RESULTS HIV/AIDS Risk Denial and HIV Prevention Strategies Women saw a clear association between men’s temporary labor migration to the United States and HIV risk. 23 As one woman in Atlanta recounted, “AIDS is really spreading in Mexico because many men whose wives are in Mexico come here and get involved with someone, and they don’t know if she has AIDS. Then they get it, and they go back to Mexico.” Women said that men who spend long periods of time away from home are likely to develop some kind of sexual relationship, but most claimed that their own husbands were an exception to this rule, making comments such as “I don’t worry about that because he seems like a good guy.” Women identified men’s extramarital relationships in the United States as a source of risk for those men, and even connected that to the possibility of transmission to Mexican women in general, but they did not translate the scenario into one in which women like themselves—married women who “behave themselves”—are at risk. These women have embraced the message that monogamy is an effective HIV risk reduction strategy. 24 During interviews and in casual conversation, women frequently said that the best way to prevent HIV and other STDs was to have sex only with one’s husband; some even quoted directly from health education lectures, saying that the only kind of “ sexo seguro” (safe sex) is “ con tu pareja” (with your partner). Although at the time this study was conducted, the Mexican National AIDS Council data25 had two recorded AIDS cases for the county in which Degollado is located, informants mentioned several cases of people living with AIDS in Degollado and El Fuerte and other instances in which men from the community had reportedly died of AIDS in the United States. Almost all of the life history informants recounted having heard about other women who had gotten an STD other than HIV from their husbands; many of these stories (with no prompting about connections to migration) were about men returning from stints in the north.26 All of the women knew that illnesses can be transmitted through genital contact during sex, but they all denied having had personal experience with sexually transmitted infections.27 Almost all of the life history informants had heard that condoms prevent the transmission of AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases, but women’s ideas about the technical, sensory, and symbolic aspects of condoms make it unlikely that they would push for condom use. About half of the women had tried condoms as a method of pregnancy prevention, but none favored them, and only a few used them occasionally in combination with rhythm.28 One reason for preferring other methods, these women said, is their belief that condoms are ineffective. Both those who had used them and those who had not made comments such as “no es tan seguro” (it’s not so safe or effective) and “a veces salen medio defectuosos” (sometimes they are defective). Women also talked about how condoms are a barrier to intimacy.29 One woman who had tried using condoms said, “I told him, to have sex every now and then and to do it with a cover, all covered up, no way.” Women spoke of not wanting to be “tapado” (covered up), and said that sex with a condom is less natural and less pleasurable (for both women and men). Women saw unprotected sex as the most intimate kind of sex, and thus argued that if a man was going to use a condom, he should use it with his other partners. One migrant’s wife said she had tried to get her husband to use condoms as a method of pregnancy prevention during a surprise homecoming, only to be told by him, “No, then what the hell kind of pleasure would that be? In that case it would be better to go with another damn woman.” Men and women reunited after a migrant separation are jokingly said to be de luna de miel, on honeymoon; the romance of this honeymoon period would be considerably dampened by the implication that condoms were necessary because either partner had strayed. Given the risk posed by a strategy of unilateral monogamy, one approach might be to educate these women about their HIV risk and develop interventions to encourage them to negotiate with their husbands for condom use. Indeed, many of the articles cited in Gayet, Bronfman, and Magis’ review article on HIV and migration30 suggest that programs should focus on increasing women’s condom negotiation skills. In the remainder of this article, we argue against this seemingly obvious response. It is not just that women do not like condoms (although they may not) or that they may not have the power to insist on their use (although, again, they may not). Rather, negotiating for condom use is unthinkable to these women, because they see requesting condom use as tantamount to acknowledging or even giving permission for a husband’s infidelity. Generational Changes in Marriage and Sexuality The marital ideal has changed over the course of a generation from one of “ respeto” (respect) to one of “ confianza” (intimacy). The marital goals of the older generation (as described by the mothers of the life history informants and the older [aged > 35 years] informants) centered on mutual fulfillment of a gendered set of obligations. 31 Husbands and wives certainly may have felt love and tenderness for one another in the past, but marital success and stability depended on the way the union fulfilled the basic needs of the couple and the wider kin group—production of food, shelter, heirs, and social status—and not on emotional closeness. Within the new ideal of the Mexican companionate marriage, young couples spend more time together, enjoy a somewhat less strongly gendered division of labor, and claim joint decisionmaking (although frequently with ultimate masculine authority) in many areas of domestic and economic issues. These companionate marriages are not necessarily egalitarian; in fact, the emphasis on the importance of marital ties above all other social connections may make women more isolated and dependent on their husbands. Young women also speak differently than their mothers did about the nature and role of sexuality within marriage. For the older women, marital sex produced children and held a man’s attention, and thus served to direct his resources toward a woman and her children rather than outside the family. The younger women, in contrast, claim that mutually pleasurable sexual intimacy strengthens the confianza that is at the heart of these modern marriages.32 They see sex as a sort of “marital glue,” helping a couple’s affective relationship survive through good times and bad.33 The younger Mexican women in Atlanta shared values about relationships, sexual intimacy, and gender with women in the sending communities, but women in the Atlanta field sites live in very different social circumstances than do their sisters and sisters-in-law in Mexico, and so some women in Atlanta had a great deal more domestic power than did their sisters or sisters-in-law in Mexico.34 The contrast between the shared culture and the distinct social settings of this type of migrant community provides a unique opportunity to explore the way that social and cultural factors shape sexuality. Infidelity and Companionate Marriage Women’s attitudes toward male infidelity reflect these broad changes in marital sexuality. 35 The older women valued a pretense of ignorance about a man’s extramarital relationships. As one woman said, for a man to “keep some respect for you” would mean that “you don’t know what they are doing . . . that is, that they act as they wish but do it so that you don’t know.” Since a man owed his wife first and foremost financial support and secondarily some measure of respect, his sexual behavior was largely his own concern except to the extent that he publicly embarrassed his wife. Older women said that drinking, violence, or laziness were significant problems in a marriage, and there was little dissent from the opinion that the worst quality a man could display was to be “ desobligado” (being unwilling or unable to support his family), but none suggested that infidelity might be a reason to leave one’s husband. Blatant male infidelity may certainly have wounded women—as one said, “You don’t say anything to them, but you still feel kind of bad, in your heart” 36—but infidelity did not terminate the underlying contract. Furthermore, older women suggested that men physically need to have sex on a regular basis, that this need for sexual release cannot be satisfied by masturbation, and that a man’s sexual involvement with another woman need not threaten a marriage. As one of the older women said in an interview, discussing her husband’s long absences while working in the United States, “I have said to my husband, ‘I can’t say that you did not use [ que tú no usaste] some woman, but if you did it, it was because you needed to [ porque se te haria necesario].” Younger women, in contrast, see men’s sexual behavior as inseparable from marital intimacy. If sex is the language of love, then to be sure of their husband’s love they must believe that he is faithful while away. As one young woman in the rancho said, “I wouldn’t feel comfortable with him, knowing he’d been going around with another woman.” A man’s sexual infidelity, these younger women said, would weaken or destroy the confianza they have with their husbands. One younger woman told a story about calling her husband in Atlanta from Mexico. The phone rang all night, but he never answered. When she accused him the next day of having been out with another woman, he said he had been home and just not heard the phone. She reflected on this incident with some general comments about infidelity: When the man doesn’t want to lose you, he tries to fix things, to make it [better]—and I prefer this, to him saying to me, “Well yes, I did go around [with another woman].” ... For me, I prefer that he lie, that it was a slip-up, that he went out, that he just stepped out and came right back, but that he doesn’t admit it like that. ... Though maybe it’s bad, I prefer the lie, if it’s going to be just a dalliance [un pasatiempo] or a thing that just happened, that he drank a lot of beer, and got drunk and all that, better for him to hide it from me, so that he doesn’t hurt me. (italics added) Women’s commitment to the image of their husbands as sexually faithful, even when confronted by compelling evidence to the contrary, draws on the idea that sexual betrayal indicates a lack of love.37 The new cultural ideal of marital companionship and shared sexual pleasure gives younger women yet another reason not to raise issues of infection and infidelity. The younger couples prided themselves on their communication about sexuality, emotions, and pleasure, in contrast to the older women, for whom open discussions about sexual matters indicated a lack of respect. However, the value these younger couples place on communication about some aspects of sexuality does not mean that the younger women are any more likely than their mothers were to suggest that a man use a condom for disease prevention purposes. Social Class, Social Context, and Constructions of Sexuality Within this broad pattern of generational change in sexuality lies a second kind of diversity. The life history informants fell into 4 groups when asked how they might respond, hypothetically, if confronted by evidence of infidelity: those who would leave him, those who would talk it out, those who would go out of their way to make him feel special, and those who would do nothing at all. The different ways that women interpret the ideology suggest that the type of “modern” sexual relationship a woman builds may depend on where she lives and the resources on which she can draw. Six of the 26 life history informants said that infidelity was grounds for leaving one’s husband.38 Only the women who could support themselves adopted this rights-based language to talk about infidelity39; they all had an independent income, and 5 had at least a high school diploma as well. When asked about men who said that extramarital sex was their right, one woman who lived in Atlanta and contributed as much as her husband to their joint budget said, . . . just like he could go out [with someone], I could too. How would it seem to him if the tables were turned and if I did that to him? He wouldn’t forgive me, right? We are human beings just like them . . . neither he nor I is made of stone or straw. . . . We both have hearts, we both feel the same. She argued that in the emotional contract of marriage, both partners have essentially the same set of rights. When asked why women do not put up with infidelity now, she continued, “Before, women did what their husbands said when they got married. The rule was that here the man was boss. . . . Now we both are the boss.” These Mexican women have woven together ideas about sexual intimacy as the foundation of marriage with their personal histories and their self-image as modern women to produce a distinct set of attitudes about where to set the limits on men’s sexual freedom. Others said that they might address the issue by trying to discuss it with their husbands. (The “talk it out” group presented a strategy for dealing with infidelity when forced to do so, not for raising the issue in a preventive health context.) Talking about how she would counsel a friend to act, one said, “The thing is to make him understand, communicate well with her, so that he realizes that his wife is worthwhile.” These women share with their sisters the idea that infidelity is a fundamental violation of the marital bargain, but these women seemed particularly skilled at talking about their feelings, and they prized the open communication they have achieved in their marriages. Moreover, they all resided in Mexico. The fact that women in Atlanta and wealthier women in Mexico are so forthright in saying that they would leave their husbands, while their matches in Mexico say that they would do their best to talk things through, shows how emotional closeness can be a strategic resource for a woman who is socially and economically dependent on her husband. Women in Degollado or El Fuerte may have some resources that their peers in Atlanta lack (e.g., broader social networks, a mastery of the language), but these resources do not enable women to live without a man’s economic support. Furthermore, women in Mexico continue to face the issue that “el hombre es el respeto de la casa,” that a woman needs a man to be respected,40 as well as the stigma of divorce, still strong in rural Mexico. The idea that these women in Mexico would try to talk it out implies ultimately accepting a man’s infidelity (just as their mothers might have), but saying that they would at least confront the issue allows them to assert that they are women who deal actively with problems and who are free to speak their minds. For both groups of women, infidelity represents a betrayal of the special sexual relationship that married people should share, but the 2 groups use the ideology differently, based on their social and economic circumstances. Not all women, of course, were so thoroughly invested in these modern strategies for building relationships. The idea that a successful relationship depends on a woman’s ability to keep her man happy, to work through his good side (manejarlo por las buenas), was alive and well among Mexican women in both US and Mexican field sites. The 4 women in this third group focused much more on their feminine ability to please and hold onto a man. A satisfying sex life, they all said, was one of the keys to a good marriage. One responded to the question “If a couple does not get along well in bed, how will they do in the rest of their marriage?” by saying, “Badly, I think, because I have heard that for the man [you need to] have his food ready, his clothes ready, and the bed ready, and he will be all content, and if not, then [he’ll be] a real devil.” In the event of actual or suspected infidelity, these women said that they would use their feminine wiles to make themselves irresistible. All of them mention the importance of being more cariñosa, sweeter or more loving. The women in this group are young (under 20) and recently married. Although they lived in both the US and Mexican field sites, none worked outside the home, and the ones in Atlanta were there without any of their own blood relations to count on in an emergency. Their support for this strategy is most likely a product of many factors: age, family histories, their personality and their husband’s, the sort of marriage they have, and their lack of other resources. Finally, 6 of the life history informants said that they would do nothing in reaction to suspected or confirmed infidelity. None relished the thought, but neither did she argue that it would be grounds for separation. Although this group included women interviewed both in Atlanta and the Mexican field sites, those in Atlanta had spent some, if not all, of the years of their marriage in Mexico; all of the women in this group were older, less educated, with less work experience and fewer opportunities for economic independence. In other words, the women whose material circumstances were most similar to women of the older generation were least likely to embrace this new ideology of sexuality. |
Endnotes 1. This joke was told by a middle-aged woman during a Sunday outing in the car; her husband, sister-in-law, and brother-in-law, and teenage niece all thought it was very funny. 2. M. Bronfman, G. Sejenovich, and P. Uribe, Migración y SIDA en México y América Central (Mexico City: Angulos del SIDA and CONASIDA, 1998); C. Gayet, C. Magis, and M. Bronfman, “Aspectos Conceptuales sobre la Relación entre Migración y SIDA en México,” Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología 20 (2000): 134–140. 3. J. Weeks, Sex, Politics and Society: The Regulation of Sexuality Since 1800 (New York: Longman, 1981); C. A. Nathanson, Dangerous Passage: The Social Control of Sexuality in Women’s Adolescence (Philadelphia, Pa: Temple University Press, 1991); R. Parker, Bodies, Pleasures and Passions (Boston, Mass: Beacon, 1991); C. S. Vance, “Anthropology Rediscovers Sexuality: A Theoretical Comment,” Social Science & Medicine 33 (1991): 875–884; R. Dixon-Mueller, “The Sexuality Connection in Reproductive Health,” Studies in Family Planning 24 (1993): 269–282; J. Hirsch and C. Nathanson, “ ‘Some Traditional Methods Are More Modern Than Others’: Rhythm, Withdrawal and the Changing Meanings of Gender and Sexual Intimacy in the Mexican Companionate Marriage,” Culture, Health & Sexuality 4 (2001): 413–428. 4. E. J. Sobo, Choosing Unsafe Sex: AIDS-Risk Denial Among Disadvantaged Women (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995); Sobo, “Finance, Romance, Social Support, and Condom Use Among Impoverished Inner City Women,” Human Organization 54 (1995): 115–128. 5. J. S. Hirsch, Migration, Modernity and Mexican Marriage: A Comparative Study of Gender, Sexuality and Reproductive Health in a Transnational Community [dissertation] (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University, 1998); J. S. Hirsch and C. Nathanson, “Demografía Informal: Cómo Utilizar las Redes Sociales para Construir una Muestra Etnográfica Sistemática de Mujeres Mexicanas en Ambos Lados de la Frontera,” Estudios Demográficos y de Desarollo Urbano [México: El Colegio de México] 12 (1998): 177–199; J. S. Hirsch, A Courtship After Marriage: Gender, Sexuality and Love in a Mexican Migrant Community (Berkeley: University of California Press, forthcoming). 6. The women in Atlanta were systematically selected to represent the range of diversity in Atlanta’s migrant community in terms of social class and resources in their families of origin in Mexico, as well as factors such as age, legal status, English skills, and reproductive and labor force experience. In a systematic ethnographic sample, the goal is a sample that includes the variety of types of people, not one that is statistically representative (which would be impossible due to the lack of sampling frame). Barbara Katz Rothman in The Tentative Pregnancy: Prenatal Diagnosis and the Future of Motherhood (New York: Penguin Books, 1986) has a useful metaphor for explaining the difference: the goal is not to determine that percentage of marbles of each color that are in a jar, but rather to learn what are the colors of marbles in the jar, and to explore the key ways in which they differ (pp. 18–19). In this study, for example, we were interested in seeing if access to resources, social class, or social context affected women’s reproductive health practices, given a set of shared, culturally constructed ideas about gender and sexuality. It was important, therefore, to construct a sample with variety along these 3 axes. By selecting a group of women who varied in terms of their current resources (measured in Atlanta by English skills and driver’s licenses and in both places by current employment), as well as their social class of origin and the context in which they lived (i.e., Atlanta or Mexico), we were able to evaluate the effect of all 3 sets of factors. For a more extensive discussion of methods and findings, including a description of how participant observation contributed to the study findings, see Hirsch and Nathanson, “Demografía Informal” and “Some Traditional Methods,” and Hirsch, Courtship After Marriage. For a general discussion of the techniques involved in participant observation, see R. Bernard, Qualitative Research Methods (Newbury Park, Calif: Sage, 1994). 7. Hirsch, Migration, Modernity and Mexican Marriage. 8. Bernard, Qualitative Research Methods. 9. Center for Applied Research in Anthropology (CARA), Georgia State University, Hispanics in Georgia 1998: By County (Atlanta: Center for Applied Research in Anthropology, Departments of Anthropology and Geography, Georgia State University, 1998); US Census Bureau, Population by Race and Hispanic or Latino Origin, for the 15 Largest Counties and Incorporated Places in Georgia: 2000, Census 2000 Redistricting Data (PL 94-171) Summary File, Table PL1. 10. Hirsch, Migration, Modernity and Mexican Marriage; M. B. Miles and A. M. Huberman, Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook (Newbury Park, Calif: Sage, 1994). 11. Hirsch, Migration, Modernity and Mexican Marriage; J. Durand, Más Allá de la Línea: Patrones Migratories entre México y Estados Unidos (Mexico City: Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes, 1994); P. Hondagneu-Sotelo, Gendered Transitions: Mexican Experiences of Immigration (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994); D. S. Massey, R. Alarcón, J. Durand, and H. González, Return to Aztlan: The Social Process of International Migration From Western Mexico (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987). 12. W. Cornelius, “Los Migrantes de la Crisis: The Changing Profile of Mexican Migration to the United States,” in Social Responses to Mexico’s Economic Crisis, ed. M. González de la Rocha and A. E. Latapí (San Diego: Center for US–Mexican Studies, University of California at San Diego, 1991), 155–194; M. Cerrutti and D. S. Massey, “On the Auspices of Female Migration From Mexico to the United States,” Demography 38 (2001): 187–200. 13. Gayet et al., “Aspectos Conceptuales”; K. V. Bletzer, “Use of Ethnography in the Evaluation and Targeting of HIV-AIDS Education Among Latino Farm Workers,” AIDS Education and Prevention 7 (1995): 178–191; M. R. Cardenas-Elizalde, “Migración y SIDA en México,” Salud Publica de Mexico 30 (1988): 613–618. Many have noted low rates of condom use and limited perceptions of personal risk among migrant men; see M. Bronfman and N. Minello, “Hábitos Sexuales de los Migrantes Temporales Mexicanos a Los Estados Unidos de América: Prácticas de Riesgo para la Infección por VIH,” in SIDA en México: Migración, Adolescencia, y Genéro, ed. M. Bronfman, A. Amuchastegui, R. M. Martina, N. Minello, M. Rivas, and G. Rodríguez (Mexico City: Información Profesional Especializada, 1995), 1-90; M. Bronfman and S. Lopez Moreno, “Perspectives on HIV/AIDS Prevention Among Immigrants on the US–Mexico Border,” in AIDS Crossing Borders: The Spread of HIV Among Migrant Latinos, ed. S. Mishra, R. Conner, and R. Magaña (Boulder, Colo: Westview Press, 1996), 49–76; J. S. Hirsch, R. Albalak, and C. Nyhus, “Masculinity, Sexuality and AIDS Risk Behavior in a Mexican Migrant Community,” paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Population Association of America, March 23–25, 2000, Los Angeles, Calif; R. Magaña, O. de la Rocha, and J. L. Ansel, “Sexual History and Behavior of Mexican Migrant Workers in Orange County, CA,” in AIDS Crossing Borders, 77–94; M. A. Pérez and K. Fennelly, “Risk Factors for HIV and AIDS Among Latino Farmworkers in Pennsylvania.,” in AIDS Crossing Borders, 137–156. 14. N. L. Weatherby, H. V. McCoy, L. R. Metsch, K. V. Bletzer, C. B. McCoy, and M. R. de la Rosa, “Use of Ethnography,” Substance Use and Abuse 34(1999): 685–706; Bletzer, “Use of Ethnography”; C. B. McCoy, L. R. Metsch, J. A. Inciardi, R. S. Anwyl, J. Wingred, and K. Bletzer, “Sex, Drugs, and the Spread of HIV/AIDS in Bella Glade, Florida,” Medical Anthropology Quarterly 10 (1996): 83–93; Magaña et al., “Sexual History and Behavior”; R. W. Weeks, J. J. Schensul, S. S. Williams, M. Singer, and M. Grier, “AIDS Prevention for African-American and Latina Women: Building Culturally and Gender-Appropriate Intervention,” AIDS Education and Prevention 7 (1995): 251–263; M. Singer and L. Marxuach-Rodríguez, “Applying Anthropology to the Prevention of AIDS: The Latino Gay Men’s Health Project,” Human Organization 55 (1996): 141–148. In comparison with more long-standing migrant-receiving communities, relatively new ones such as those in Georgia may face a particular dearth of second-generation Latinos available to work as translators and advocates; see Access to Health Care by Limited English Proficient Populations in Georgia: A Report of the Bilingual Health Initiative Task Force (Atlanta: Georgia Dept of Human Resources, Division of Public Health, 1994). As migrants continue to travel to more diverse destinations in the United States (D. S. Massey and J. Durand, “Historical Dynamics of Mexican Migrant Destinations, 1920–90,” paper presented at the 1998 Meeting of the Latin American Studies Association, September 1998, Chicago, Ill), this issue of regional variation in culturally competent public health infrastructure is likely to grow in importance. 15. D. S. Massey, J. Arango, G. Hugo, A. Kouaouci, A. Pellegrino, and J. Taylor, “Theories of International Migration: A Review and Appraisal,” Population and Development Review 19 (1993): 431–466. 16. M. Singer, “AIDS and the Health Crisis of the US Urban Poor: The Perspective of Critical Medical Anthropology,” Social Science & Medicine 39 (1994): 931–948; M. Singer, C. Flores, L. Davison, et al., “SIDE: the Economic, Social, and Cultural Context of AIDS Among Latinos,” Medical Anthropology Quarterly 4 (1990): 71–114. The fact that men remain in Mexico is of course no guarantee that they will not seek out other partners; one recent analysis of a household survey in Mexico City reported that 15% of men interviewed had had extrarelational sex during the past year; see J. Pulerwitz, J.-A. Izazola-Licea, and S. L. Gortmaker, “Extramarital Sex Among Mexican Men and Their Partners’ Risk of HIV and Other Sexually Transmitted Diseases,” American Journal of Public Health 91 (2001): 1650–1652. Furthermore, not all men who spend time in the United States as temporary labor migrants have sex while away from home; preliminary analysis of data from a pilot study with a community-based convenience sample of Mexican migrants in Atlanta reveal that slightly over half of the men (53%) had not had sex (J. S. Hirsch, K. Yount, H. Chakraborty, and C. Nyhus, unpublished data). We focus here on migration, infidelity, and HIV risk because those migrants who do seek out extramarital sex while in the United States are generally at greater risk of HIV infection than are men who remain in Mexico. 17. C. Magis-Rodríguez, A. del Río-Zolezzi, J. L. Valdespino-Gómez, and M. L. García-García, “AIDS Cases in Rural Mexico,” Salud Publica de Mexico 37 (1995): 615–623. [PubMed]. 18. D. Diaz-Santana and A. Celis, “AIDS and Migration in Jalisco, Mexico: Their Relation With Risk Factors,” International Conference on AIDS 5 (1989): 1057 (abstract T.H.H.P.20); M. Bronfman, S. Camposortega, and J. Z. Izazola, “Distribución de la epidemia del SIDA,” in SIDA, Ciencia, y Sociedad en México, ed. J. Sepulveda, M. Bronfman, G. Ruíz-Palacios, E. Stanislawski, and J. Valdespino (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 1989). 19. Bronfman et al., Migración y SIDA; T. Pineda, B. Loeza, R. Heredia, N. Vázquez, and V. Hernández, “Perfil del Michoacano Emigrado a Los EUA y el Impacto de la Epidemiologia del VIH/SIDA en la Región,” III Congreso Nacional de Investigación Sobre Salud, Mexico, 1992. 20. C. Magis-Rodríguez et al., “AIDS Cases in Rural Mexico”; C. Magis-Rodríguez, A. del Río-Zolezzi, J. Valdespino-Gómez, and M. García-García, “Rural AIDS cases in Mexico,” abstract presented at 12th World AIDS Conference, June 28–July 3, 1998, Vancouver, British Columbia; A. del Río-Zolezzi, A. Liguori, C. Magis-Rodríguez, J. Valdespino Gómez, M. GarcíaGarcía, and J. Sepulveda-Amor, “La Epidemia de VIH/SIDA y la Mujer en México,” Salud Publica de Mexico, Numero Especial: Doce Años de SIDA en Mexico 37 (1995): 581–591. 21. Bronfman et al., Migración y SIDA; M. Santarriaga et al., “HIV/AIDS in a Migrant Exporter Mexican State,” International Conference on AIDS 11 (1996): 414 (abstract Tu.D.2906); Mishra et al., eds., AIDS Crossing Borders; Bronfman and Minello, “Hábitos Sexuales.”. 22. All the quotations presented here use pseudonyms. 23. All of the women interviewed for this study knew that “SIDA” (the Spanish acronym for AIDS) is transmitted sexually. Most knew that it was not curable, and several noted that someone could be infected with AIDS but look apparently healthy. All the women stated that a woman is safe as long as she has sex only with her spouse. There were no striking generational differences in women’s levels of knowledge, nor did what women know vary much with migration experience. 24. J. Wasonga, “Role of Publications in Disseminating Correct AIDS/HIV Information and Influencing Behavior Among the Youth,” International Conference on AIDS 11 (1996): 499 (abstract Pub.D.1393); M. S. Cohen, “HIV and Sexuality Transmitted Diseases: The Physician’s Role in Prevention,” Postgraduate Medicine 98 (1995): 52–58, 63–64; H. Soler, D. Quadagno, D. F. Sly, K. S. Riehman, I. W. Eberstein, and D. F. Harrison, “Relationship Dynamics, Ethnicity, and Condom Use Among Low-Income Women,” Family Planning Perspectives 32 (2000): 82–88, 101; E. Weiss and G. G. Rao, “The Need for Female-Controlled HIV Prevention, International Conference on AIDS 10 (1994): 46 (abstract SS9). 25. Separata de la Revista SIDA/ETS (Enfermedades de Transmisión Sexual): Situación Epidemiologica del SIDA & Situación Epidemiológica de las ETS, Datos Actualizados Hasta Tercer Trimestre de 1997 (Mexico City: Consejo Nacional de SIDA, Secretaría de Salud, 1997). 26. There is nothing particularly new about the link between migration and infection; one woman recounted how her husband’s grandmother had been infected by her grandfather. Nor is the relationship between STDs and increasing economic and social ties to the world beyond the pueblo an entirely new phenomenon: Luis González describes how the first cases of gonorrhea were diagnosed in San José in the late 1940s, shortly after the highway was completed that connected San Jose to larger towns and cities in Michoacan and beyond; see González, San José de Gracia: Mexican Village in Transition, tr. J. Upton (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1974). Degollado’s highway to Guadalajara was completed around the same time. 27. Women discussed STDs as the focal point of the shame associated with men’s infidelity to their wives. In the words of one woman, “they are shameful [or embarrassing] things [cosas penosas] ... For example, if my husband ... gave me a disease, well I wouldn’t tell anybody. ... People just keep it to themselves.”. 28. See Hirsch and Nathanson, “Some Traditional Methods.”. 29. MacCormack and Draper describe people in Jamaica as having similar ideas about condoms as interfering with the social effects of sexual relations; see “Social and Cognitive Aspects of Female Sexuality in Jamaica,” in The Cultural Construction of Sexuality, ed. P. Caplan (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1987), 143–165; see also E. J. Sobo, “Bodies, Kin, and Flow: Family Planning in Rural Jamaica,” Medical Anthropology Quarterly 7: (1993): 50–73. 30. Gayet et al., “Aspectos Conceptuales.”. 31. J. S. Hirsch, Migration, Modernity and Mexican Marriage; “En el Norte la Mujer Manda: Gender, Generation and Geography in a Mexican Transnational Community,” American Behavioral Scientist 42: (1999): 1332–1349; and Courtship After Marriage. 32. See Hirsch and Nathanson, “Some Traditional Methods”; Hirsch, Migration, Modernity and Mexican Marriage and Courtship After Marriage. 33. A. Giddens, The Transformation of Intimacy: Sexuality, Love, and Eroticism in Modern Societies (Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1992). 34. Hirsch, “En el Norte.”. 35. In the fifth interview, the life history informants were asked a number of questions about infidelity, including how they would react if confronted with evidence of their husband’s infidelity and how they would deal with a friend whose husband they knew had another partner. Their mothers were prompted to speak about infidelity through questions about how a man might show respect or disrespect to his wife and about whether there were situations that justified a woman’s leaving her husband. 36. Our discussion of infidelity focuses on men’s extramarital relationships. Attitudes toward female infidelity seem to have changed very little. Men and women regarded it as grounds for divorce, as a terrible thing both in and of itself and because it tarnishes the reputation (and thus the marriageability) of one’s children. Women’s sexuality had a very different value than men’s in the traditional Mexican marital bargain: by committing to support them, men earned unlimited exclusive sexual access to their wives, the positive assurance that all children within the union would be fathered only by them, and the woman’s best efforts at the manifold tasks of social reproduction. A woman’s infidelity meant something different from a man’s because her sexuality, unlike her husband’s, was family rather than individual property; by sharing her body with someone other than her husband, she violated her part of the bargain. Even in the more modern marriages, no one suggested that a husband’s extended absence might justify sexual transgression on the part of his wife, although several women did say that if a woman has a strong sexual appetite her husband should bring her to live with him in the United States so that she is not subject to constant temptation. The unacceptability of female infidelity does not mean, of course, that it never happens—just that women stand to lose more when they are discovered. Furthermore, because married women almost never migrate without a spouse, women’s infidelity occurs in situations in which a woman who has remained in Mexico selects a partner from among the population of nonmigrant men remaining in the village. In these cases, her infidelity is unlikely to carry a great risk for HIV infection. Women’s infidelity is not without sociological interest, but it is unlikely to make a significant contribution to the epidemic of migration-related HIV in rural Mexico. 37. Sobo, “Finance, Romance, Social Support.”. 38. For the older women, leaving one’s husband under any circumstances meant that one’s reputation—and thus one’s daughter’s marriageability—would be irreparably damaged. 39. R. Petchesky and K. Judd, eds., Negotiating Reproductive Rights: Women’s Perspectives Across Countries and Cultures (London: International Reproductive Rights Action Group and Zed Books, 1998). 40. Hirsch, “En el Norte.”. 41. Sobo, “Finance, Romance, Social Support.”. 42. Sobo’s work is part of a growing body of literature that looks at the relative importance of economic, social, and psychological factors in shaping women’s desire and ability to use condoms with different kinds of partners. Some have argued for the primacy of economic factors, while others have shown that a woman’s reluctance to ask for condom use stems from her unwillingness to acknowledge that her relationship falls short of her ideals for monogamous intimacy; see Y. A. Hinkle, E. H. Johnson, D. Gilbert, L. Jackson, and C. M. Lollis, “African American Women Who Always Use Condoms: Attitudes, Knowledge About AIDS and Sexual Behavior,” Journal of the American Medical Women’s Association 47 (1992): 230–237; A. Kline, E. Kline, and E. Oken, “Minority Women and Sexual Choice in the Age of AIDS,” Social Science & Medicine 34 (1992): 447–457; Sobo, Choosing Unsafe Sex and “Finance, Romance, Social Support”; S. Zierler and N. Krieger, “Reframing Women’s Risk: Social Inequalities and HIV Infection,” Annual Review of Public Health 18 (1997): 401–436; A. Morril, J. Ickovics, V. Golubchikiv, S. Beren, and J. Rodin, “Safer Sex: Social and Psychological Predictors of Behavioral Maintenance and Change Among Heterosexual Women,” Journal of Clinical Psychology 64 (1996): 819–828; J. S. Santelli, A. C. Kouzin, D. R. Hoover, M. Polascek, L. G. Burwell, and D. D. Celentano, “Stage of Behavior Change for Condom Use: The Influence of Partner Type, Relationship, and Pregnancy Factors,” Family Planning Perspectives 28 (1996): 101–107; S. E. Hetherington, R. M. Harris, R. B. Bausell, K. H. Kavanaugh, and D. E. Scott, “AIDS and Prevention in High-Risk African American Women: Behavioral, Psychology, and Gender Issues,” Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy 22 (1996): 9–21; L. C. Miller, B. A. Bettencourt, S. C. DeBro, and V. Hoffman, “Negotiating Safer Sex: Interpersonal Dynamics,” in The Social Psychology of HIV Infection, ed. J. B. Pryor and G. D. Reeder (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1993), 85–123; P. Farmer, M. Connors, and J. Simmons, eds., Women, Poverty, and AIDS: Sex, Drugs, and Structural Violence (Monroe, Me: Common Courage Press, 1996). Both are important in this particular context, as Mexican women’s attachment to the fiction of mutual monogamy is a cultural manifestation of their social and economic dependence on men. 43. M. Inhorn, Infertility and Patriarchy: The Cultural Politics of Gender and Family Life in Egypt (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996); Y. Yan, “The Triumph of Conjugality: Structural Transformation of Family Relations in a Chinese Village,” Ethnology 36 (1997): 191–212; M. Hollos and U. Larsen, “From Lineage to Conjugality: The Social Context of Fertility Decisions Among the Pare of Northern Tanzania,” Social Science and Medicine 45 (1997): 361–372; L. Ahearn, “ ‘Love Keeps Afflicting Me’: Agentive Discourses in Nepali Love Letters,” paper presented at Annual Meeting of the Anthropological Association of America, 1998, Philadelphia; Hirsch, Courtship After Marriage; H. Wardlow, “All’s Fair When Love Is War: Attempts at Companionate Marriage Among the Huli of Papua New Guinea,” paper presented at the 98th Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, 1999, Chicago; J. Gregg, “ ‘He Can Be Sad Like That’: Liberdade and the Absence of Romantic Love in a Brazilian Shantytown,” paper presented at the 98th Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, 1999, Chicago; W. R. Maggi, “Heart-Struck: Love Marriage as a Marker of Ethnic Identity Among the Kalasha of Northwest Pakistan,” paper presented at the 98th Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, 1999, Chicago; L. A. Rebhun, is The Heart is Unknown Country: Love in the Changing Economy of Northeast Brazil (Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 2000); D. J. Smith, “Romance, Parenthood, and Gender in a Modern African Society,” Ethnology 40 (2001): 129–151. 44. Farmer et al, eds., Women, Poverty, and AIDS. 45. The majority of programs targeting men’s behavior change have been directed at gay men. There have been several intervention research programs that have either targeted heterosexual and homosexual men together, or else have focused primarily on heterosexual men; see C. Cáceres and A. Rosasco, “An HIV/STD Prevention Program for Homosexually Active Men Who Do not Necessarily Identify Themselves as Gay in Lima,” International Conference on AIDS 9 (1993): 111 (abstract WS-D08-4); D. D. Celentano, K. E. Nelson, C. M. Lyles, et al., “Decreasing Incidence of HIV and Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Young Thai Men: Evidence for Success of the HIV/AIDS Control and Prevention Program,” AIDS 12 (1998): F29–F36; Mishra et al., AIDS Crossing Borders; A. O’Leary, L. S. Jemmott, F. Goodhart, and J. Gebelt, “Effects of an Institutional AIDS Prevention Intervention: Moderation by Gender,” AIDS Education & Prevention 8 (1996): 516–528; P. William and C. Britton, “Understanding the Culture of Masculinity and Creating Effective Prevention Messages,” National HIV Prevention Conference 1999 (abstract 116). In general, however, heterosexual men have been relatively neglected as targets of condom promotion programs. 46. For example, K. Q. Abdool, J. E. Mantell, and E. Scheepers, “South Africa’s Response to Preventing HIV/AIDS and Other STDs in Women: Introducing Female Controlled Methods in the Public Sector, International Conference on AIDS 11 (1996): 258 (abstract Tu.D.354); B. S. Obwongo, “Modeling Safe-Sex Practices Among Medical Students Through Peer Education,” International Conference on AIDS 11 (1996): 467 (abstract Pub.C.1184); Obwogo, “Sexual Practices Among Nairobi University Freshmen,” International Conference on AIDS 12 (1998): 1015 (abstract 60079); Wasonga, “Role of Publications”; Weiss et al., “Findings From the Women”; Weiss and Rao, Female-Controlled HIV Prevention.”. 47. R. Bolton, “AIDS and Promiscuity: Muddles in the Models of HIV Prevention,” Medical Anthropology 14: (1992): 145–223. [PubMed]. 48. More than 10 years ago, Fullilove and Fullilove argued that the debate about which particular social or economic factor is key in helping women negotiate for condom use misses the point that women often do not have the power to negotiate with men regarding how and under what circumstances sexual activity (and relationships) will be conducted; see M. T. Fullilove, R. E. Fullilove III, K. Hayes, and S. Gross, “Black Women and AIDS Prevention: A View Towards Understanding the Gender Rules,” Journal of Sex Research 27 (1990): 47–64; in 1995, Amaro wrote that “Risk of HIV infection in women cannot be separated from the unequal status of women in American society and the resulting differences in power between men and women”; see H. Amaro, “Love, Sex and Power: Considering Women’s Realities in HIV Prevention,” American Psychologist 50 (1995): 437–447; see also P. Farmer, Infections and Inequalities (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999). These arguments seem to have had limited impact on public health thinking about women and AIDS. 49. K. O. Mason, “HIV Transmission and the Balance of Power Between Women and Men: A Global View,” Health Transition Review supplement 4 (1994): 217–240. 50. By arguing that women in this community and others like it in Mexico are not appropriate targets for campaigns promoting condom use to stem the tide of heterosexual marital transmission, we do not mean to suggest that the same is true for married women everywhere around the world. Data show that married women in South Africa feel differently about the tradeoffs between the emotional risk of acknowledging infidelity and the health risks of not doing so; see I. Susser and Z. Stein, “Culture, Sexuality, and Women’s Agency in the Prevention of HIV/AIDS in Southern Africa,” American Journal of Public Health 90: (2000): 1042–1048. Across the globe, there may be cultural and social circumstances in which women feel that it is appropriate to take action to protect themselves, and in these settings it certainly makes sense to proceed with intervention research on how to improve women’s condom negotiation skills, and with basic research to develop and make available effective microbicides. [PubMed]. 51. See Weeks et al., “AIDS Prevention.”. 52. Institute of Medicine, Committee on the Elimination of Tuberculosis in the US, Division of Health Promotion and Disease Prevention, Ending Neglect: The Elimination of Tuberculosis in the United States, ed. L. Geiter (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2000). 53. L. R. Chávez, “Undocumented Immigrants and Access to Health Services: A Game of Pass the Buck,” Migration Today 12 (1984): 20–24; L. R. Chávez, W. A. Cornelius, and O. Williams, “Mexican Immigrants and the Utilization of US Health Services: The Case of San Diego,” Social Science and Medicine 21 (1985): 93–102; L. R. Chávez, E. T. Flores, and M. López-Garza, “Undocumented Latin American Immigrants and US Health Services: An Approach to a Political Economy of Utilization,” Medical Anthropology Quarterly 6 (1992): 6–26; C. A. Evans, “Immigrants and Health Care: Mounting Problems,” Annals of Internal Medicine 122 (1995): 309–310; J. H. Flaskerud and S. Kim, “Health Problems of Asian and Latino Immigrants,” Nursing Clinics of North America 34 (1999): 359–380; R. G. Rumbaut, L. R. Chávez, R. J. Moser, S. M. Pickwell, and S. M. Wishnik, “The Politics of Migrant Health Care: A Comparative Study of Mexican Immigrant and Indochinese Refugees,” Research in the Sociology of Health Care 7 (1986): 143–202. 54. J. S. Santelli, R. Lowry, N. D. Brener, and L. Robin, “The Association of Sexual Behaviors With Socioeconomic Status, Family Structure, and Race/Ethnicity Among US Adolescents,” American Journal of Public Health 90: (2000): 1582–1588. [PubMed]. |