics. New-
ton, also, made great strides in the study of the phenomena
of optics. During the past century the names of Liebig in
agricultural chemistry, Gauss in mathematics and magnetics,
Kelvin in electricity, Clausius in thermodynamics, and a host
of others each in his own sphere have become famous for the
energy with which they have pushed their inquiries forward
into the unexplored fields of nature. Our own land has had
her Espy and Ferrel, but still stands in need of the help of
many other equally sagacious investigators.
We hear much of the study of science in schools and col-
leges. and a t last meteorology is also beginning to be appre-
ciated as an important course of study; but can we be con-
tent to merely teach over and over again that which has
been accepted as true? We are everywhere confronted with
unexplained phenomena, with events that contradict all theo-
ries and hypotheses. We must hold ourselves open to con-
viction and ready to accept whatever new modification of old
views may result from better investigations. But how shall
we educate investigators?
A mistaken idea has widely prevailed that the investigator
is a genius, born and not made; sent to us by the Creator,
and not educated by human design. The history of German
science has, however, shown that environment and training
are as important as birth and inheritance. The whole system
of education in the German universities has for five genera-
tions been directed to the development of the investigator as
its highest product. Those who discover important new facts,
laws, or principles have been rewarded with the highest places
in the intellectual world of that nation. Those who feel that
they have a desire or calling for scientific research are encour-
aged to study for the degree of doctor of philosophy, a degree
that is only granted when the candidate has, by actual observa-
tion, experiment, or exploration, made some important contri-
bution to human knowledge. The professors under whom he
studies have, in their turn, made many similar contributions,
and are well prepared to judge of the value of his work. Of
course a considerable percentage of candidates fail to receive
the desired degree of. Ph. D., even after many years of perse-
vering work ; but still the German universities have, during
the past seventy years, published over fifty thousand so-called
‘‘ doctors’ dissertations,” embodying the results of the works
of fifty thousand candidates. The consequence is that to-day
Germany easily leads all the world in the amount and value
of her contributions to human knowledge and the energy with
which her students pursue the study of nature.
I n a recent address by Sir Norman Lockyer (see Nature for
October, 1898) he states that in 1845 in England there were no
laboratories in the universities, no science teaching in the
schools, no organization for training science teachers, and, he
might have added, still less organization for training scientific
investigators. The same was a t that time true, approximately,
of the Uiiited States, and in both countries the young men who
wished to devote themselves to science were accustomed to
resort to France or Germany to find the necessary educational
facilities, stimulus, and companionship. Since those days
both England and the United States have awakened to the
necessity of encouraging scientific investigation and the train-
ing of investigators.
A great stiniulus to the study of nature was given in
America by the influence of Agassiz, a t Cambridge, beginning
with 1846, and by the opening of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion in 1847. Almost simultaneously independent work be-
414 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW. SEPTEMBER, 1898
~~ ~~ ~~
__
gan a t Philadelphia, Princeton, New Haven, Ann Arbor, Troy,
Charlottesville, and possibly elsewhere.
The weekly journal Science, for August 19, 1898, says:
The development of the American university durin the past twenty. five years may perhaps be regarded as the great ac%ievement of the nation. The foundations laid a t Harvard and at Johns Hopkins within the lifetime of those students now profiting from them have been built upon, until we have now a score of universities, as places for research, equal to Oxford, and half a dozen rivaling those of Germany. The American college, though founded upon the English system, was of native rowth, and the universit , based upon this college, though intlu- enced \y German methods, is Jistinctly national, while at the same time our different institutions show a marked individuality. The American university is definitely a place for research, where both teachers and students are engaged in research and in learning the methods of research. The results of the work of the students are in large measure summarized by the theses for the doctorates, and it i E interesting to know whht is the outcome of the past year’a research. I t appears from a somewhat careful inquiry that 18 leading univer- sities in 1898 conferred the degree of Ph. D. on a total of 234 candi- dates. The latter may be classified as those devoted to the humani- ties (91); to history and politics (38); to the sciences (105).
The weak point of the American custom in regard to these
doctorates is that in many cases the theses are not published,
so that we have no means of comparing either the candidatee
or the standards of the respective universities among them-
selves ; but, in general, it is believed that heavier work is re-
quired of the candidates a t Harvard and Johns Hopkins than
elsewhere. We see from the preceding that the small force
of men engaged in scientific research throughout the United
States thus receives an appreciable addition every year. The
editor of Science states that the distribution of these 105
theses, that is to say of the 105 scientific students, among the
different sciences was as follows:
Chemistry .......................................... 27 Psychology ......................................... 16
Mathematics ........................................ 11 Physics .............................................. 11
Botany .............................................. 11 Geolo ............................................... 6 Physio ogy ........................................... 4
Anthropology ....................................... 2
Meteorologydoes not appear in this list. Its problems in-
volve questions of astronomy, physics, and mathematics. The
attainment of the degree of Ph. D. in the universities quoted
by Science ordinarily means at least three years of general
and again three of special work, the .American university
course is therefore longer, and, it is said, more thorough than
the average course in Germany for attaining the same
degree.
At the present time the fields of instruction and investiga-
tion are rapidly increasing. Meteorology is fully ripe for its
share of attention. It is very desirable that the older men
in the service who are studiously inclined should by teaching,
or otherwise, contribute to the study of meteorology in the
universities, just as they already have done in the schools
and colleges. It is equally desirable that among the studious
young men who are just entering the service, those who have
a good foundation in mathematics and physics, should seek
to attain the degree of “ Ph. D. in meteorology ’’ at the uni-
versities located in the cities where they are stationed. Any thesis prepared by a successful candidate for this degree
would certainly be worthy of publication by the Weather
Bureau. The present Chief has shown every willingness, and,
indeed, a great desire to stimulate the intellectual and scien-
tific growth of the corps. We should not be distinguished
merely by our work but by our knowledge, and not by
knowledge only but by our researches and our additions to
knowledge.
Apropos of the above remarks Mr. F. 0. Stetson, a graduate
of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, says :
Zoo10 gy .............................................. 12
Antronomy .......................................... 3
-
Meteorology, like every other science, requires for its advancement careful study, original investigation, and research. This must be car- ried on by men familiar with the work already done in the same field, and acquainted with the principles of that and allied sciences; men whose mental equipment is at least equal to that of the colle e gradu- ate who baa devoted the major part of his time to the study o f science. Those graduates who engage in original investigation are actuated by one or both of two motives; interest in their work, or the belief that additional learning or a doctor’s degree will bring them higher salaries and larger incomes. It is probable that the first is the predominant motive in most cases. The average college graduate, if financially de- pendent upon his own exertions, is apt to be impatient at the time already consumed in preparation, and to consider that time and money spent in further study can bring no adequate pecuniary recompense. Our advanced student, then,whether fresh from “ Class Day” or of more mature years, selects from his specialty that which has ap ealed most strongly to his fancy during his undergraduate ‘course. 8nder these conditions it mould be extraordinary i f he chose meteorology. He may have completed the usual college course in physics, scarcely know- ing that such a science exists. He may have diligently studied the laws of heat and the theories of gases, without learning of their con- nection with winds and rainfall. There is the chance that he may in- advertently do much for meteorology by the development of some in- terlinked branch of physics, but the progress of this science is heavily handicapped, owing to the fact that what is already known of it is not as yet generally recognized as a necessary part of the college curriculnm. To those students whose graduate studies are solely for the benefit of their pocketboolip, meteorology is even less attractive. Many of this class expect to make teaching their profession, and it needs no mathe- matical demonstration to show that if a subject is not to be taught, no one will prepare’himself to teach it. Progress in meteorology will result from the continued teaching, over and over again and as widely as possible, of what is already known. A s the elements of the science become more generally taught, it will alq’eal, as a fit subject for research, toan increasing number of graduate students of both classes.
INTERNATIONAL METEOROLOGICAL SYMBOLS.
In connection w i t h the Circular of 1584, which is reprinted
on page 312, MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW, for July, Mr. A. L.
Rotch calls attention to the fact that the thunder and light-
ning symbol was modified by the following resolutions of the
International Meteorological Conference a t Paris, 1896 :
1. That the .symbol T be added to the International Symbols adopted by the Congress of Vienna to indicate the days on which distant thunder has been heard, and conformably to the decisions of that Congress. 2. The symbol Q should be reserved for distant and diffused light- ning, wetterleuchlan, sheet li htning [or heat lightning.-Editor 3. The symbol n; shoulf indicate all the cases where both &under and lightning have been observed.
4. I n the r6sum6s the number of days of thunderstorms shall be, aa far as possible, taken out separately for each of the three cases.
THE SECOND WELLMAN POLAR EXPEDITION.
Mr. Walter Wellman, leader of the Wellman Polar Expe-
dition of 1898, took with him, as meteorologist and second in
command, Mr. Walter B. Baldwin, Observer, United States
Weather Bureau. Mr. Baldwin sends the following short
letter to the Chief of the Weather Bureau:
S. S. FRITHJOF, CAPE TEQEITHOFF, FRANZ JOSEPH LAND, Auguet 2,1898.
I have the honor to report that since the departure of this ex edi tion from Tromsoe, Norway, June 26, meteorological observations gav, been made on board the steamship Frithjof, as follows :
A t 7 a. m., 2 1’. m., and 9 p. m., on temperature of the air (dry and wet bulb), temperature ancl salinity of sea-water; pressure of air (Weather Bureau aneroicls Nos. 1134 and 1135, ancl ship’s aneroid with attached thermometer); and velocity, whenever possible, of wind; kind and movement of clouds. Marine barometer No. 488, obtained from the Chicago station, waB found to be out of order and could not be repaired in time to be taken along; I , therefore, left it in its case, in care of Consul Andrew Aa aard, Agent of this Expedition, Tromsoe, Norway. The two aneroiss are in good order, and I shall be able to make use of the barograph in con- nection with them, and expect to obtain good results therefrom.