1
1 | UNITED STATES FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION
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2 | and
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3 | UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE
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4 |
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5 |
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6 | SHERMAN ACT SECTION 2 JOINT HEARING
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7 | BUSINESS TESTIMONY
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8 | TUESDAY, FEBRUARY 13, 2007
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9 |
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10 |
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11 | HELD AT:
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12 | UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
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13 | GRADUATE SCHOOL OF BUSINESS
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14 | EXECUTIVE CENTER - 450
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15 | NORTH CITYFRONT PLAZA DRIVE
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16 | CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 60611
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17 | 9:30 A.M. TO 4:00 P.M.
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18 |
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19 |
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20 |
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21 |
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22 |
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23 | Reported and Transcribed by:
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24 | PAMELA A. STAFFORD, CSR, RMR
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25 | |
2
1 | APPEARANCES:
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2 |
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3 | MODERATORS:
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4 |
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5 | Morning Session:
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6 | JAIME TARONJI, JR.
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7 | Attorney, Policy Studies,
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8 | Federal Trade Commission
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9 | and
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10 | JOSEPH J. MATELIS, II
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11 | Attorney Advisor, Legal Policy Section
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12 | Antitrust Division, Department of Justice
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13 | and
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14 | WILLIAM COHEN
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15 | Deputy General Counsel for Policy Studies
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16 | Federal Trade Commission
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17 |
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18 |
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19 | PANELISTS:
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20 |
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21 | Morning Session:
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22 | David Balto
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23 | Patrick Sheller
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24 | Ron Stern
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25 | |
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1 | APPEARANCES CONTINUED:
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2 |
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3 | MODERATORS:
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4 |
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5 | Afternoon Session:
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6 | JOSEPH J. MATELIS, II
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7 | Attorney Advisor, Legal Policy Section
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8 | Antitrust Division, Department of Justice
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9 | and
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10 | KAREN GRIMM,
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11 | Assistant General Counsel for Policy Studies
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12 | Federal Trade Commission
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13 |
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14 |
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15 | PANELISTS:
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16 |
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17 | Afternoon Session:
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18 | Sean Heather
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19 | Bruce Sewell
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20 | Bruce Wark
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21 |
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22 |
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23 |
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24 |
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25 | |
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1 | REPORT OF PROCEEDINGS
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2 | FEBRUARY 13, 2007
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3 | MR. TARONJI: Good morning.
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4 | I'm Jim Taronji from the Federal Trade
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5 | Commission. I'm one of the moderators for
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6 | this morning's session. I'm joined this
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7 | morning by Bill Cohen, Deputy General Counsel
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8 | for Policy Studies at the Federal Trade
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9 | Commission. Our other co-moderator today is
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10 | Joe Matelis from the Antitrust Division of
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11 | the U.S. Department of Justice.
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12 | Before we start today, let me
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13 | cover a few housekeeping matters. As a
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14 | courtesy to our speakers, please turn off
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15 | your cell phones, Blackberries, and other
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16 | devices, or put them on vibrate. And I will
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17 | do that myself.
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18 | Finally, we request that the
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19 | audience not ask any questions or make
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20 | comments during the hearings. Thank you.
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21 | Before introducing our
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22 | speakers, I would like to first thank the
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23 | University of Chicago Graduate School of
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24 | Business for hosting these joint FTC/DOJ
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25 | hearings to solicit business testimony on |
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1 | single-firm conduct under Section 2 of the
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2 | Sherman Act. In particular, I would like to
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3 | thank Dean Ted Snyder and the staff of
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4 | the Gleacher Center for offering us their
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5 | facilities and for making the necessary
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6 | arrangements for us to hold these
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7 | hearings.
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8 | And finally, I would like to
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9 | thank my FTC and DOJ colleagues as well as
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10 | the FTC's Midwest regional office who have
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11 | worked very hard to put together these
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12 | hearings in the Windy City, in the cold Windy
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13 | City.
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14 | We are honored to have
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15 | assembled a distinguished group of panelists
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16 | from a number of companies and associations
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17 | that have agreed to offer their testimony in
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18 | connection with these hearings. These
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19 | panelists will provide their perspectives on
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20 | how companies operate within the complex area
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21 | of Sherman Section 2 jurisprudence,
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22 | including for some companies how they
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23 | navigate not only the U.S. application of
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24 | antitrust laws to single-firm conduct, but
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25 | that of the diverse antitrust regimes around |
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1 | the world.
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2 | Our panelists this morning
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3 | are David Balto for the Generic
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4 | Pharmaceutical Association, Patrick Sheller
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5 | from Kodak, and Ron Stern from G.E.
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6 | Our format this morning will
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7 | be as follows. Each speaker will make a 20-
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8 | to 25-minute presentation. We will then take
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9 | a 15-minute break. After the break, we will
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10 | reconvene and have a moderated discussion
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11 | with our panelists.
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12 | These hearings in Chicago are
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13 | an important component of the joint FTC and
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14 | Antitrust Division hearings on single-firm
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15 | conduct under Section 2 of the Sherman Act.
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16 | They are designed to identify areas where
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17 | single-firm conduct is causing competitive
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18 | harm, areas where antitrust enforcement may
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19 | be chilling desirable activity, and areas
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20 | where additional guidance would be most
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21 | valuable.
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22 | FTC chairman, Deborah Majoras
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23 | made it clear at the opening session of these
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24 | hearings that she wanted to hear from
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25 | businesses, either through their executives |
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1 | or their legal advisers. As Chairman Majoras
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2 | said, and I'll paraphrase, we want these
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3 | panels to discuss business conduct from the
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4 | market perspective from the ground up. That
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5 | is, examine why and when firms engage in it,
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6 | how they do it, and what effect it produces
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7 | for the firm, for other firms, customers and
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8 | competitors and for consumers. We want these
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9 | discussions to include knowledgeable business
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10 | people or their legal advisers.
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11 | Over these last eight months
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12 | we have held hearings on specific types of
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13 | business conduct, such as predatory pricing,
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14 | refusals to deal, bundled and loyalty
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15 | discounts, tying arrangements, exclusive
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16 | dealing, and misleading and deceptive
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17 | conduct.
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18 | Some of these panels have
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19 | included business executives or their legal
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20 | advisers. In addition, we've covered some
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21 | general areas, such as business strategy,
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22 | business history, and economic empirical
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23 | studies.
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24 | The sessions today are
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25 | designed to further FTC Chairman Majoras's |
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1 | goal to obtain as much insight and real-world
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2 | experience as possible from business
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3 | representatives.
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4 | This is the second set of
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5 | hearings that have specifically been devoted
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6 | to obtaining testimony from company
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7 | representatives and associations. The first
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8 | set of business testimony hearings were in
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9 | Berkeley, California on January 30th, 2007.
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10 | We look forward to hearing
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11 | the panelists' comments and to the
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12 | round-table discussion. I want to thank all
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13 | of them for agreeing to participate in
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14 | today's hearings. We know that it takes a
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15 | lot of time to prepare for these hearings.
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16 | So again, thank you for your time and
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17 | efforts.
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18 | I would now like to turn it
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19 | over to my colleague and co-moderator Joe
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20 | Matelis from the Antitrust Division for any
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21 | remarks he would like to make. Joe.
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22 | MR. MATELIS: Thank you, Jim.
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23 | The Department of Justice's Antitrust
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24 | Division is very pleased to participate in
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25 | today's hearing. In the single-firm conduct |
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1 | hearings we have held to date, we have
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2 | benefitted from the insights of many
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3 | highly-skilled antitrust attorneys and
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4 | economists.
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5 | Today's hearing, as well as
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6 | the sessions held last month in Berkeley,
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7 | California, grew out of the belief that we
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8 | could also learn much about single-firm
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9 | conduct from businesses. Our panelists today
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10 | are the people who help devise and implement
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11 | business plans, aware that their firm's
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12 | unilateral conduct may be challenged in
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13 | private or government litigation and by
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14 | foreign competition authorities. Their
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15 | companies are also directly affected by the
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16 | conduct of other firms.
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17 | Whether you've had occasion
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18 | to view Section 2 of the Sherman Act as a
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19 | sword directed at the heart of your business
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20 | or as a shield protecting you from
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21 | anticompetitive conduct of others, we look
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22 | forward to hearing from you today.
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23 | On behalf of the Antitrust
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24 | Division, I would also like to take this
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25 | opportunity to thank the Gleacher Center and |
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1 | the University of Chicago Graduate School of
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2 | Business for hosting these hearings. Also on
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3 | behalf of the Division, I'd like to thank
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4 | David, Patrick, and Ron for volunteering your
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5 | time today. We know that these hearings take
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6 | a lot of effort, especially when traveling to
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7 | Chicago in February. And we're very grateful
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8 | for a valuable public service that you're
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9 | rendering. Finally, I'd also like to thank
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10 | Jim and Bill and their colleagues at the
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11 | Federal Trade Commission for all their hard
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12 | work organizing today's hearing. Thanks.
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13 | MR. TARONJI: Thank you, Joe.
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14 | Our first speaker this
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15 | morning is David Balto. David Balto has
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16 | practiced antitrust law for over 20 years,
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17 | both at the Federal Trade Commission and the
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18 | Antitrust Division. At the FTC he was the
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19 | attorney adviser to Chairman Pitofsky and
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20 | assistant director for policy and evaluation
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21 | in the Bureau of Competition. He helped
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22 | guide many of the FTC's pharmaceutical and
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23 | health care enforcement efforts, including
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24 | challenging patent settlement agreements.
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25 | David has written extensively |
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1 | on antitrust and health care competition and
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2 | is the vice chair of the ABA Antitrust
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3 | Section Federal Civil Enforcement Committee.
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4 | He graduated from Northeastern University
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5 | School of Law and the University of
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6 | Minnesota. And David is speaking today on
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7 | behalf of the Generic Pharmaceutical
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8 | Association. David.
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9 | MR. BALTO: Thank you, Joe.
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10 | I want to express my privilege for -- to
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11 | come here and testify in these hearings. And
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12 | I want to mention on that that my remarks
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13 | today are my own and don't necessarily
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14 | reflect the remarks -- should not necessarily
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15 | be attributed to the Generic Pharmaceutical
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16 | Association or any of its members.
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17 | Let me set out the outlines
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18 | of my testimony. I want to start off with
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19 | one indisputable fact, hopefully indisputable
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20 | fact, the importance of generic competition
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21 | in the market.
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22 | I'm then going to try to
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23 | talk about how pharmaceutical markets are
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24 | different than other types of markets and why
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25 | that should make a difference in the analysis |
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1 | of single-firm conduct.
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2 | I'm then going to talk about
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3 | two forms of anticompetitive conduct by
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4 | branded pharmaceutical companies and how
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5 | those forms of conduct should be analyzed,
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6 | and then perhaps close with some suggestions.
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7 | Let me begin with the indisputable.
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8 | Generic competition benefits
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9 | every consumer in the United States. Generic
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10 | drugs sell for about 70 percent less than
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11 | branded drugs. They account for 56 percent
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12 | of all prescriptions and less than 13 percent
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13 | of all pharmaceutical expenditures.
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14 | The last time TEO studied
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15 | this issue in 1994 they found that generic
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16 | drugs saved consumers between 8 and $10
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17 | billion a year at a time when generic
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18 | substitution was vastly lower than it is
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19 | today.
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20 | Antitrust enforcement in the
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21 | generic drug industry is essential. Let me
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22 | put this into context. Today you can walk
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23 | out of this hearing room and go to your
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24 | local pharmacy and buy a generic form of
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25 | Remeron, Relafen, Buspar, Taxol, Augmentin, |
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1 | Paxil, Coumadin, and Platinol. For each of
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2 | these drugs, the branded pharmaceutical firm,
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3 | a dominant firm attempted to extend its
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4 | monopoly through some form of alleged
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5 | exclusionary conduct.
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6 | In some cases they filed sham
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7 | petitions before the FDA. In some cases they
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8 | engaged in sham litigation. In other cases
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9 | they engaged in inequitable conduct before
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10 | the Patent and Trademark Office.
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11 | All together, these drugs
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12 | accounted for more that $10 billion of
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13 | purchases by U.S. consumers. And because of
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14 | enforcement actions taken by the Federal
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15 | Trade Commission, the state attorneys
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16 | general, and private antitrust attorneys,
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17 | these actions were stopped. And today's
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18 | consumers save billions of dollars because of
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19 | those enforcement actions.
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20 | Policing exclusionary conduct
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21 | by branded pharmaceutical companies could not
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22 | be a greater priority. In the next four
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23 | years, over $60 billion of branded
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24 | pharmaceuticals will go off patent.
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25 | Unfortunately, the pharmaceutical industry |
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1 | offers many opportunities for dominant
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2 | branded firms to manipulate a highly complex
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3 | regulatory system to secure monopoly profits,
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4 | not through superior foresight, industry, and
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5 | innovations, but by finding loopholes to
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6 | delay competition.
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7 | Now, let's start off with why
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8 | pharmaceuticals are different. Now, my
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9 | colleagues on the panel today are going to
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10 | talk about the need for simple rules.
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11 | They're going to talk about the need for
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12 | going and creating bright-line tests so it
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13 | will be easier for their business people to
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14 | do what they're supposed to do, compete in
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15 | the marketplace. As an antitrust
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16 | practitioner, I can appreciate their
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17 | perspective.
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18 | However, I think that the
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19 | Commission and the Antitrust Division should
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20 | be extremely cautious about simple rules for
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21 | dominant firms. As Justice Scalia has
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22 | observed, the conduct of a dominant firm is
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23 | viewed through a special lens. Behavior that
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24 | might otherwise not be of concern under the
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25 | antitrust laws can take on exclusionary |
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1 | connotations when practiced by the
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2 | monopolist.
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3 | Now, I think there are four
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4 | factors in the pharmaceutical industry that
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5 | should make people cautious about bright-line
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6 | rules in this industry. First,
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7 | pharmaceuticals are heavily regulated; and as
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8 | my testimony sets forward, this provides a
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9 | remarkable number of opportunities for
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10 | engaging in what's been called by the FTC
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11 | cheap exclusion.
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12 | Second, who is the buyer?
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13 | Now, knowing who the buyer is is critical to
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14 | defining markets and determining market power
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15 | and also oftentimes to determine whether or
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16 | not certain parties have standing. But in
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17 | the pharmaceutical industry is the ultimate
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18 | buyer the consumer, the insurance company,
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19 | the pharmaceutical benefit manager, the
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20 | physician who prescribes the drugs, or a
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21 | combination of all of these?
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22 | Third, pharmaceuticals have
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23 | high fixed costs but very low average
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24 | variable costs. And so when my colleagues
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25 | today go and talk about bright-line rules for |
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1 | predatory pricing, those might not apply that
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2 | well in a setting with that kind of cost
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3 | structure.
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4 | Then finally, forms of
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5 | distribution are complex. Pharmaceuticals
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6 | are distributed through all these numerous
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7 | different intermediaries, and not all
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8 | distribution mechanisms are the same. Maybe
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9 | in the questioning period we'll go and talk
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10 | about distribution exclusivity cases where I
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11 | can address some of these ideas.
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12 | Now, I want to talk today
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13 | about two form -- fortunately through a
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14 | combination of the FTC's and State Attorneys
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15 | General enforcement actions, the FTC's
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16 | advocacy to Congress, Congressional
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17 | legislation, many of the recipe -- the recipe
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18 | book for anticompetitive conduct by dominant
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19 | pharmaceutical companies has basically been
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20 | thrown out. But like all good cooks, the
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21 | pharmaceutical companies have come up with
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22 | new forms of anticompetitive conduct, and I
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23 | wanted to talk about two of them today to
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24 | illustrate the importance of a couple things,
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25 | the importance of antitrust enforcement, the |
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1 | importance of a balanced rule of reason
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2 | analysis in looking at exclusionary conduct
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3 | and staying away from per se bright-line
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4 | rules. And those two types of conduct are
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5 | product line extensions and abuse of the
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6 | regulatory process.
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7 | Now, let me explain product
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8 | line extensions. As in any other area, there
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9 | are changes in products. We all try to
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10 | improve our products. One of the key things
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11 | to remember here is that for a generic firm
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12 | to enter, it is essential for there to be a
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13 | branded firm that is listed and been approved
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14 | by the Food and Drug Administration. And the
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15 | way this process almost invariably works is
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16 | that the generic firm goes and copies a
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17 | branded drug. The branded drug goes off
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18 | patent or the generic firm prevails in patent
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19 | litigation, and then the generic firm enters.
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20 | But sometimes the product
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21 | line extensions can have anticompetitive
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22 | effects. The FTC recognized this in the
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23 | merger of Cima and Cephalon. Cephalon made a
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24 | branded drug that was used to treat pain when
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25 | you underwent cancer treatments. It was |
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1 | acquiring Cima which was developing an
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2 | alternative product. The FTC uncovered in
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3 | the course of its investigation that part of
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4 | the reason for the acquisition was a
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5 | product-switching plan by Cephalon. They
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6 | planned, once they acquired Cima, to go and
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7 | take the Cephalon product out of the market,
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8 | to delist it. And in fact, that would have
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9 | prevented generic firms from being able to
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10 | enter the market for this drug.
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11 | In order to resolve the
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12 | competitive concerns posed by this merger,
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13 | the FTC required Cephalon to sponsor generic
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14 | entry on the form of that drug that it
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15 | manufactured.
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16 | Now, if you were to read one
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17 | case in the area of pharmaceutical antitrust,
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18 | I suggest you read the case of Abbott versus
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19 | Teva. Now, this case will remind you of the
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20 | cartoon in Peanuts where Linus keeps coming
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21 | up to try to kick the football. And every
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22 | time Linus goes and tries to kick the
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23 | football, Lucy picks up the football, and he
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24 | misses it and falls flat on his back.
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25 | There's a drug called Tricor |
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1 | which is used to lower cholesterol. It's am
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2 | almost billion dollar drug. Impax and Teva
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3 | were developing a generic alternative. Each
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4 | time they were poised to enter, the branded
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5 | pharmaceutical manufacturer made some small
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6 | change to the product, thus preventing them
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7 | from being able to enter. The last change
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8 | was changing the product from a capsule
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9 | version to a tablet version. The tablet
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10 | version was supposedly superior because it
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11 | didn't have to be taken with food.
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12 | But Abbott didn't just change
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13 | the product. After the tablet formulation
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14 | was approved, it stopped selling the Tricor
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15 | capsules. It bought up all the excess Tricor
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16 | capsules. And then there's this important
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17 | register. It's called the National Drug Data
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18 | File. And the only way you can get a
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19 | generic drug into the market is if it's
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20 | listed in the NDDF. And what Abbott did is
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21 | it listed -- changed the code for Tricor
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22 | capsules in the National Drug Data File to
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23 | obsolete.
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24 | Anyway, so let's go to the
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25 | litigation. Abbott and Teva sued, along with |
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1 | a group of buyers of drugs. And the
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2 | defendants basically say, you know, this is a
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3 | product improvement. There is no role for
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4 | antitrust here. There is a per se legal
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5 | rule. In order to demonstrate a violation,
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6 | they would have to show that quote: The
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7 | innovator knew before introducing the
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8 | improvement into the market that it was
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9 | absolutely no better than the prior version,
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10 | and that the only purpose of the innovation
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11 | was to eliminate the complementary product of
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12 | a rival. That was the standard articulated
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13 | by Abbott.
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14 | And you know, there was case
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15 | law that supported Abbott's position, though
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16 | not in the pharmaceutical industry. Now,
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17 | rather than adopting the rule of a per se
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18 | legality, the Court went back to the test
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19 | articulated by the D.C. Circuit in Microsoft
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20 | which suggests a rule of reason balancing
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21 | test. And it said the per se rule as
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22 | proposed by the defendants presupposes an
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23 | open market where the merits of any new
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24 | product can be tested by unfettered consumer
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25 | choice. But here, consumers were not |
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1 | presented with a choice between the products.
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2 | Instead, they eliminated that choice by
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3 | removing the old formulations of the
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4 | products.
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5 | Now, I know my colleagues on
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6 | the panel, their hair is about to stand up
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7 | at this point because what this Court has
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8 | basically suggested is that there is a duty
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9 | to deal. That a dominant firm in some sense
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10 | has some kind of obligation, a duty to deal,
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11 | with its rivals. How could that be? Well,
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12 | let's see what the Court said.
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13 | It said, A co-monopolist is
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14 | not free to take certain actions that a
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15 | company in a competitive or even
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16 | oligopolistic market may take because there
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17 | is no market restraint on a monopolist's
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18 | behavior, harkening back to Justice Scalia's
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19 | idea that I mentioned before.
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20 | So in this case where the
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21 | dominant firm went beyond a simple product
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22 | innovation, but also created obstacles for
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23 | the other firms to effectively enter the
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24 | market, that was a violation.
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25 | Now, there's a similar case |
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1 | in the E.U. and in Canada involving Astra Zeneca,
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2 | the drug Lobec. In this case violations were
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3 | found in both of those jurisdictions. In
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4 | that case what happened was as the patents on
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5 | the drug were expiring, Astra Zeneca filed
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6 | for additional patents, but these were
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7 | patents that really weren't used on improving
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8 | the drug. These were just additional patents
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9 | to create the additional obstacles. And
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10 | again, antitrust violations were found.
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11 | The most interesting case
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12 | here is a case that was just filed in the
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13 | past year or so, and it involves the very
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14 | well-known conversion of the drug Prilosec to
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15 | Nexium as Prilosec was losing its patent
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16 | protection. This again involved Astra
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17 | Zeneca. This is something like a $4
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18 | billion-a-year drug.
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19 | In the alleged
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20 | anticompetitive conduct it was said, up to 18
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21 | months before Astra Zeneca was about to lose
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22 | exclusivity it stopped promoting the drug,
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23 | and instead, started to make negative claims
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24 | about the drug. Now, I don't know about you
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25 | or me, but I just don't know when people |
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1 | start making negative claims about their
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2 | drugs.
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3 | More important than just
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4 | creating Nexium, they also effectively
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5 | withdrew Prilosec from the market, so it was
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6 | impossible for managed care organizations to
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7 | go and sort of continue to contract for
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8 | Prilosec.
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9 | And so when generic Prilosec
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10 | was about to arise, there was no possibility
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11 | for it to substitute for branded Prilosec.
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12 | And one of the most
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13 | interesting issues and maybe something worth
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14 | discussing later on is the fact, as alleged,
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15 | that Nexium was no improvement on Prilosec.
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16 | Let's go on to the issue of
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17 | petitioning and litigation. You know, one of
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18 | the most important achievements of the
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19 | Federal Trade Commission has been the focus
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20 | on sham petitioning and the use of regulatory
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21 | processes to create competitive harm.
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22 | Probably the case in which they've brought
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23 | the most consumer benefits was the Unocal
|
24 | case in which it attacked sham petitioning by
|
25 | Unocal before the California Resources Board |
24
1 | that costs consumers in California over $500
|
2 | million annually.
|
3 | Sham petitioning is a serious
|
4 | problem. As the FTC's recent staff report on
|
5 | the Noerr-Pennington Doctrine observed: One
|
6 | of the most effective ways for parties to
|
7 | acquire or maintain market power is through
|
8 | the abuse of governmental processes. The
|
9 | cost of the party engaging in such abuse is
|
10 | typically minimal, while the anticompetitive
|
11 | effects resulting from such abuse are often
|
12 | significant and durable.
|
13 | Anticompetitive conduct
|
14 | through regulatory abuse can be especially
|
15 | pernicious if, God forbid, Kodak or GE were
|
16 | to engage in any kind of abusive conduct.
|
17 | If they exploited their dominant power, it
|
18 | would be short lived. Why? Because there are
|
19 | numerous firms poised to go and battle them
|
20 | for that role of king of the hill. But when
|
21 | your job as king of the hill was gained
|
22 | through abuse of the regulatory process, no
|
23 | natural force can displace you. That's why
|
24 | abuse of the regulatory systems is so
|
25 | pernicious. |
25
1 | This is especially the case
|
2 | in the pharmaceutical industry. The cases I
|
3 | identified at the beginning of my testimony
|
4 | were cases which were largely based on abuse
|
5 | of the regulatory system.
|
6 | Almost 30 years ago, Judge
|
7 | Bork observed that predation by abuse of
|
8 | governmental procedures, including
|
9 | administrative and judicial processes,
|
10 | presents an increasingly dangerous threat to
|
11 | competition.
|
12 | No statement could be more on
|
13 | point for the anticompetitive conduct in the
|
14 | pharmaceutical industry and the practice of
|
15 | so-called citizen petitions. The FDA, like
|
16 | many regulatory agencies, offers the
|
17 | opportunity for citizens to petition them to
|
18 | raise questions about safety and efficacy and
|
19 | other issues. And that process is obviously
|
20 | well intentioned, but it's abused to an
|
21 | increasingly significant extent.
|
22 | What happens is again, when a
|
23 | generic company is poised to enter the
|
24 | market, the brand company will file a
|
25 | frivolous petition on the eve of FDA |
26
1 | approval. That may be despite the fact that
|
2 | the FDA may have granted a tentative
|
3 | approval, that maybe despite the fact that
|
4 | similar petitions have already been filed.
|
5 | The brand strategy is just simply delay the
|
6 | generic drug from the market. And you can
|
7 | imagine when you're talking about drugs in
|
8 | which the amount of profits amount to 10 to
|
9 | $20 million a day, this could be a very
|
10 | attractive opportunity.
|
11 | The FDA citizen petition
|
12 | process provides significant opportunities for
|
13 | deception. There are no requirements for
|
14 | proof of the accusations made in the
|
15 | petition. No requirements for certification
|
16 | of the accuracy of the information. There
|
17 | are no penalties for inaccurate or improper
|
18 | filings. There are no limits on the number
|
19 | of filings that may be filed. Some petitions
|
20 | contain little or no evidence or rely on
|
21 | obsolete, irrelevant, or erroneous
|
22 | information.
|
23 | The FDA has even noted the
|
24 | fact that they've seen several examples of
|
25 | citizen petitions seemingly designed to delay |
27
1 | the approval of generic approval.
|
2 | So let's look at the numbers.
|
3 | You know, if I wanted to make it to Wrigley
|
4 | Field this spring, if I wanted to join the
|
5 | Cubs for spring training, I'd want to have a
|
6 | pretty good batting average. Otherwise, they
|
7 | wouldn't look at me.
|
8 | What's the batting average on
|
9 | citizen petitions? Since the Medicare
|
10 | Monitorization Act was passed in 2003, there
|
11 | have been 45 citizen petitions filed
|
12 | challenging the conduct trying to delay the
|
13 | entry of generic drugs. 45. 21 of these
|
14 | have been resolved. One has been resolved in
|
15 | the favor of the petitioner. One. 20 have
|
16 | been denied.
|
17 | Now, if I'm batting at .05
|
18 | percent, I'm not going to get much of a
|
19 | try-out at Wrigley Field this spring. None
|
20 | of the last-minute -- many of these petitions
|
21 | were filed within the four-month period prior
|
22 | -- half of them were filed in the four-month
|
23 | prior period to the entry of the drug. Did
|
24 | any of those succeed? None. Not one.
|
25 | Well, how much do they delay |
28
1 | things? Those late-filed petitions delayed
|
2 | things an average of ten months. And in one
|
3 | case, the amount of delay cost consumers an
|
4 | estimated $7 million a year.
|
5 | Is this a small problem?
|
6 | No. According to the statistics of the FDA,
|
7 | there's been a 50 percent increase in the
|
8 | number of citizen petitions they have
|
9 | received. And there are about 170 citizen
|
10 | petitions pending compared to only 90 in
|
11 | 1999.
|
12 | Now, one of the most
|
13 | illuminating observations of the FTC report
|
14 | on the Noerr-Pennington Doctrine was its
|
15 | observation about how serial sham litigation
|
16 | conduct should be analyzed. I think the FTC
|
17 | should go and apply the ideas that it has
|
18 | and the expertise it's developed, both in
|
19 | that report and in its enforcement action in
|
20 | Unocal to give a very serious look at the
|
21 | citizen petition process. Let me conclude.
|
22 | Antitrust plays a vital role
|
23 | in maintaining rivalry as the lone star of
|
24 | the marketplace. Competition is critically
|
25 | important where many of the factors |
29
1 | identified earlier can forestall competition.
|
2 | The FTC, State Attorneys
|
3 | General, and private antitrust lawyers have
|
4 | played an important role in protecting
|
5 | pharmaceutical markets from artificial
|
6 | barriers to competition, and I hope these
|
7 | hearings keep Section 2 as a robust statute
|
8 | so that it can continue to be used to
|
9 | protect the interest of consumers and
|
10 | competitors in this vital market. Thank you.
|
11 | (Applause)
|
12 | MR. TARONJI: Thank you,
|
13 | David. Our next speaker is Patrick Sheller.
|
14 | Patrick is the chief compliance officer for
|
15 | Eastman Kodak Company. In that capacity he
|
16 | is responsible for Kodak's code of conduct
|
17 | and internal investigations.
|
18 | Prior to his current
|
19 | assignment, Patrick held a variety of
|
20 | business positions and was Kodak's chief
|
21 | antitrust counsel and also was involved in
|
22 | legal matters in Europe.
|
23 | Prior to Kodak he was in
|
24 | private practice with a law firm that is now
|
25 | known as McKenna, Long & Aldridge, and is a |
30
1 | former Federal Trade Commission attorney,
|
2 | having worked in the Bureau of Competition
|
3 | and as attorney adviser to Chairman Daniel
|
4 | Oliver. He is a graduate of St. Lawrence
|
5 | University and the Albany Law School at Union
|
6 | University. Patrick.
|
7 | MR. SHELLER: I want to
|
8 | thank the Department of Justice and the FTC
|
9 | for the opportunity to speak to you today.
|
10 | It's an important time in antitrust
|
11 | law for our economy, and it's a particularly
|
12 | important time for Kodak. I suspect one
|
13 | of the reasons we were invited to participate
|
14 | in these hearings is Kodak's well documented
|
15 | experience with the Section 2 enforcement
|
16 | which began in 1921 when an investigation by
|
17 | the Department of Justice was settled through
|
18 | a consent decree which prohibited Kodak, among
|
19 | other things, from selling a fighting
|
20 | brand of consumer film, also known as
|
21 | private-label film.
|
22 | In 1954 we settled an
|
23 | investigation with the Department of Justice.
|
24 | This matter involved alleged tying of consumer
|
25 | color negative film with photo processing |
31
1 | services. Under this consent decree we
|
2 | were prohibited from selling these two
|
3 | items under a single price.
|
4 | In 1979 our luck turned a
|
5 | bit. We benefitted from a primarily favorable
|
6 | ruling by the Second Circuit in the Berkey
|
7 | Photo case where one of our competitors
|
8 | challenged Kodak's introduction of the 110
|
9 | photographic system that included a camera,
|
10 | specially formatted film, and a new photo
|
11 | processing service.
|
12 | One of the key rulings in
|
13 | that case was that a monopolist has no
|
14 | obligation to predisclose new products to a
|
15 | competitor. And, to the extent that a
|
16 | monopolist engages in truthful advertising,
|
17 | that conduct does not offend Section 2.
|
18 | In 1991 our luck turned in
|
19 | the other direction again with the Supreme
|
20 | Court's decision in the ITS v. Kodak
|
21 | case. This was an action brought by
|
22 | independent service organizations that were
|
23 | competing against Kodak in the service of
|
24 | photocopiers and micrographics units. It
|
25 | was in the ITS case that the court established |
32
1 | the so-called single-brand derivative
|
2 | aftermarket; the notion being that once a
|
3 | customer chooses to purchase an expensive
|
4 | item of capital equipment, they're now locked
|
5 | into that particular brand or manufacturer.
|
6 | Whether or not that manufacturer has
|
7 | market power in the primary market for
|
8 | photocopiers, for example, was determined to
|
9 | be irrelevant to the Supreme Court. The ITS
|
10 | case went back to the trial court on remand,
|
11 | and I'll speak more to the trial in a minute.
|
12 | In 1994 Kodak challenged some
|
13 | aspects of the 1921 and 1954 consent decrees.
|
14 | We were successful in overturning the private
|
15 | label restriction and the prohibition on
|
16 | linking film with photo finishing sales,
|
17 | primarily because we were able to demonstrate
|
18 | to the District Court and to the Second Circuit
|
19 | that market conditions had changed
|
20 | significantly.
|
21 | By 1994, Kodak was
|
22 | competing on a global basis with a number of
|
23 | foreign suppliers as opposed to the market
|
24 | conditions that existed when these consent
|
25 | decrees were entered into. |
33
1 | Finally, in 1996 the
|
2 | Ninth Circuit heard Kodak's appeal
|
3 | of the jury verdict in the ITS case. The
|
4 | jury found that we had engaged in an unlawful
|
5 | refusal to deal by refusing to provide
|
6 | patented and copyrighted parts and copyrighted
|
7 | diagnostic software and manuals to ISO's.
|
8 | The key ruling in that case,
|
9 | for purposes of my remarks today, was
|
10 | that an IP owner faces restrictions on its
|
11 | ability to refuse to deal with ISOs by refusing
|
12 | to license its IP.
|
13 | The Ninth Circuit picked up
|
14 | on the First Circuit's decision in the Data
|
15 | General case in holding that there is a
|
16 | presumption in favor of an IP owner, that
|
17 | it has a legitimate business justification
|
18 | for refusing to deal with a rival. But that
|
19 | presumption can be overcome by evidence that
|
20 | the IP owner had an anticompetitive intent. The
|
21 | 9th circuit's ruling essentially opens the door
|
22 | to ISO's to come up with evidence in the form of
|
23 | internal documents showing that the IP owner
|
24 | was trying to keep out competition through
|
25 | its decision to refuse to deal. |
34
1 | Now, the history of Kodak's
|
2 | experience with Section 2 parallels in many
|
3 | ways the evolution of our company, our
|
4 | technology, and our business model.
|
5 | Beginning in the 1880's and through the
|
6 | 70's, the focus of our business was on
|
7 | consumables. We primarily sold film
|
8 | products, paper products, and chemicals.
|
9 | We engaged in the sort of razor/razor blade
|
10 | model of selling cameras in order to generate
|
11 | more film sales.
|
12 | The company began to
|
13 | diversify its portfolio in the late 60's to
|
14 | 1970's, and we began to offer more expensive
|
15 | items of capital equipment such as
|
16 | photocopiers, micrographics equipment, and
|
17 | graphic arts equipment. And in this sense
|
18 | our business model began to change to
|
19 | offering hardware plus aftermarket service.
|
20 | It was in this context that the ITS case
|
21 | arose.
|
22 | We are now in the process of
|
23 | a monumental shift in the business model of
|
24 | our company as we try to become a digital
|
25 | company as opposed to an analog technology player. |
35
1 | The focus of our business going forward is
|
2 | going to be on selling solutions. Solution
|
3 | selling is very common in the digital world
|
4 | where companies will bundle a portfolio of
|
5 | offerings that include hardware, software,
|
6 | consumables, consulting services, and
|
7 | aftermarket service into a single price to
|
8 | sell to customers who demand an end-to-end
|
9 | solution.
|
10 | Our sales focus going forward
|
11 | will be on digital products such as photo
|
12 | printer kiosks, image centers. We announced
|
13 | last week the introduction of a new line of
|
14 | consumer ink-jet printers, which means Kodak will
|
15 | now be competing in a new market. We will also
|
16 | offer Digital cameras, media ink, and so forth.
|
17 | Elements of the old
|
18 | business models still remain at Kodak. We
|
19 | will continue to sell film. But our focus
|
20 | will be on solution sales, and there will be
|
21 | be a real emphasis within the company on the
|
22 | ability to sell in this environment.
|
23 | We face a number of
|
24 | challenges as we try to participate in the
|
25 | digital world. Some critical success |
36
1 | factors to our new digital model are, first
|
2 | of all, that we rapidly innovate and
|
3 | develop new technology to commercialize
|
4 | new products. Digital companies constantly
|
5 | introduce new versions of their products.
|
6 | We have to keep pace in this fast-moving
|
7 | environment. And in that sense, intellectual
|
8 | property has become increasingly important to
|
9 | Kodak.
|
10 | We need to be able to
|
11 | protect our research and development
|
12 | investments, wherever possible, through patents
|
13 | and copyrights, and we need to be able to
|
14 | protect these assets in a way that doesn't
|
15 | offend the antitrust laws.
|
16 | One of our key strategies
|
17 | going forward is to monetize our intellectual
|
18 | properties. Kodak has, for the last
|
19 | several years, entered into numerous
|
20 | licensing agreements with other digital
|
21 | players in the industry, and we need to be
|
22 | able to go about that licensing activity
|
23 | without fear of antitrust concerns, as
|
24 | I'll talk about in a few minutes.
|
25 | And finally, as I mentioned, |
37
1 | solution selling is critical to our success
|
2 | in the digital world. A good example is
|
3 | our graphic communications business which
|
4 | sells graphic solutions to printing firms.
|
5 | These solutions include software, work-flow
|
6 | software, hardware, consumables, consulting
|
7 | services, and aftermarket service.
|
8 | So what are some of the
|
9 | Section 2 impediments to our success in this
|
10 | new digital world? First of all, we
|
11 | would encourage the antitrust agencies and
|
12 | the courts to recognize the importance of
|
13 | market changes. As we saw with our attempt
|
14 | to overturn the 1921 and 1954 consent
|
15 | decrees, we were forced to litigate with the
|
16 | Department of Justice over the issue of
|
17 | whether Kodak was competing in a worldwide
|
18 | market versus a domestic market.
|
19 | And to the extent that
|
20 | further challenges arise to our practices in
|
21 | the film environment, we would encourage the
|
22 | agencies and the courts to recognize the
|
23 | substantial influence of digital technologies
|
24 | on markets that were previously dominated
|
25 | by film. |
38
1 | As we saw literally overnight
|
2 | earlier in this decade, our film business
|
3 | began to decline dramatically in the year
|
4 | 2001. We initially thought it was a result
|
5 | of reduced demand following the 9/11 attacks,
|
6 | but the market never came back. It was because
|
7 | many customers had decided to convert from film
|
8 | to digital. And many customers that make this
|
9 | conversion never come back to film.
|
10 | Another impediment to our
|
11 | success in the digital world relates to the
|
12 | antitrust line between tying and bundling. This
|
13 | line is becoming increasingly blurred as a
|
14 | result of the LePage's and other decisions, which
|
15 | I'll speak to more in a few minutes.
|
16 | Finally, obstacles to our
|
17 | ability to monetize our intellectual property
|
18 | investments exist in the form of cases like the
|
19 | Ninth Circuit's decision in the ITS case and
|
20 | precedents in the European Union such as
|
21 | the McGill case and the INS Health case where
|
22 | the Commission required compulsory licensing
|
23 | licensing by intellectual property owners.
|
24 | Let me first turn to the
|
25 | LePage's decision and the uncertainty that |
39
1 | case has left companies like Kodak with. While
|
2 | the Third Circuit had an opportunity to
|
3 | clarify the application of Section 2 in the
|
4 | area of bundled discounts, in our view it
|
5 | squandered that opportunity by deciding the
|
6 | case on its narrow set of facts. The court
|
7 | ruled said that 3M's practice of bundling its
|
8 | branded Scotch tape with both private-label
|
9 | 3M tape and with other 3M products caused
|
10 | injury to its competitor, LePage's, and
|
11 | therefore offended Section 2.
|
12 | The only parameters that
|
13 | we are able to draw from the LePage's decision
|
14 | in terms of an alleged monopolist's ability
|
15 | to engage in pricing activities are, first of
|
16 | all, that single-product volume discounts are
|
17 | permissible. The court made that clear. But
|
18 | what's at risk following the 3M/LePage's
|
19 | decision, are discounts linking products
|
20 | across multiple markets where an alleged
|
21 | dominant product is involved, and also
|
22 | discounts linking a dominant product
|
23 | with others across a single product
|
24 | line, such as the linking branded and
|
25 | private-label tape. We are left with |
40
1 | no coherent standard with which to
|
2 | evaluate bundled pricing under the
|
3 | LePage's decision.
|
4 | We would submit there were
|
5 | better alternative paths that the Third
|
6 | Circuit could have taken in evaluating the
|
7 | case against 3M. The Eighth Circuit's
|
8 | decision in Concord Boat applied the Brooke
|
9 | Group decision by the Supreme Court to find
|
10 | that as long as single-product discounts are
|
11 | above cost, they should not be considered
|
12 | exclusionary under Section 2.
|
13 | It would have also been helpful
|
14 | if the court had given some thought to the
|
15 | Ortho Diagnostic's Systems case by the Southern
|
16 | District of New York where the court articulated
|
17 | its analysis of the alleged bundling by asking
|
18 | whether an equally efficient competitor to the
|
19 | monopolist could profitably match the bundled
|
20 | price the in the market. That would have
|
21 | been an arguably more rational test to apply.
|
22 | While we could previously
|
23 | rely on the very clear distinction between
|
24 | tying on the one hand where a monopolist
|
25 | tries to force the purchase of a second |
41
1 | non-monopoly product, we now have to deal with a
|
2 | precedent that articulates no coherent standard
|
3 | such that bundled discounts now come under scrutiny.
|
4 | As I said before, bundling is very important to our
|
5 | ability to offer solution sales.
|
6 | Turning to the issue of IP
|
7 | rights, as I mentioned, a very importantbr>
|
8 | strategy of Kodak going forward is our ability
|
9 | to monetize our IP portfolio. The Ninth
|
10 | Circuit's decision in the ITS case has had a
|
11 | a chilling effect on that activity. There thebr>
|
12 | Court held that although there is a presumption in
|
13 | favor of an IP owner's right to refuse to license
|
14 | a competitor, that presumption can be overcome by
|
15 | evidence of bad intent. And that evidence can
|
16 | take the form of internal company documents.
|
17 | We think that the Federal Circuit,
|
18 | which considered very similar facts in the Xerox v.
|
19 | CSU case got the issue right when it held that in
|
20 | the absence of tying, fraud or sham litigation,
|
21 | it's not appropriate to inquire into the IP owner's
|
22 | subjective motivations for asserting a statutory right
|
23 | to exclude. The Xerox court held that the same
|
24 | rationale would apply to asserting copyright
|
25 | protection as the basis for a refusal to deal. |
42
1 | As a result, we have a
|
2 | clear split among the circuits that has
|
3 | created a great deal of uncertainty on the
|
4 | part of the IP owners and companies that
|
5 | provide aftermarket service.
|
6 | Where does the uncertainty
|
7 | in these two areas leave Kodak and other
|
8 | companies? First, if we're successful with our
|
9 | digital strategy, and we're able to achieve a
|
10 | leading market position in some of the new
|
11 | digital markets where we participate, our ability
|
12 | to offer competitive bundled pricing could be
|
13 | constrained by the LePage's decision. As I
|
14 | said, bundled pricing is really the essence
|
15 | of solution selling.
|
16 | Second, notwithstanding a
|
17 | lack of market power in the primary equipment
|
18 | markets in which we compete, we still face
|
19 | potential challenges by ISO's that can allege that
|
20 | Kodak dominates a single brand aftermarket
|
21 | for a particular line of equipment. Such ISOs
|
22 | will try to require us to license or sell our
|
23 | valuable intellectual property.
|
24 | Let me offer a few examples
|
25 | of the dilemmas these ambiguities can create, |
43
1 | and these are hypothetical examples. First,
|
2 | sell a line of photo kiosks that you may have
|
3 | seen at a number of retailers. A question
|
4 | arises as to whether Kodak can offer retailers
|
5 | bundled discounts on the kiosks, our paper
|
6 | that runs through these kiosks and the
|
7 | aftermarket service. Could we also include
|
8 | digital cameras in that bundle when we sell
|
9 | to retailers? Could Kodak refuse to license
|
10 | our valuable diagnostic software on these
|
11 | photo kiosks to an ISO that wishes to compete
|
12 | with us?
|
13 | Turning to our intellectual
|
14 | property strategy. We are in the process of
|
15 | entering into licensing agreements with a
|
16 | number of companies that we believe have
|
17 | infringed our patent portfolio in the digital
|
18 | camera area. The question arises whether,
|
19 | in approaching a particular company we
|
20 | believe violates our patents, can we refuse
|
21 | to license the companies' rights in our patents
|
22 | simply because they are competitors. And does
|
23 | that situation get any worse because we've got
|
24 | an internal document suggesting that a reason
|
25 | for refusing the license was to gain an upper |
44
1 | hand in the marketplace.
|
2 | Could we, in licensing to
|
3 | other digital camera sellers, bundle Kodak
|
4 | software that allows customers to view their
|
5 | images on a PC?
|
6 | We offer an on-line photo
|
7 | service where you can upload your photos and
|
8 | order prints or order prints on different items
|
9 | like T-shirts and coffee mugs. This is called
|
10 | the Kodak Easy Share Gallery. The question arises
|
11 | whether in the event we were to gain a leading
|
12 | market position with our Kodak Photo Gallery,
|
13 | we could say to our customers who agree to
|
14 | store a fixed number of images on our site
|
15 | that they will get a discount on their
|
16 | prints?
|
17 | And finally with respect to
|
18 | our graphics business, which I mentioned is
|
19 | very much focused trying to meet the end to
|
20 | end work-flow demands of our customers, are
|
21 | there antitrust concerns with our selling
|
22 | graphic communications equipment, software,
|
23 | consumables, consulting services, and
|
24 | aftermarket services as a bundle? Should it
|
25 | make a difference that our customers demand |
45
1 | such solution sales?
|
2 | These are some of the issues
|
3 | that we grapple with in light of the
|
4 | uncertainty under Section 2 that I've
|
5 | outlined, and I'll look forward to further
|
6 | discussion on these and other issues when we
|
7 | get to the questioning period.
|
8 | (Applause)
|
9 | MR. TARONJI: Thank you,
|
10 | Patrick. Our next speaker is Ron Stern.
|
11 | Ron is the vice president and senior
|
12 | competition counsel for the General Electric
|
13 | Company. Ron received his AB from Brown
|
14 | University and his law degree from Harvard.
|
15 | He clerked for Judge Harold
|
16 | Leventhal of the U.S. Court of Appeals for
|
17 | the D.C. Circuit and for Justice Potter
|
18 | Stewart of the U.S. Supreme Court. He was
|
19 | in private practice with Hughes, Hubbard &
|
20 | Reid and was a partner with Arnold & Porter.
|
21 | In addition, he was the
|
22 | special assistant to the Assistant Attorney
|
23 | General for the Criminal Division of the U.S.
|
24 | Department of Justice. Ron.
|
25 | MR. STERN: I'd like to |
46
1 | begin by thanking the Antitrust Division and
|
2 | the Federal Trust Commission for holding
|
3 | these hearings and for providing me and
|
4 | others with the opportunity to address
|
5 | important issues relating to the application
|
6 | of the antitrust laws to single-firm conduct.
|
7 | In particular, I would like
|
8 | to thank the staff at both agencies who have
|
9 | organized these hearings and put in the hard
|
10 | work required to make them a success.
|
11 | I also want to make clear at
|
12 | the outset that the views and opinions that I
|
13 | am providing today and that are in the
|
14 | written slides are my own personal views and
|
15 | not those of the General Electric Company or
|
16 | of other General Electric officials.
|
17 | Let me begin with an
|
18 | overview. I want to agree with the heads
|
19 | of the two agencies that are hosting these
|
20 | hearings, the Assistant Attorney General and
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21 | the Chairman of the Federal Trade Commission,
|
22 | that it is important to have clear,
|
23 | administrable, and objective rules. This is
|
24 | a key requirement, something that's really at
|
25 | the heart of these hearings. |
47
1 | It's important for business
|
2 | to avoid chilling procompetitive conduct.
|
3 | It's also important for consumers. It's
|
4 | important to help avoid inadvertent
|
5 | violations and disputes and investigations
|
6 | that end up wasting company time and
|
7 | resources as well as the time and resources
|
8 | of the agencies.
|
9 | And finally, it's important
|
10 | to reduce the cost of developing and
|
11 | implementing business plans to foster
|
12 | competition in the marketplace.
|
13 | Now increasingly, as the
|
14 | economy globalizes, it's not sufficient that
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15 | the U.S. rules are clear. The rules adopted
|
16 | by other jurisdictions will, of course, affect
|
17 | U.S. commerce. And I do not believe that it
|
18 | is surprising or coincidental that the United
|
19 | States, European Commission, and the
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20 | International Competition Network, an
|
21 | organization formed by, I believe, more than
|
22 | 100 competition authorities around the world,
|
23 | are all addressing the issue of competition
|
24 | standards for single-firm conduct at this
|
25 | time. |
48
1 | In a global economy this is
|
2 | a global issue, not just a United States
|
3 | issue; and that's important, particularly for
|
4 | companies such as mine, that operate in a
|
5 | number of global markets.
|
6 | What I'd like to do today is
|
7 | walk through from a counseling perspective
|
8 | which is a perspective, I see every day,
|
9 | and look at areas that could be clarified in
|
10 | Section 2.
|
11 | First, the issue is what kind
|
12 | of rule governs. Is your conduct unilateral,
|
13 | single-firm conduct, or is it multi-firm
|
14 | conduct? Is it something that Section 1 governs
|
15 | or Article 81 in Europe?
|
16 | Or is it something that
|
17 | Section 2 governs as single-firm conduct or
|
18 | Article 82 in Europe?
|
19 | The next issue is whether
|
20 | there is a threshold solution or a threshold
|
21 | screen that makes you comfortable that the
|
22 | conduct doesn't violate the law? And one
|
23 | important screen under the U.S. law is the
|
24 | requirement of monopoly power.
|
25 | If you can be sure that your |
49
1 | company isn't in that kind of position, it
|
2 | doesn't control market prices, then you don't
|
3 | have to worry about the nature of the conduct
|
4 | and whether the conduct meets or doesn't meet
|
5 | any of the different rules that have been
|
6 | talked about during these hearings and are
|
7 | being discussed today.
|
8 | If the threshold isn't met,
|
9 | then you have to look at the conduct and
|
10 | decide whether the conduct is exclusionary or
|
11 | not. And oftentimes what you're looking for
|
12 | are clear rules that will guide you to allow
|
13 | you to tell your client that they can safely
|
14 | pursue X type of conduct because that's in a
|
15 | safe harbor or that's clearly not a problem.
|
16 | And then why are we going
|
17 | through this entire exercise? Well, we're
|
18 | going through the exercise basically because
|
19 | there are risks and costs if you end up in a
|
20 | gray area that someone thinks violates the
|
21 | requirements.
|
22 | There is the potential for
|
23 | government enforcement actions and
|
24 | investigations, and in the U.S. for private
|
25 | treble damage action. And there are a host |
50
1 | of potential consequences, from injunctive
|
2 | relief to fines, not in the U.S., but in
|
3 | some jurisdictions, to treble damage awards,
|
4 | legal fees, and the like.
|
5 | So what I'd like to do is
|
6 | continue to walk through the issues. One
|
7 | issue that reinforces the concern that I'd
|
8 | just like to touch upon is the fact that
|
9 | jury instructions in the Section 2 area are
|
10 | often particularly problematic. I've just
|
11 | set some examples up on the screen, but
|
12 | basically they involve very general types of
|
13 | words. Is the conduct wrongful? Did one
|
14 | buy more logs than were necessary or pay a
|
15 | higher price than was necessary? Did the
|
16 | firm engage in competition on the merits?
|
17 | Whatever, again, a jury believes that means.
|
18 | All of these things reinforce
|
19 | the risk, particularly in the U.S.
|
20 | environment, of treble damages and attorneys'
|
21 | fees and large litigation costs. You
|
22 | basically want to counsel to be in a safe zone
|
23 | to avoid having to worry about jury
|
24 | instructions.
|
25 | So then back to the |
51
1 | beginning. Do you know whether you're in the
|
2 | single-firm conduct area? We obviously have
|
3 | the Copperweld decision and clear law that if
|
4 | you're a company and you're dealing with a
|
5 | wholly-owned subsidiary, you're one entity,
|
6 | and you know that you can't violate Sherman Act
|
7 | Section 1 by having an agreement in restraint of
|
8 | trade because you don't have two parties. You
|
9 | just have one.
|
10 | The problem is under
|
11 | Copperweld the application is unclear. The
|
12 | law in the lower courts is divided as to
|
13 | where the line is when you're dealing with
|
14 | non-wholly-owned subsidiaries.
|
15 | And one important thing that
|
16 | the government could do is reinstate the
|
17 | guidance that existed in 1988 with the
|
18 | antitrust enforcement guidelines for
|
19 | international operations. I've included
|
20 | that in the slides.
|
21 | And the clear guidance that
|
22 | was given then, I think, would be important
|
23 | to reinstate it, is that whenever you have
|
24 | more than 50 percent of the voting securities
|
25 | of a company owned by its parent or its |
52
1 | sister company, that whole family of
|
2 | companies is one economic entity and is
|
3 | subject only to Section 2, the single-firm
|
4 | conduct section, and not Section 1. That's
|
5 | one area in which I think clarity could be
|
6 | added.
|
7 | Now, if we move beyond, the
|
8 | next issue is trying to identify whether your
|
9 | company in the particular situation that
|
10 | you're facing is subject to Section 2. And
|
11 | the first element of Section 2 is having
|
12 | monopoly power. The second element relates to
|
13 | the conduct. Is there a willful acquisition
|
14 | or maintenance of that power which is often
|
15 | referred to as engaging in exclusionary
|
16 | conduct.
|
17 | Now, under United States law
|
18 | there is a pretty helpful screen. You have
|
19 | to have the power to control market price.
|
20 | And in bidding markets, it's clear that if
|
21 | there are other credible competitors, you
|
22 | generally don't have the power to control
|
23 | market prices, even if you have a very large
|
24 | share.
|
25 | The case law gives some very |
53
1 | helpful general rules of thumb. If you have
|
2 | more than a 70 percent share, you have to
|
3 | look at all of the other factors, but you at
|
4 | least know that you're in a danger zone.
|
5 | If you have less than a 50
|
6 | percent share under the U.S. case law, it's
|
7 | very unlikely that you have to worry about
|
8 | whether your conduct could be categorized as
|
9 | exclusionary.
|
10 | Some people point to the fact
|
11 | that attempted monopolization can occur at a
|
12 | lower market share threshold, but you have
|
13 | the very important counseling hook in the
|
14 | element of attempted monopolization which is
|
15 | the requirement of a dangerous probability of
|
16 | achieving monopoly power, which brings you
|
17 | right back to the monopoly power test.
|
18 | So the key is, and I think
|
19 | that's been very helpful, even for successful
|
20 | firms, and certainly my company has a number
|
21 | of successful businesses, that most
|
22 | successful firms simply do not meet the
|
23 | monopoly power test under U.S. law. And that
|
24 | is helpful in counseling. But there are two
|
25 | important howevers that I want to talk |
54
1 | about.
|
2 | The first is the issue that's
|
3 | been discussed that Patrick talked about, the
|
4 | treatment of aftermarkets. And the second
|
5 | are non-U.S. issues, that there are lower
|
6 | dominance thresholds outside the U.S. And
|
7 | indeed, there is the curious concept of
|
8 | collective dominance, at least curious to a
|
9 | U.S. antitrust lawyer outside the U.S., so
|
10 | let me turn to those.
|
11 | First I'd like to turn to
|
12 | aftermarkets. As Patrick mentioned, this
|
13 | comes from the Kodak case. There the
|
14 | Supreme Court held that there was the
|
15 | potential, not that it was always the case,
|
16 | but the potential for there to be a single
|
17 | brand parts and service market, even where
|
18 | the company had a modest percentage and had
|
19 | no monopoly power in the interband equipment
|
20 | market. Here, Kodak had less than 25
|
21 | percent, clearly in the safe harbor of the
|
22 | interband photocopier market. Photocopiers
|
23 | are often referred to as Xerox machines, not
|
24 | Kodak machines. That's for a reason. They
|
25 | didn't have market power. But they had a |
55
1 | very large share of an intrabrand parts and
|
2 | service market for Kodak copiers.
|
3 | Now, post-Kodak, there have
|
4 | been a number of court cases interpreting
|
5 | Kodak, and they have limited Kodak's
|
6 | application in most circuits to a situation
|
7 | in which there has been a change of policy
|
8 | with respect to aftermarket sales of parts or
|
9 | service. That however has not been uniform.
|
10 | The Ninth Circuit is sort of an outlier.
|
11 | All in all, what this does,
|
12 | I believe, is create very significant
|
13 | problems. All suppliers of capital goods are
|
14 | exposed today to the notion of having to
|
15 | worry about whether or not they fall under
|
16 | Section 2 when they deal with parts and
|
17 | services for the products that they sell.
|
18 | And somewhat ironically, if
|
19 | you have a modest market share, you're one of
|
20 | the also-rans in the interbrand equipment
|
21 | market, you may have a higher share of your
|
22 | single-brand parts and service market for the
|
23 | very simple reason that third parties tend to
|
24 | focus on the most successful installed base
|
25 | products to develop non-OEM parts and non-OEM |
56
1 | services.
|
2 | So the competitor with ten
|
3 | percent in the interbrand equipment market
|
4 | may be more likely to have a monopoly sharebr>
|
5 | of a single-brand aftermarket than the
|
6 | leading firm in the interbrand equipment
|
7 | market.
|
8 | So this is a problem and
|
9 | it's a problem because it chills conduct. If
|
10 | you're going to counsel, what it does is it
|
11 | really counsels you to adopt restrictive
|
12 | approaches from the outset and not change
|
13 | them. Because if you do that, you really
|
14 | don't have to worry about having a problem inbr>
|
15 | this area.
|
16 | I think the outcome is an
|
17 | incorrect one. It has been heavily
|
18 | criticized by a number of esteemed
|
19 | economists, many of which have either been
|
20 | former heads of the economic part of the
|
21 | antitrust division or the current head.
|
22 | Professor Carlton, Professor Shapiro,
|
23 | Professor Klein, and Professor Hovenkamp have
|
24 | all criticized the Kodak decision with respect
|
25 | to aftermarkets and suggested that it is |
57
1 | unnecessary and unsound.
|
2 | And the Department of Justice
|
3 | thought it was unsound in its amicus brief in
|
4 | Kodak.
|
5 | So I think what should be
|
6 | clarified here is this notion of single-brand
|
7 | aftermarkets. That concept from Kodak
|
8 | should be overturned. The government should
|
9 | give guidance, and should file amicus
|
10 | briefs in courts to try to clarify
|
11 | the law in this area.
|
12 | The same thing should happen
|
13 | in Europe. I have referenced comments by the
|
14 | International Chamber of Commerce that are on
|
15 | the DG Competition website with respect to
|
16 | the Article 82 discussion paper which give
|
17 | further reasons why there shouldn't be
|
18 | single-brand aftermarkets.
|
19 | Let's then turn to the issue
|
20 | of monopoly power outside of the U.S. Here,
|
21 | the International Competition Network has a
|
22 | unilateral conduct working group, and it has
|
23 | a draft report in-progress for its next
|
24 | convention in Moscow. And what it has
|
25 | found by surveying competition authorities |
58
1 | around the world is that generally, the
|
2 | presumption of dominance, which is essentially
|
3 | the non-U.S. equivalent of monopoly power, is
|
4 | set at a 33 percent to 50 percent level.
|
5 | Now, that's below what is essentially the
|
6 | U.S. safe harbor level.
|
7 | And what it does, of course,
|
8 | in a global marketplace is tend to expose a
|
9 | much larger number of leading firms to the
|
10 | potential that you have to worry about
|
11 | whether your conduct is going to be
|
12 | characterized in these regimes as abusive, or
|
13 | if you use the United States approach, as
|
14 | exclusionary.
|
15 | Now, there's one good thing.
|
16 | There's also a trend towards taking a
|
17 | behavioral approach, which is looking at the
|
18 | ability to set market prices, the same
|
19 | approach taken under Section 2 in the U.S.,
|
20 | rather than a purely structural presumption
|
21 | based on market shares.
|
22 | I'd like to turn to another
|
23 | problem that I think is one that should be
|
24 | addressed. It's not a huge problem today,
|
25 | but it's the concept of collective dominance. |
59
1 | The European Commission Article 82 discussion
|
2 | paper talks about the fact that there can be
|
3 | collective dominance simply in a
|
4 | oligopolistic situation. You don't have to
|
5 | have an agreement with your competitors as
|
6 | long as a small number of firms control a
|
7 | large combined share of the marketplace.
|
8 | Then they can act in a way that supposedly
|
9 | would abuse their collective dominant
|
10 | position.
|
11 | My sense is that this has
|
12 | never been applied, as far as I know, but it
|
13 | raises a real counseling concern. What are
|
14 | you supposed to do if your rival raises
|
15 | price? If all the other rivals in an
|
16 | oligopoly do what they often do, and that is
|
17 | match the price increase, have you then
|
18 | committed and abouse of collective dominance?
|
19 | If you have a policy of
|
20 | having exclusive distributors and other
|
21 | firms follow that policy because it's
|
22 | efficient, have you violated collective
|
23 | dominance? It's very hard to figure out how
|
24 | to counsel. This is something that again,
|
25 | isn't a real-world problem today, but I think |
60
1 | should be one that is nipped in the bud so
|
2 | it doesn't become a real-world problem
|
3 | tomorrow.
|
4 | And then secondly, there's a
|
5 | separate issue in the draft anti-monopoly law
|
6 | in China in which a firm that isn't a
|
7 | leading firm, and that's true of course in
|
8 | the collective dominant situation. If you're
|
9 | not the leading firm in the marketplace,
|
10 | generally you don't have to worry about
|
11 | unilateral conduct.
|
12 | But if either an oligopoly
|
13 | situation presents a problem or under the
|
14 | draft law in China, if two firms have
|
15 | two-thirds of the market or three firms have
|
16 | three quarters of the market, and you're the
|
17 | second-ranked firm or the third-ranked firm in
|
18 | that situation, as long as you have more than a
|
19 | 10 percent share, it appears that all of the
|
20 | firms are treated as dominant and subject to
|
21 | the listed abuses.
|
22 | This law hasn't been adopted.
|
23 | It hasn't been interpreted. It's not clearbr>
|
24 | what this means, but it's out there and it
|
25 | poses a potential risk that it seems to me |
61
1 | the U.S. authorities ought to address and I
|
2 | know in fact are addressing.
|
3 | Let me turn to some of the
|
4 | issues of conduct. The first one I'd like
|
5 | to talk about are refusals to deal. And it
|
6 | seems to me that this is an area in which
|
7 | there is a real opportunity for clarity.
|
8 | My colleague Mark Whitener
|
9 | testified in the July 18 hearings on refusal
|
10 | to deal and covered this at some length, I just
|
11 | want to hit the high points. I'll refer you
|
12 | to his testimony.
|
13 | Basically, the law appears to
|
14 | have evolved that an unconditional refusal to
|
15 | deal, and from that I distinguish one that is
|
16 | conditioned on taking a second product, which
|
17 | is often referred to as tying, or a
|
18 | conditional refusal to deal which says you
|
19 | will deal with me, and you won't buy from
|
20 | anyone else, usually called exclusive
|
21 | dealing. Those things ought to be dealt
|
22 | with, in my view an exclusive dealing or
|
23 | tying. But if it's simply an
|
24 | unconditional refusal to deal, I decline to
|
25 | sell you the product, in those sorts of |
62
1 | situations it seems to me there should be a
|
2 | per se lawful rule.
|
3 | Now what the case law has
|
4 | evolved in the Trinko decision is a notion
|
5 | that the Aspen Skiing case is the outer
|
6 | limits. And the Aspen Skiing case involved
|
7 | a refusal to continue to deal after there
|
8 | had been a voluntary cooperation with the
|
9 | plaintiff.
|
10 | And the problem that that
|
11 | approach creates is obviously it causes people
|
12 | to be incentivized not to deal in the first
|
13 | place. The concern would be if that's the law,
|
14 | you would never have had the all-mountain pass
|
15 | in Aspen in the first place because the party
|
16 | with the three mountains would have known not
|
17 | to enter into the cooperation because it
|
18 | could have been accused of violating Section
|
19 | 2 should it have wanted to reverse course
|
20 | later.
|
21 | This creates perverse
|
22 | incentives, and there is of course the
|
23 | entractible problem of remedies. Courts
|
24 | simply aren't set up to deal with the
|
25 | situation of how does one decide what the |
63
1 | terms should be, what the pricing should be.
|
2 | This is another reason why if there's a
|
3 | problem in this area, there should be
|
4 | legislation and essentially a utility
|
5 | commission set up. The antitrust laws and
|
6 | the court shouldn't be handling this.
|
7 | The same thing, I think, is
|
8 | true of the essential facilities doctrine,
|
9 | which is just another way of dealing with
|
10 | unilateral refusals to deal. That doctrine
|
11 | has been questioned by the Supreme Court, but
|
12 | it seems to me the law could be clarified in
|
13 | this area because the Court simply didn't
|
14 | address it.
|
15 | Let me then turn to another
|
16 | area that's already been talked about a lot
|
17 | today, and that is the area of bundled
|
18 | discounts. It seems to me that although in
|
19 | the afternoon session I know we're going to
|
20 | hear a bit to the contrary, that unlike
|
21 | predatory pricing, where there's some pretty
|
22 | good and clear guidance about not pricing
|
23 | below a measure of cost and the need for
|
24 | recoupment, that in the bundled discounts, the
|
25 | mixed bundling area, at the moment there is a |
64
1 | real need for clarity.
|
2 | So what I want to do is
|
3 | start with just asking some questions and
|
4 | suggesting some responses that might create
|
5 | clarity. The first one is can we identify
|
6 | types of market situations where there just
|
7 | isn't likely to be a problem.
|
8 | And I highlight one of them,
|
9 | Professor Barry Nalebuff, someone who has
|
10 | written extensively about bundling,
|
11 | suggested that in certain circumstances, at
|
12 | least from an economic theory point of view,
|
13 | it could create issues. But he's been very
|
14 | clear that that only really happens in a market
|
15 | situation in which the seller sets one price
|
16 | for all buyers of the product. And it
|
17 | doesn't happen in a situation in which there
|
18 | is bidding on an individual customer basis or
|
19 | negotiation on an individual customer basis.
|
20 | If in fact that's a valid
|
21 | distinction, having that kind of
|
22 | clarification would be very important. It
|
23 | certainly would be important for my client,
|
24 | which generally engages in negotiated sales of
|
25 | products rather than consumer products where |
65
1 | you often set one price for all.br>
|
2 | Then another area is simply
|
3 | do most of these cases really involve a
|
4 | situation in which what is being alleged is
|
5 | you have a company with monopoly power in
|
6 | Market A that is bundling in order to try to
|
7 | create power or effect a separate Market B.
|
8 | If that's the case, then it
|
9 | seems to me that an attempted monopolization
|
10 | claim involving that second market is what is
|
11 | really involved, and you have to look at
|
12 | whether there is going to be a dangerous
|
13 | probability of achieving monopoly power in
|
14 | that second market. And others who have
|
15 | testified have noted the importance of
|
16 | showing not only a disadvantage to a
|
17 | particular rival in Product B or the
|
18 | competitive product, but also a realistic
|
19 | threat of creating monopoly power in that
|
20 | second product.
|
21 | Now, after those threshold
|
22 | issues, I guess one of the other questions is
|
23 | what framework do you use to analyze these
|
24 | bundled discounts or mixed bundling. And one
|
25 | suggestion I guess I would like to throw out |
66
1 | for discussion is that these cases should
|
2 | generally fall into one of two categories.
|
3 | They ought to either be analyzed as tying, or
|
4 | they should be analyzed as predatory pricing.br>
|
5 | Again, Professor Nalebuff had talked about an
|
6 | example in his testimony in which he said
|
7 | well, predatory pricing really doesn't apply
|
8 | in some of these kinds of scenarios because
|
9 | there can be no-cost bundling. And his
|
10 | hypothetical was one in which you took the
|
11 | monopoly product and you raised the price of
|
12 | the monopoly product well above the monopoly
|
13 | price, and then you bundled using the
|
14 | monopoly price as the price of the monopoly
|
15 | good in the bundle, and then you priced in
|
16 | the competitive product.
|
17 | And he said in that
|
18 | circumstance, well, no one would actually
|
19 | take the monopoly product separately. Well,
|
20 | at least from my legal standpoint, most
|
21 | courts would treat that situation in which
|
22 | the second product wasn't economically
|
23 | available as a tying situation, in which you
|
24 | were simply not selling the monopoly product
|
25 | unless you also bought the other product in |
67
1 | the bundle. And in that situation,
|
2 | particularly where you're involved with a
|
3 | second market, you should be able to deal
|
4 | with the screen of attempted monopolization.
|
5 | You also of course can solve the problem by
|
6 | making sure that the separate price is a
|
7 | realistic price so that you avoid tying.
|
8 | It seems to me then the
|
9 | other cases are situations in which you
|
10 | really are giving a discount off of the
|
11 | monopoly price in an attempt to assist in the
|
12 | sale of the competitive product.
|
13 | And that sort of situation,
|
14 | if that's what's really going on, you do have
|
15 | discounting or loss on what you could
|
16 | otherwise sell the monopoly product for. In
|
17 | that sort of situation then the issue should
|
18 | be a predatory pricing analysis.
|
19 | Now one approach that
|
20 | sometimes is taken is to look at -- and it's
|
21 | been advocated, I believe, by Professor
|
22 | Muris in an earlier hearing -- the price
|
23 | of the bundle and compare it to the cost
|
24 | of the bundle. In some situations that
|
25 | may be an appropriate and realistic |
68
1 | approach.
|
2 | Some criticism of that I
|
3 | think by Professor Hovenkamp is a stylized
|
4 | situation in which you have a monopoly
|
5 | product with a large monopoly margin.
|
6 | And if I simply took that margin and
|
7 | didn't bundle it, but simply took those
|
8 | profits and used it to discount the price of
|
9 | the competitive product, I might clearly be
|
10 | pricing the competitive product below my cost
|
11 | for that product.
|
12 | And I think the question is
|
13 | why should the bundle situation be treated
|
14 | any differently than the straight predatory
|
15 | pricing discount on Product B.
|
16 | In that stylized situation in
|
17 | Product B, Professor Hovenkamp advocates in the
|
18 | Ortho approach of attributing all of the bundles --
|
19 | all of the discounts to the competitive product,
|
20 | and if that's still above cost, I think provides
|
21 | a helpful screen and safe harbor. That's one
|
22 | area where there should clearly be
|
23 | clarification.
|
24 | But I think Professor Muris
|
25 | pointed out several important qualifications. |
69
1 | It's a highly stylized situation in which
|
2 | there is no competitor. There is an absolute
|
3 | monopolist, and there is no one else selling
|
4 | Product A.
|
5 | When there are fringe sellers
|
6 | of Product A, those fringe sellers can help
|
7 | undermine the bundled price for the package.
|
8 | There may also be situations
|
9 | in which there is a bundle with two
|
10 | competitive products, and it may be that the
|
11 | plaintiff can only sell one of those, but
|
12 | some other party can sell the second
|
13 | competitive product. They can team together
|
14 | and provide their own bundled discount. Or
|
15 | particularly, when you've got sophisticated
|
16 | customers, the customers can search the
|
17 | marketplace and provide their own added ala
|
18 | carte bundles. They will look at the price
|
19 | of Competitive Offer X and Competitive Offer
|
20 | Y and compare it to the bundle.
|
21 | So this notion that it's a
|
22 | problem if you ascribe all of the discount to
|
23 | the price of the single competitive product
|
24 | that perhaps the plaintiff or the complainant
|
25 | is selling, I think is -- again, it's an |
70
1 | over-dramatic case. It shouldn't be a problem
|
2 | if in doing that the resulting price would be
|
3 | below cost. It shouldsimply be a safe harbor
|
4 | if you're not below cost.
|
5 | And then of course in these
|
6 | situations since there's a loss, you really
|
7 | ought to be able to look at recoupment. You
|
8 | have to really look at that just like you do
|
9 | in predatory pricing.
|
10 | If you're losing money by
|
11 | subsidizing the sale essentially of the
|
12 | competitive product, how are you going to
|
13 | make that back? And if you're not going to
|
14 | force people to exit and if you're not going
|
15 | to be able to later raise price in that
|
16 | second market, the B market, the competitive
|
17 | market, then there's not a prospect for
|
18 | recoupment. And just because you have multiple
|
19 | products, it shouldn't be treated any
|
20 | different than Brooke Group, and you
|
21 | shouldn't have a violation.
|
22 | Real quick, I just wanted to
|
23 | raise some questions about the 3M LePage's
|
24 | case that Patrick talked about. In that
|
25 | case, the case was litigated on the |
71
1 | assumption that there was only one market
|
2 | involved, a market for transparent tape.
|
3 | If in fact it had been
|
4 | litigated on the assumption that there were
|
5 | two markets, a market for branded tape and a
|
6 | separate market for generic or unbranded
|
7 | tape, then would there have been a
|
8 | violation? Remember, the record showed
|
9 | that the plaintiff, LePage's, still had
|
10 | two thirds of the generic type sales.
|
11 | Would there have been a dangerous
|
12 | probability of success of achieving monopoly
|
13 | power in that second market?
|
14 | And if it's only one market,
|
15 | I think one has to go back and look at
|
16 | Professor Muris's suggestion that you look at
|
17 | the cost of the bundle. Remember it's all
|
18 | the same market. It's just two different
|
19 | products in that market. And if the cost of
|
20 | the bundle in that one market is above --
|
21 | excuse me -- the price of that bundle is
|
22 | above the cost of the bundle, should that be
|
23 | a safe harbor in the single-market situation?
|
24 | And then separately, if it's
|
25 | all one market, would the same result have |
72
1 | been achievable just by discounting the
|
2 | branded tape that was clearly sold at a large
|
3 | margin above cost. But if we're assuming
|
4 | it's one market and you've lowered the price
|
5 | of the branded tape, presumably that would
|
6 | have applied the same pressure to LePage's the
|
7 | generic tape. Yet that clearly would have been
|
8 | appropriate under Brooke Group. You're not
|
9 | required to charge the monopoly price. As
|
10 | long as you're just giving discounts on a
|
11 | single product, that would be lawful. Would
|
12 | that have had the same effect in LePage's?
|
13 | And then I think finally, an
|
14 | important part of this discussion -- and I
|
15 | think it goes broader than that case. This
|
16 | case is an example -- is what is achieved by
|
17 | the rule. What would have been accomplished?
|
18 | Would it have led to less discounting by 3M?
|
19 | How do you deal with situations in which you
|
20 | have leading or successful firms that you
|
21 | want to compete on price?
|
22 | If the only rule is that you
|
23 | must discount on a product-by-product basis,
|
24 | that may result essentially in less price
|
25 | competition and may harm consumers because, |
73
1 | as people have speculated, 3M probably was
|
2 | attempting not to reduce the price of its
|
3 | successful branded tape, but trying to find a
|
4 | way to incentivize customers to buy more
|
5 | rather essentially than to switch their
|
6 | purchases from branded tape to the 3M
|
7 | generic tape.
|
8 | If in fact you have rules
|
9 | that limit the flexibility for leading firms,
|
10 | you have to look at what the economic
|
11 | consequences are going to be in the
|
12 | marketplace and for consumers.
|
13 | I think this highlights
|
14 | one of the key areas. The hardest areas,
|
15 | I believe, are situations in which
|
16 | you've got a firm that meets the monopoly
|
17 | power situation, and it engages in conduct
|
18 | that someone wants to characterize
|
19 | potentially as exclusionary. Is that simply
|
20 | enough? What kind of impact is necessary or
|
21 | harm to competition is necessary? Is a
|
22 | scintilla enough, or does it have to be
|
23 | actually a significant harm to competition,
|
24 | or are you simply into a balancing test of
|
25 | what is the benefit versus what is the harm? |
74
1 | Now, very quickly I'd like us
|
2 | to cover one more point, which is on
|
3 | exclusive dealing, another area that could be
|
4 | clarified, and it does come up in the
|
5 | counseling context often. And that is a
|
6 | situation in which there would be exclusive
|
7 | dealing, which in a variety of contexts might
|
8 | be viewed as exclusionary conduct, but the
|
9 | exclusive dealing is at the behest of the
|
10 | customer. The customer comes and says, I
|
11 | think the best way to get the best price and
|
12 | the best terms from my suppliers is to hold a
|
13 | winner-take-all competition. So I'll invite
|
14 | everyone in and say, I'm going to buy all of
|
15 | my needs for the next three years from the
|
16 | party that gives me the best offer. And
|
17 | in that situation, I don't believe that even
|
18 | if you're the leading firm and even if you
|
19 | have monopoly power there should be a problem
|
20 | in competing and winning that kind of
|
21 | contract.
|
22 | And it seems to me that kind
|
23 | of clarification will assist in counseling
|
24 | and will assist customers in getting the best
|
25 | deal they can in the marketplace, which is |
75
1 | what the antitrust laws are designed to
|
2 | promote.
|
3 | So in conclusion, I want to
|
4 | reinforce where I began. Clear administrable
|
5 | and objective rules are extremely important,
|
6 | and I hope they are the output of these
|
7 | hearings.
|
8 | I made several modest
|
9 | suggestions about ways in which the rules
|
10 | could be clarified. The first would be to
|
11 | clarify Copperweld so that you know when
|
12 | you're engaged in single-firm conduct.
|
13 | Whenever you've got more than a 50 percent
|
14 | share of the voting securities, the parent
|
15 | and all of those subsidiary corporations
|
16 | should be one company.
|
17 | Secondly, the aftermarket
|
18 | exception, the monopoly power rule. The
|
19 | notion that there are single intrabrand parts
|
20 | and service markets creates lots of
|
21 | counseling problems and lots of issues, I
|
22 | think, for consumers and competition. I
|
23 | think that ought to be overruled. And I
|
24 | think that the DOJ and the FTC should
|
25 | advocate that. |
76
1 | I think all unconditional
|
2 | unilateral refusals to deal should be treated
|
3 | as per lawful, whether they involve
|
4 | intellectual property or not. That should be
|
5 | clarified. That should be advocated to the
|
6 | courts. That should be advocated in
|
7 | international settings.
|
8 | There are a number of ways I
|
9 | suggested in which the treatment of bundled
|
10 | discounts could be clarified. And finally,
|
11 | this idea of customer-initiated exclusive, I
|
12 | think a very simple, straightforward,
|
13 | helpful, practical clarification.
|
14 | Then I just want to
|
15 | underscore I think it's very important that
|
16 | we take the step of clarifying the U.S. law
|
17 | both at the Agency level for their
|
18 | enforcement discretion to go the next step
|
19 | which both agencies have done an excellent
|
20 | job of moving the agenda in the courts
|
21 | through amicus brief process and getting a
|
22 | number of key clarifications. I hope there
|
23 | are more at this term with the cases that
|
24 | are pending.
|
25 | And then finally, continuing |
77
1 | to be active in bilateral discussions with
|
2 | other competition authorities and being a
|
3 | leader in the international competition
|
4 | network. Thank you.
|
5 | (Applause)
|
6 | MR. TARONJI: Thank you, Ron.
|
7 | We're going to take a 15-minute break and be
|
8 | back here at 11:15.
|
9 | (Break taken)
|
10 | MR. TARONJI: Well, thank
|
11 | you. The first thing I would like to do is
|
12 | offer each of the presenters an opportunity
|
13 | to comment on what they've heard from the
|
14 | other panelists. Let me start in order.
|
15 | David.
|
16 | MR. BALTO: You know, it's
|
17 | hard for me to comment on the terrific
|
18 | presentations of these two speakers. You
|
19 | know, generic -- let me make a simple point.
|
20 | Generic drug companies are almost never
|
21 | dominant. We're in like the most intensely
|
22 | competitive market. In any generic drug
|
23 | category you're certainly going to have five,
|
24 | six, seven competitors. Prices quickly
|
25 | computed down to marginal costs. So the |
78
1 | headaches my colleagues have to live with I
|
2 | don't really have to deal with.
|
3 | I do have a little concern
|
4 | about one suggestion that Ron made, however.
|
5 | The idea that we should have a safe harbor
|
6 | for customer-instigated exclusive dealing. I
|
7 | just know from my experience in the
|
8 | enforcement agencies, you know, you'd always
|
9 | walk in there, and oh, you would have
|
10 | anticompetitive conduct investigations. And
|
11 | the parties would say, oh, customers really
|
12 | wanted this.
|
13 | Well, you know, when you
|
14 | actually sat down and were able to go and
|
15 | interview the customers you found out that,
|
16 | you know, they wanted it only because their
|
17 | arm was being twisted in a significant
|
18 | fashion.
|
19 | And also sometimes the
|
20 | interests of customers aren't really in
|
21 | confluence with the interests of consumers.
|
22 | And I think one of the kinds of practices
|
23 | that a lot of the previous speakers at these
|
24 | hearings have identified, some of the kinds
|
25 | of practices they've identified are |
79
1 | situations where basically a dominant firm
|
2 | agrees to share its monopoly profits with its
|
3 | customers in order to keep rivals at bay.
|
4 | And you know, believe me, the customers like
|
5 | those situations, but I think those
|
6 | situations still can be harmful to consumers.
|
7 | MR. TARONJI: Patrick.
|
8 | MR. SHELLER: Really the only
|
9 | comment I'd like to make is one of gratitude
|
10 | to Ron. I suggested a number of problems
|
11 | that we at Kodak are facing because of some
|
12 | of the ambiguities in the law relative to
|
13 | bundling and also the law relative to
|
14 | aftermarkets. And I thought Ron made some
|
15 | very viable suggestions that could help maybe
|
16 | clear up some of those ambiguities. So thank
|
17 | you, Ron.
|
18 | MR. TARONJI: Ron, your turn.
|
19 | MR. STERN: Well, thank you,
|
20 | Patrick. Let me comment just briefly on
|
21 | David's presentation. I'm not particularly
|
22 | familiar with the pharmaceutical area,
|
23 | although as an antitrust lawyer these days
|
24 | you have to end up having some familiarity
|
25 | because there's so much activity in the |
80
1 | pharmaceutical area.
|
2 | It just struck me that it
|
3 | was a situation in which perhaps it called
|
4 | out for regulatory reform to address many of
|
5 | the issues that David was talking about
|
6 | rather than having the antitrust laws and
|
7 | the court bear the entire burden in this
|
8 | area.
|
9 | It is one in which, of
|
10 | course, there are large expenditures made and
|
11 | large amounts of money at risk when the
|
12 | patent protections go off. And obviously
|
13 | that causes people to look for opportunities
|
14 | to continue to make the profits during the
|
15 | protected time period. And again, regulatory
|
16 | reforms may be a better solution.
|
17 | With respect to his sham
|
18 | petitioning point, it seems to me again this
|
19 | is an area simply in which clear rules would
|
20 | be important. I don't think anyone would
|
21 | deny the importance of First Amendment
|
22 | petitioning or the basic soundness of the
|
23 | Noerr-Pennington Doctrine.
|
24 | So if there is going to be
|
25 | greater emphasis placed on some sort of |
81
1 | exception to that exemption, then it seems to
|
2 | me it needs to be a clear one so that people
|
3 | can counsel and take advantage of the
|
4 | governmental processes and the First
|
5 | Amendment in an appropriate way and keep
|
6 | one's clients out of a situation in which
|
7 | they expose themselves to government
|
8 | investigations and treble damages lawsuits.
|
9 | And to his other point, if I
|
10 | could take a moment on the customer-driven or
|
11 | customer-initiated exclusives, I take his
|
12 | point that there can be seller-initiated
|
13 | customer demand, and that's a fact issue.
|
14 | But it's sometimes very clear if a customer
|
15 | puts out an RFP and there haven't been any
|
16 | private discussions, that it's customer
|
17 | initiated and that's the way this will
|
18 | happen, I believe in a number of contexts.
|
19 | And if in fact you can -- you know, a seller
|
20 | tries to undermine the process by promoting
|
21 | or encouraging or incentivizing the customer
|
22 | to make such a request, you know, I think
|
23 | that can be addressed and dealt with.
|
24 | MR. TARONJI: I'm going to
|
25 | start off with some general questions, then |
82
1 | we'll move to some of the conduct-specific
|
2 | questions that we talked about. And I'd like
|
3 | to talk about counseling.
|
4 | As a person who has given
|
5 | antitrust advice on the type of business
|
6 | conduct your company can or cannot engage in,
|
7 | have you found that there are specific types
|
8 | of conduct where the state of jurisprudence
|
9 | is such that your legal advice is either one,
|
10 | particularly easy to give and apply; or two,
|
11 | particularly difficult to give and apply?
|
12 | Let me start with you Ron, and then I'll go
|
13 | with Patrick.
|
14 | MR. STERN: Great. I'll be
|
15 | brief because that's mostly what I talked
|
16 | about.
|
17 | It seems to me in the U.S.
|
18 | it's not difficult to apply the monopoly
|
19 | power threshold element these days. At least
|
20 | I haven't found it inordinately difficult.
|
21 | In tying, it's pretty easy to counsel as to
|
22 | when you are or are not engaged in tying.
|
23 | You have some other issues, if you are
|
24 | engaged in tying, to evaluate whether the
|
25 | conduct is exclusionary or not. And as I |
83
1 | mentioned in predatory pricing, I think
|
2 | there's some pretty clear guidance.
|
3 | The difficult areas are the
|
4 | ones I mentioned regarding bundled discounts,
|
5 | refusals to deal, and the thorny problem of
|
6 | aftermarkets. So that would be my list.
|
7 | MR. TARONJI: Okay. Patrick.
|
8 | MR. SHELLER: I would echo
|
9 | what Ron said. You know, we don't seem to
|
10 | have too much difficulty indentifying the
|
11 | market monopoly power threshold, in the
|
12 | U.S. anyways. That becomes more of a
|
13 | challenge when we counsel clients outside
|
14 | the U.S.
|
15 | Tying, as I said in my
|
16 | remarks, used to be an easier area in which
|
17 | to advise. But now, as I said, I think the
|
18 | line between tying and bundling is blurred
|
19 | because of the LePage's case. So today we have a
|
20 | have a lesser degree of confidence in couseling
|
21 | on tying arrangements.
|
22 | Exclusive dealing, predatorybr>
|
23 | pricing, I think the standards in those areas
|
24 | are fairly well established by the courts and
|
25 | by the agencies. |
84
1 | The other area where we
|
2 | find challenges under Section 2 are the
|
3 | catch-all "other exclusionary" practices
|
4 | where you can have problems. There are
|
5 | cases like Conwood where the conduct was
|
6 | so egregious that you don't have too much
|
7 | trouble advising the client not to, e.g.
|
8 | tear down a competitor's store
|
9 | displays.
|
10 | But what other sorts of
|
11 | aggressive marketplace conduct that doesn't
|
12 | fall into the categories that we've just
|
13 | listed could offend Section 2? I think
|
14 | in many of these areas the law is either
|
15 | undeveloped or not developed to the extent
|
16 | where you can confidently advise. I mean, for
|
17 | example, how do you advise a client that has
|
18 | a relatively high market share with regard to
|
19 | how many of its competitor's employees they
|
20 | could hire? And that's an issue that has
|
21 | been litigated to some extent, but I thinkbr>
|
22 | the lines are very unclear in that
|
23 | area.
|
24 | MR. TARONJI: Okay. Great.
|
25 | And David, feel free to jump in whenever you |
85
1 | want to.
|
2 | How do businesses such as
|
3 | yours respond to variations among different
|
4 | countries' competition laws with regard to
|
5 | single-firm conduct? Specifically, do
|
6 | international businesses decentralize decision
|
7 | making on business conduct to adapt to a
|
8 | foreign jurisdiction's competition laws?
|
9 | Patrick, from Kodak's
|
10 | standpoint as a chief compliance officer and
|
11 | ensuring that Kodak is complying with allbr>
|
12 | laws in all jurisdictions where you operate,
|
13 | how do you make those decisions where the
|
14 | standards may very well be different from one
|
15 | jurisdiction to the next?
|
16 | MR. SHELLER: Well, we're
|
17 | definitely in the decentralized model.
|
18 | We have in-house counsel in most of the
|
19 | major markets around the world. So we
|
20 | rely very heavily on their advice.
|
21 | However, there are
|
22 | circumstances where a business client
|
23 | may at the worldwide level bebr>
|
24 | considering a program that, at least based
|
25 | on our limited knowledge of the |
86
1 | standards overseas, might pose problems,
|
2 | although they wouldn't in the U.S.
|
3 | So we do have a bit of
|
4 | centralized thinking in the international
|
5 | area. I was fortunate enough to have spent
|
6 | four years in Europe working as an in-house
|
7 | lawyer for Kodak, so I was able to pick up
|
8 | some of the thinking in competition law area.
|
9 | And I have a pretty good sense of what might
|
10 | offend the European Commission laws. But
|
11 | beyond that, we really, as I said,
|
12 | do rely on our oversees colleagues.
|
13 | MR. TARONJI: And Ron, I
|
14 | assume General Electric is organized much
|
15 | along the same lines?
|
16 | MR. STERN: Well, General
|
17 | Electric is decentralized. As people know,
|
18 | there are multiple General Electric
|
19 | businesses, each with their own CEO and own
|
20 | legal department. But there is sort of
|
21 | global assistance in the competition area,
|
22 | which is sort of what I and a small group of
|
23 | my colleagues do.
|
24 | And I would say that this
|
25 | question is a good one, and for G.E. it |
87
1 | varies. There are a number of businesses
|
2 | we're in that are truly global businesses
|
3 | where you really need to counsel on a global
|
4 | basis rather than individualize.
|
5 | The customers may be in
|
6 | different jurisdictions, but it's probably a
|
7 | global market, and you really can't go
|
8 | through the time and effort to try to figure
|
9 | out about extra-territorial application of
|
10 | the various laws.
|
11 | So you try to counsel to
|
12 | sort of an international standard, always I
|
13 | think being concerned about the U.S. being
|
14 | necessary, because of the unique treble
|
15 | damage exposure and litigation costs in the
|
16 | U.S. But not sufficient, because you really
|
17 | want to make sure that you're meeting any
|
18 | more restrictive requirements in other areas.
|
19 | If we had it, which we do,
|
20 | businesses that operate much more locally,
|
21 | and their conduct clearly is only going to
|
22 | affect a particular jurisdiction, you can be
|
23 | confident of that, then you can get more
|
24 | localized advice about the actions that will
|
25 | just affect that jurisdiction with a key |
88
1 | caveat, and I think this is important for
|
2 | everyone to recognize. Certainly, General
|
3 | Electric, and I expect many companies'
|
4 | business executives and even mid-tier
|
5 | employees move from country to country.
|
6 | Organizations change so that an organization
|
7 | that used to operate only in countries A and
|
8 | B the next day operates in countries A, B,
|
9 | C, and D. You don't have time when you're
|
10 | counseling to readjust everyone's headset
|
11 | when you don't know when they move.
|
12 | So I think it's quite
|
13 | important in fact to avoid issues and to
|
14 | sensitize people to counsel to a norm because
|
15 | it's simply not efficient and it's dangerous
|
16 | in the long run to try to sort of say there's
|
17 | no competition law in country X or no enforcement,
|
18 | and so we can do as we please, even though
|
19 | we know in a neighboring jurisdiction where
|
20 | generally that conduct is likely to provoke
|
21 | investigations or litigation.
|
22 | MR. TARONJI: In looking at
|
23 | whether you can come up with a uniform
|
24 | standard for counseling purposes, do you trybr>
|
25 | to determine what is the most restrictive |
89
1 | provision out there and counsel toward that,
|
2 | or do you go back and again look at the
|
3 | specific situation and look at it country to
|
4 | country and advise accordingly?
|
5 | MR. STERN: I think in
|
6 | general you do both. You try to make sure
|
7 | that you come up with something that's
|
8 | simple. The idea of clear and understandable
|
9 | rules is important because you have to be
|
10 | able to give clear and understandable advice.
|
11 | If you're giving advice that's too
|
12 | complicated to business people, you have to
|
13 | realize that there's a large risk that the
|
14 | execution will not be in conformity with the
|
15 | advice. And if that's a problem, then you've
|
16 | created a problem for the client.
|
17 | So it seems to me that in
|
18 | these sorts of situations, you really are
|
19 | looking for some sort of uniform standard.
|
20 | And if in fact there is a more restrictive
|
21 | approach taken by an important jurisdiction,
|
22 | one that is likely to have either private
|
23 | enforcement or government enforcement, even
|
24 | by way of investigation, then you try to find
|
25 | a way in which you're going to be in some |
90
1 | sort of comfortable, clear, safe harbor zone.
|
2 | And only if that creates real problems with
|
3 | achieving what you think is a legitimate
|
4 | business objective, are you able to spend the
|
5 | extra time and effort to see if you can
|
6 | design something that's more complicated.
|
7 | So I think the concern that
|
8 | I was trying to express about the need to
|
9 | address this globally is that U.S. legal
|
10 | clarity at least in a number of areas, could be
|
11 | overridden by a lack of clarity or by overlybr>
|
12 | restrictive rules outside the U.S. and the
|
13 | harm could come to U.S. consumers as well as
|
14 | those in other areas.
|
15 | MR. MATELIS: Do you have
|
16 | anything to add, Patrick?
|
17 | MR. SHELLER: We also take a
|
18 | slightly different approach which is to start
|
19 | with analyzing proposed plans under the U.S.
|
20 | standard. And assuming that we can give the
|
21 | green light from a U.S. antitrust
|
22 | perspective, then the next step would
|
23 | would be to look at whether there are
|
24 | nuances under European law that might
|
25 | create a problem. Then we'd seek advice |
91
1 | from our European counsel on those
|
2 | particular aspects.
|
3 | And you know, increasingly
|
4 | now we'll look at some of the bigger markets
|
5 | and their antitrust enforcement. Ron spoke a
|
6 | little bit about the anti-monopoly law in
|
7 | China. We'll be keeping a close eye on
|
8 | developments there. And as that unfolds, it
|
9 | will be an important area that we'll focus on
|
10 | in our antitrust counseling.
|
11 | But as the starting point,
|
12 | we typically begin with the U.S. standards.
|
13 | MR. MATELIS: I have a
|
14 | question about clear rules. Ron and Patrick,
|
15 | in your remarks you both stressed the
|
16 | virtues, from your perspective, of clear
|
17 | rules in the Section 2 context.
|
18 | David, in your remarks you
|
19 | sounded a provocative cautionary note that
|
20 | maybe clear rules have some drawbacks. And
|
21 | I'd just like to get all of your perspectives
|
22 | again on a very basic question. What are
|
23 | the pros and cons that policy makers and
|
24 | courts should be thinking about when
|
25 | articulating rules? Maybe we could start/td> |
92
1 | with you, David.
|
2 | MR. BALTO: I actually was
|
3 | interested in Ron's presentation. I thought
|
4 | the questions he posed were really good ones.
|
5 | But I sat there looking at the issues that
|
6 | Ron was posing and I said, now, what exactly
|
7 | is the rule in some of these situations that
|
8 | Ron wants that's going to make his life so
|
9 | much easier in counseling people?
|
10 | And I think that to the
|
11 | extent that it's a rule that's going to make
|
12 | Ron's life simple, Ron's life -- you know,
|
13 | Ron will be able to sleep at night because
|
14 | he knows he can give a clear message to the
|
15 | business person, and the business person can
|
16 | follow it in a relatively straightforward
|
17 | fashion, you know, I'm not sure that that's
|
18 | really going to happen. In many of these
|
19 | situations, I think that if there is -- there
|
20 | is potential for anticompetitive conduct.
|
21 | You know, you can look at
|
22 | the full range of things that Microsoft did
|
23 | that the Justice Department properly attacked
|
24 | in their lawsuit against them. And if you
|
25 | looked at them in segregation, you might be |
93
1 | able to determine that there would be a clear
|
2 | rule that would suggest this kind of conduct
|
3 | might seem to be legal. But if you put all
|
4 | of the types of conduct together, you could
|
5 | see why the conduct was really problematic.
|
6 | So I'm a little hesitant
|
7 | about clear rules. And for my perspective, I
|
8 | mean the clear rule, everybody in the world
|
9 | -- you read the hearing transcripts for these
|
10 | hearings, the clear rule everybody loves is
|
11 | Brooke Group and predatory pricing.
|
12 | And one of the most important
|
13 | points I want to make is in industries such
|
14 | as pharmaceuticals, going and talking about
|
15 | whether something is below your variable cost
|
16 | is a meaningless concept because all the
|
17 | costs are up front. So I don't think that
|
18 | rule -- that rule bears too great a risk of
|
19 | under-enforcement, which ultimately will harm
|
20 | consumers.
|
21 | MR. SHELLER: Well, as I
|
22 | indicated in my remarks, we would certainly
|
23 | favor clear rules in the Section 2 area for
|
24 | a couple reasons. One is that it does
|
25 | make the in-house counsel's job easier. They |
94
1 | can draw brighter lines for the client.
|
2 | Second, I think it's
|
3 | important because it helps to make the
|
4 | antitrust laws appear more serious to
|
5 | business clients. If a business client is
|
6 | told that there's no real clear legal
|
7 | standard in the area where you're proposing a
|
8 | particular marketing plan, but here's some of
|
9 | the factors that we might consider,
|
10 | their reaction is likely to be: we might
|
11 | as well take the risk then. And so I think
|
12 | setting out clear rules helps business people
|
13 | to follow the antitrust laws.
|
14 | I would, however, note a
|
15 | caution that safe harbors in the form of
|
16 | guidelines can be can be helpful, but
|
17 | they can also in some ways be unhelpful.
|
18 | And I'll give as an example the European
|
19 | block exemption on technology transfers
|
20 | and some of the safe harbors that are built
|
21 | into that exemption relating to market share.
|
22 | The market share thresholds that the
|
23 | Commission uses are very low so that almost
|
24 | any transaction you would consider in the IP
|
25 | area is going to be outside of the |
95
1 | thresholds. It's not helpful to set a
|
2 | threshold that low. It's too conservative.
|
3 | The Commission does provide
|
4 | some other factors and guidelines that
|
5 | companies should consider. But I think it
|
6 | sort of undermines the benefit of providing
|
7 | guidelines when you set thresholds that are
|
8 | too low.
|
9 | MR. STERN: Just comment
|
10 | briefly. I do think clear rules are
|
11 | important. I don't think there's a one size
|
12 | fits all rule, to respond to a point I think
|
13 | David made. I don't think it's a situation
|
14 | in which you need to have one principle
|
15 | that you use across all of the types of
|
16 | exclusionary conduct in Section 2.
|
17 | I think it is important
|
18 | obviously that the clear rules also be
|
19 | thoughtful, or they can do more harm than
|
20 | good. And I think what you're really looking
|
21 | for are principles that you can apply,
|
22 | understand, counsel to, and have some sort of
|
23 | confidence that the business can execute to
|
24 | them and that the courts and the enforcement
|
25 | agencies can predict -- you can predict how |
96
1 | they're going to apply them. And that's
|
2 | really what I think we're searching for.
|
3 | And I think as my talk
|
4 | indicated, I'm happy to have them addressed in
|
5 | little half steps that do things that seem
|
6 | perhaps unimportant to some but are important
|
7 | in the real world. I think those steps are
|
8 | important and should be taken and not taken
|
9 | for granted.
|
10 | And secondly, I agree very
|
11 | much with Patrick's point. People need to
|
12 | look at guidance that's meaningful. Safe
|
13 | harbors that do nothing to clarify the
|
14 | situation because they only exist in
|
15 | situations in which you never anywhere have
|
16 | monopoly power are useless. It doesn't
|
17 | really help you. But meaningful safe harbors
|
18 | and ones that are understood not to define
|
19 | the line between legal and illegal, but to
|
20 | simply define and clarify what is clearly
|
21 | legal and not questionable are very
|
22 | important.
|
23 | MR. COHEN: Let me just
|
24 | return to David because you've for a second
|
25 | time referred to your thought that relying on |
97
1 | average variable cost just doesn't work in
|
2 | the pharmaceutical industry as a test of
|
3 | predation. Do you have an alternative to
|
4 | that? And would any of these alternatives
|
5 | guide a firm with a large market share in
|
6 | determining what conduct it can engage in
|
7 | that increases its revenues in ways that have
|
8 | nothing to do with excluding competitors?
|
9 | MR. BALTO: Well, I think
|
10 | the answer to the second part of your
|
11 | question is no. I'm more concerned about
|
12 | possibly -- about our properly identifying
|
13 | anticompetitive conduct and stopping it. And
|
14 | the counseling question I'm going to sort of
|
15 | leave to the side.
|
16 | I look forward -- as to the
|
17 | first question, are there other standards, I
|
18 | look forward to the presentation that the
|
19 | representative of American Airlines is going
|
20 | to bring about the Justice Department case
|
21 | this afternoon.
|
22 | I think some of that same
|
23 | problem of high fixed costs, low variable
|
24 | costs were grappled with by the Justice
|
25 | Department in that case. I think because of |
98
1 | that there is increasingly interesting
|
2 | economic literature that uses -- that talks
|
3 | about the use of predation, the use of
|
4 | above-cost price -- of certain pricing
|
5 | strategies to create a reputation for
|
6 | predation and how that kind of predation can
|
7 | be anticompetitive. And you know, I think
|
8 | that's something that I know the courts and
|
9 | the agencies need to explore further.
|
10 | MR. STERN: Can I just
|
11 | comment just for a second?
|
12 | MR. TARONJI: Go ahead.
|
13 | MR. STERN: I'm sure the
|
14 | economists who have participated in these
|
15 | hearings or will participate in later
|
16 | hearings or comment at the two hearings will
|
17 | know much better than I do.
|
18 | But it seems to me at least
|
19 | it's a bit simple to say because variable
|
20 | costs are low and fixed costs are high that
|
21 | that standard doesn't work. It seems to me
|
22 | in that context what it really means is that
|
23 | there's very little likelihood of exit
|
24 | because people are committed in the market
|
25 | and they've sunk their costs. And in that |
99
1 | situation it's not clear how you end up with
|
2 | recoupment or whether you really have a
|
3 | problem.
|
4 | And I don't purport to have
|
5 | the answer, but it seems to me it's a bit
|
6 | too facile to simply suggest that because
|
7 | average variable costs are low that the
|
8 | standard shouldn't be used.
|
9 | MR. BALTO: Let me just
|
10 | mention an area that I've written on and that
|
11 | the FTC is currently studying. That's the
|
12 | issue of authorized generics, which I
|
13 | deliberately kept out of my testimony because
|
14 | there's a fair amount written about this.
|
15 | An authorized generic is an
|
16 | arrangement between a branded pharmaceutical
|
17 | company that they enter into with another
|
18 | generic company to promote the entry of a
|
19 | second generic just prior to or immediatelybr>
|
20 | with the entry of the legitimate generic
|
21 | company. In other words, it's mother one of
|
22 | those situations where the generic is placed
|
23 | into the market it plans to -- you know, it
|
24 | plans to enter. And under the FDA
|
25 | regulations there's is six-month period of |
100
1 | exclusivity, which is the vast majority of
|
2 | the profits that a generic company makes when
|
3 | it enters into a generic market. And I've
|
4 | written about how this sort of strategy of,
|
5 | you know, making a deal with still another
|
6 | generic company to enter at the time of the
|
7 | legitimate generic's entry can be a strategy
|
8 | of predation. All the pricing is above cost.
|
9 | I think the pricing is meaningless.
|
10 | But what's important about it
|
11 | is that what you're doing there is sending a
|
12 | signal to the generic firm that it's -- you
|
13 | know, if you plan to enter my market, you
|
14 | can expect the rug to be pulled out from
|
15 | under you, and you're not going to get the
|
16 | reward you're expecting to get.
|
17 | And I think it's much more
|
18 | interesting to look at it from a certain
|
19 | strategic perspective.
|
20 | MR. TARONJI: As you know,
|
21 | antitrust lawyers and judges are battling
|
22 | over how much weight to give to business
|
23 | documents, from strategic plans to e-mails
|
24 | and sales and marketing personnel.
|
25 | What consideration should |
101
1 | antitrust enforcers and courts give to intent
|
2 | documents in assessing a firm's conduct?
|
3 | MR. SHELLER: I'll start out
|
4 | with that. My view is that business intent
|
5 | documents have a role in attempted
|
6 | monopolization cases, and that is primarily
|
7 | it. There are ways in which you might use
|
8 | business documents in monopolization cases.
|
9 | But I think they need to be considered in
|
10 | terms of who wrote them.
|
11 | Often plaintiffs' lawyers,
|
12 | and to some extent the agencies, will rely
|
13 | on a bad document that might have been
|
14 | written by someone at a lower level in the
|
15 | organization. And it's really a statement of
|
16 | opinion.
|
17 | Obviously it's not something
|
18 | we as in-house antitrust counsel want to see
|
19 | from our clients. And we advise them not to
|
20 | write in that sort of manner. But you have
|
21 | to ask the question whether those views that
|
22 | are stated by a sales representative or a
|
23 | sales manager represent the views of the
|
24 | company.
|
25 | On the other hand, if you |
102
1 | have clear statements being issued in
|
2 | internal documents by a corporate officer,
|
3 | for example, or the head of a business, then
|
4 | obviously that document ought to be given
|
5 | more weight and might be of more value in a
|
6 | Section 2 case. But again, I think documents
|
7 | play the most important role in attempt
|
8 | cases.
|
9 | MR. STERN: And I'd just
|
10 | add very quickly that it seems to me that
|
11 | objective standards are better than
|
12 | subjective ones. It's too easy in a large
|
13 | organization to find the snippet in a
|
14 | document and try to make that mean
|
15 | something more than it does, not in
|
16 | context.
|
17 | And what the law wants
|
18 | people to do in business is to compete
|
19 | aggressively and attempt to win in the
|
20 | marketplace. And that can be expressed in
|
21 | a way certainly if a lawyer writes it so
|
22 | that everyone would think it doesn't pose
|
23 | an intent problem. And that same kind of
|
24 | intent or motivation can be expressed
|
25 | in a way that someone might make more |
103
1 | out of it than I think they should.
|
2 | MR. COHEN: Would your
|
3 | suggestion to look at, in the exclusive
|
4 | dealing context, whether the policy is
|
5 | customer driven or driven by other internal
|
6 | motives take you into the area of looking at
|
7 | intent documents?
|
8 | MR. STERN: I don't think
|
9 | so. I think they might get you into the
|
10 | area that David talked about of seeing who
|
11 | actually initiated it. If the customer put
|
12 | out the RFP that I mentioned seeking a bid
|
13 | for all of their demand for three years, if
|
14 | in fact there were documents that showed that
|
15 | this was the initial idea and that they were
|
16 | essentially compensated for deciding to do
|
17 | that by the lead provider in the marketplace,
|
18 | that's, I think, the kind of situation David
|
19 | was talking about. And I don't think that's
|
20 | an intent issue. It's really: Was this the
|
21 | customer's initiated approach or was this
|
22 | essentially a supplier- initiated approach?
|
23 | It doesn't have to do with whether the intent
|
24 | for the exclusive was pro-competitive or
|
25 | anticompetitive. |
104
1 | But it does, to be clear and
|
2 | sort of to finish the thought, the general
|
3 | notion is that a customer will not go out
|
4 | and seek, you know, this kind of
|
5 | winner-take-all situation unless the customer
|
6 | thinks it's going to benefit by it.
|
7 | In general, since the law is
|
8 | trying to promote customer welfare, the
|
9 | customer presumably would think it had enough
|
10 | competition and that by putting its demand
|
11 | out to this kind of winner-take-all bid that
|
12 | it wasn't changing the structure of the
|
13 | marketplace to its long-term detriment.
|
14 | MR. TARONJI: Well, I want
|
15 | to make sure that with the remaining time we
|
16 | have the opportunity to cover some of the
|
17 | substantive conduct issues. And let me go to
|
18 | bundle discounts.
|
19 | Does market share provide a
|
20 | useful screening mechanism for assessing
|
21 | loyalty discounts? And then I've got some
|
22 | subsets, so let me ask all of them and then
|
23 | you can comment on all of them.
|
24 | Could we state a useful safe
|
25 | harbor based on market share; and if so, what |
105
1 | should that share be?
|
2 | MR. SHELLER: Let me address
|
3 | the question on loyalty discounts, which I
|
4 | distinguish from bundling in some respects. I
|
5 | think loyalty discounts can be an issue under
|
6 | Section 2 if they're really equivalent to
|
7 | exclusive dealing. If a customer is
|
8 | given a significant discount if they buy 100
|
9 | percent of their needs from the dominant
|
10 | supplier, then I would agree with the view
|
11 | that the European Commission takes: that
|
12 | this is tantamount to an exclusive dealing
|
13 | arrangement.
|
14 | Therefore, market
|
15 | share thresholds could be important.
|
16 | 100 percent exclusivity is obviously a good
|
17 | indication that you've got exclusive dealing.
|
18 | Whereas, if the supplier through a loyalty
|
19 | discount tied up say 70 percent of the market
|
20 | or 60 percent of the market, then you're less
|
21 | likely to have competitive harm. There would
|
22 | still be opportunities for rivals to place
|
23 | their products with that particular customer
|
24 | as well as other customers.
|
25 | MR. STERN: I guess my |
106
1 | reaction is that the term loyalty discounts
|
2 | encompasses so many different kinds of
|
3 | pricing practices and so many different
|
4 | situations that I would be hesitant to
|
5 | provide one market share test to address it.
|
6 | You know, just -- Patrick had mentioned the
|
7 | European Commission. In their Article 82
|
8 | discussion paper they, I think, appropriately
|
9 | draw a distinction between a situation in
|
10 | which the different competitors, the
|
11 | suppliers can essentially compete to supply
|
12 | the entire demand of the customer or the
|
13 | entire demand in the marketplace versus a
|
14 | situation in which, I think as they express
|
15 | it, the customer must carry a certain
|
16 | percentage of the leading firm's products.
|
17 | That's more of a distribution kind of a
|
18 | situation. Those two are sort of night
|
19 | and day different. And you would think in a
|
20 | loyalty discount situation, you would want to
|
21 | be treating them very differently.
|
22 | To Patrick's point, you know,
|
23 | are they equivalent of exclusive dealing, or
|
24 | are they essentially just competing for the
|
25 | opportunity and competing aggressively and |
107
1 | above cost, in which case the loyalty
|
2 | discount wouldn't be a problem.
|
3 | For these hearings,
|
4 | I went back and read some cases I'd read
|
5 | before the Concord Boat case. And in
|
6 | that situation it seemed important to
|
7 | the Court, and I think validly so, thatc
|
8 | a number of customers had decided that
|
9 | they could switch all of their demand away
|
10 | from Brunswick, who was the leading engine
|
11 | supplier, to their rivals depending on
|
12 | what kind of deal they got. In that kind of
|
13 | situation, you know, having a loyalty or a
|
14 | market-share-based discount was just one way
|
15 | of competing, which is what the Court
|
16 | determined, and it was above cost. So that
|
17 | would be my long-winded answer which is it
|
18 | depends.
|
19 | MR. TARONJI: David, in your
|
20 | presentation you suggested that the generic
|
21 | pharmaceutical industry is different, and so
|
22 | the standards, rules, guidance should
|
23 | take into effect that the pharmaceutical
|
24 | industry is different. How should the
|
25 | enforcement agencies take that into account? |
108
1 | MR. BALTO: Well, you know,
|
2 | it's interesting if we really got into a long
|
3 | discussion of these -- you know, these
|
4 | different types of arrangements like tying,
|
5 | bundling, loyalty discounts, so on, some of
|
6 | the key cases involved pharmaceuticals and
|
7 | medical devices. Smith Klein versus Eli
|
8 | Lilly which involves, you know, a special
|
9 | pricing program to sort of compel people to
|
10 | purchase three drugs instead of two drugs.
|
11 | Ortho versus Abbott, which involves, you
|
12 | know, sort of market share discounts and so
|
13 | on and so forth.
|
14 | I think -- I'm not sure that
|
15 | in this area the rules need to be that
|
16 | different. I think it's just it's easier in
|
17 | this setting involving pharmaceuticals to
|
18 | identify the existence of an inelastic class
|
19 | of customers. And you know, most of the
|
20 | literature in this area suggests that it's
|
21 | necessary to have some set of inelastic
|
22 | customers.
|
23 | But I'm still waiting for
|
24 | Patrick and Ron to give me the market share
|
25 | threshold that makes it a safe harbor. |
109
1 | MR. STERN: Well, I go back
|
2 | to the comments I made in my presentation.
|
3 | Oftentimes, if we are really talking about
|
4 | what is the market share of the party that's
|
5 | engaged in the conduct, you can go back to
|
6 | the monopoly power test and those thresholds
|
7 | and to the attempt threshold and the other
|
8 | aspects, as opposed though if we're asking at
|
9 | what level of market share can you set a
|
10 | market share-based discount. That, I think,
|
11 | is hard to say if you don't know what the
|
12 | context of the particular market is.c
|
13 | MR. BALTO: Can I pose a
|
14 | question for Patrick then? One thing I think is
|
15 | really interesting when you look at jurisprudence
|
16 | in this area is that the courts use this very
|
17 | hard threshold on Section 1 cases, you know,
|
18 | when it looks at bundling or market share
|
19 | discounts. And you know, you look at the
|
20 | lower court's decision in Microsoft.
|
21 | But when it comes to Section
|
22 | 2 they become more touchy feely and seem to
|
23 | be willing to project the potential for
|
24 | competitive problems even at lower market
|
25 | shares. And that's basically what happens in |
110
1 | Densply and Microsoft and in LePage's.
|
2 | You know, from a business's
|
3 | perspective, how do you sort of look at that?
|
4 | MR. STERN: Well, I'll step
|
5 | up to that one. It seems to me it was the
|
6 | comment I was trying to make when I was
|
7 | asking some questions about 3M LePage's.
|
8 | I think the most difficult
|
9 | area to counsel in, just because I think the
|
10 | law isn't very clear and helpful, and the
|
11 | jury instructions aren't very helpful is a
|
12 | situation in which you are clearly in a
|
13 | category where you have monopoly power. You
|
14 | meet that threshold. You're taking conduct
|
15 | that either involves exclusive dealing or
|
16 | some other type of conduct that the law can
|
17 | characterize as being exclusionary, and then
|
18 | the question, as I think I mentioned is,
|
19 | well, what sort of impact does that have to
|
20 | have?
|
21 | And I think in the Section 2
|
22 | context your comment is correct. We don't
|
23 | have as much guidance. There is some notion
|
24 | that -- which I think shouldn't be the case,
|
25 | that if you're a leading firm, you have to |
111
1 | act differently in some sort of way. That
|
2 | notion is reflected in the European community
|
3 | law with respect to some special
|
4 | responsibility, and some of the older case
|
5 | law affirms they're deemed to be dominant.
|
6 | I think in this situation,
|
7 | one of the areas that the hearings could
|
8 | benefit everyone is grappling with the issue,
|
9 | particularly in the area of pricing, which I
|
10 | think everyone is focused on of guidance and
|
11 | rules that make sense for firms that are
|
12 | leading firms, that you want to compete
|
13 | aggressively in the marketplaces in which
|
14 | they are leading firms because that is
|
15 | overall beneficial. But if in fact anything
|
16 | that might be characterized as too aggressive
|
17 | or characterized as exclusionary can be
|
18 | subjected to treble damages and a big
|
19 | monopolization investigation, all you're going
|
20 | to do is get people to pull their punches to
|
21 | the ultimate harm of consumers and
|
22 | competition.
|
23 | I think it's the same problem
|
24 | as I tried to illustrate with rules that turn
|
25 | on whether you've started to deal with |
112
1 | someone or not, because they give you
|
2 | perverse incentives at the end of the
|
3 | day.
|
4 | MR. SHELLER: I think the
|
5 | market share test has limited value. I mean,
|
6 | it's a good starting point in which to advise
|
7 | clients. But what I tend to look at more
|
8 | often are other factors like whether this
|
9 | particular business has the ability to
|
10 | control prices in the market.
|
11 | I'm thinking about a
|
12 | specific example of a business that I've
|
13 | advised at Kodak which is considered to have
|
14 | a high market share for a particular segment.
|
15 | But I know from experience in working with
|
16 | the business, that if they were to raise
|
17 | their prices by five percent, we'd see
|
18 | an influx of customers turning to competing
|
19 | suppliers. So in that sense I don't think
|
20 | the market share that's attributed to that
|
21 | business is a valuable indicator of market
|
22 | power.
|
23 | And the other thing is the
|
24 | point that I made in my remarks which is
|
25 | that although you may have businesses in |
113
1 | Kodak's world which are beginning to
|
2 | lose share to other technologies, you've
|
3 | got to take those technologies into
|
4 | consideration in determining whether you've
|
5 | got a Section 2 case or not and whether
|
6 | those technologies ought to be included in
|
7 | the market.
|
8 | MR. STERN: And just to add
|
9 | to Patrick's point, because I think it does a
|
10 | good job of illustrating one of the earlier
|
11 | questions about clear rules. I think it's --
|
12 | the clear rule about the ability to control
|
13 | market prices, that may not sound as clear,
|
14 | but I think antitrust lawyers and clients can
|
15 | work off of that kind of rule versus one
|
16 | that had some hard and fast market share
|
17 | threshold as if that were a clear rule.
|
18 | First, I think it's not a
|
19 | thoughtful one, as I mentioned, to have a hard
|
20 | and fast market share threshold. And
|
21 | secondly, it gives, I think, a false sense of
|
22 | clarity because it's all, of course, how you
|
23 | define the market and how you define the
|
24 | shares.
|
25 | Having a clear principle |
114
1 | about one's ability to control market prices,
|
2 | it seems to me, is one you can apply in a
|
3 | market context and give -- be fairly
|
4 | comfortable about giving advice. And that's
|
5 | why I think it's important in the globalbr>
|
6 | context that people move more towards this
|
7 | kind of behavioral approach rather than a
|
8 | structural approach.
|
9 | MR. TARONJI: Let me end on
|
10 | one question dealing with misleading and
|
11 | deceptive conduct.
|
12 | Do you agree that if tortious
|
13 | conduct can be the subject of other causes of
|
14 | action or regulated under other regimes such
|
15 | as Food and Drug Administration, it should
|
16 | also be the subject of antitrust causes of
|
17 | action? I figured David had a strong feeling
|
18 | about that one.
|
19 | MR. BALTO: Yeah, absolutely.
|
20 | If something independently violates the
|
21 | antitrust laws, that's fine. We should
|
22 | realize that -- I appreciate Ron's comments
|
23 | about my testimony. The regulatory process
|
24 | moves -- that these may be regulatory
|
25 | problems. The regulatory process moves |
115
1 | slowly and amending it is very difficult.
|
2 | Antitrust enforcement plays a
|
3 | vital role in sort of telling people where
|
4 | there are problem areas. And part of -- you
|
5 | know, what I'd like to do is show you -- you
|
6 | know, part of what we do is -- what people
|
7 | do as enforcers is raise attention to things.
|
8 | There's a recent court
|
9 | decision involving the drug DBABP which is
|
10 | used by tens of thousands of consumers, and
|
11 | there was a sham petitioning claim. And the
|
12 | sham petitioning claim was dismissed with
|
13 | seven words. That's all the district court
|
14 | judge said about the sham petitioning claim.
|
15 | You know, part of this is
|
16 | having enforcement agencies pay attention to
|
17 | these types of issues, I think, affects
|
18 | behavior of the businesses involved and
|
19 | reduces the likelihood that they engage in
|
20 | deceptive and sham conduct.
|
21 | MR. SHELLER: I would be
|
22 | very reluctant to apply a rule where the
|
23 | alleged predatory conduct, if it meets
|
24 | the standard of some state law violation,
|
25 | ought to be the basis of a Section 2 |
116
1 | claim.
|
2 | One single violation of
|
3 | a state law, let's take tortious interference
|
4 | or theft of a trade secret as examples,
|
5 | does not amount to a Section 2 violation
|
6 | when coupled with monopoly share.
|
7 | Now, if you had a pattern of
|
8 | conduct occurring with respect to several
|
9 | customers or in several geographic
|
10 | markets, again Conwood being an example, then
|
11 | yes, you could have a Section 2 situation. br>
|
12 | But I'd be very reluctant to endorse ther>
|
13 | notion that a single violation of state law
|
14 | can be the predicate act for a Section 2
|
15 | case.
|
16 | MR. TARONJI: Okay. Any
|
17 | other questions? Great. Well again, I want
|
18 | to thank all of our panelists for their
|
19 | interesting -- I'm sorry.
|
20 | MR. BALTO: Could I just
|
21 | end with a final comment --
|
22 | MR. TARONJI: Go ahead.
|
23 | MR. BALTO: -- because I'm
|
24 | pushy.
|
25 | I just wanted to talk about |
117
1 | the devices for the agencies as they look at
|
2 | Section 2 enforcement. And I think this is
|
3 | a point that all three of us would agree on.
|
4 | The role of the agencies in
|
5 | filing amicus briefs, not just before the
|
6 | Supreme Court, but in lower courts, in
|
7 | district court cases is tremendously
|
8 | important. The reason why millions of
|
9 | consumers now can buy generic Buspar is
|
10 | because the Agency, the FTC filed a brief
|
11 | before the district court judge explaining by
|
12 | the sham conduct that Bristol-Myers was
|
13 | engaging in was not immune under the
|
14 | Noerr-Pennington Doctorine. They went down
|
15 | to the district court.
|
16 | I think those types of cases
|
17 | are tremendously important. There are tons of
|
18 | headaches that these people have in trying to
|
19 | interpret LePage's. You should go look at
|
20 | what's going on in the district courts.
|
21 | LePage's type cases are currently being
|
22 | litigated. And look for opportunities to
|
23 | provide clarity in that setting so that when
|
24 | the district court judges reach decisions on
|
25 | these difficult LePage cases they're informed |
118
1 | by sound economic and legal principles.
|
2 | MR. TARONJI: Any of you
|
3 | want to have a final word?
|
4 | MR. SHELLER: I would
|
5 | like to endorse David's remarks and just add
|
6 | the following. The agencies, and I'm
|
7 | going to again focus on the two areas of
|
8 | concern for Kodak -- the bundling area
|
9 | and the intellectual property rights --
|
10 | had an opportunity to urge the Supreme
|
11 | Court to take up a case and really
|
12 | settle the law in that area, LePage's and
|
13 | then the Xerox case. In both cases the
|
14 | agencies took the view that maybe those
|
15 | issues weren't yet ripe for the Supreme Court
|
16 | to consider.
|
17 | I would suggest that you be
|
18 | very clear in your advice to the Supreme Court
|
19 | in the future when the time is right to take
|
20 | those issues up. We would certainly
|
21 | appreciate that. And it would provide a
|
22 | lot of helpful guidance to the business
|
23 | community.
|
24 | MR. TARONJI: Great. Ron,
|
25 | any final comments? |
119
1 | MR. STERN: Nothing other
|
2 | than to thank you and the few hardy souls
|
3 | who actually made it today for joining us.
|
4 | MR. TARONJI: Please join me
|
5 | in a round of applause for our panelists.
|
6 | (Applause)
|
7 | MR. TARONJI: And we will
|
8 | reconvene at 1:30 for our second panel.
|
9 | (At 12:00 noon a luncheon
|
10 | recess was taken until 1:30
|
11 | p.m.)
|
12 | ***AFTERNOON SESSION***
|
13 | MS. GRIMM: Good afternoon.
|
14 | I am Karen Grimm, Assistant General Counsel
|
15 | for Policy Studies at the Federal Trade
|
16 | Commission. I'm one of the moderators for
|
17 | this afternoon's session. My co-moderator
|
18 | today is Joe Matelis from the Antitrust
|
19 | Division of the U.S. Department of Justice.
|
20 | Before we start, let me cover
|
21 | just two preliminary housekeeping matters.
|
22 | First of all, as a courtesy to our speakers,
|
23 | we'd like for you to turn off your cell
|
24 | phones, Blackberries, and any other devices.
|
25 | And secondly, we ask that the audience not |
120
1 | ask questions or make comments during the
|
2 | hearing. Thank you.
|
3 | Before introducing our
|
4 | speakers this afternoon, I would like to
|
5 | first thank the University of Chicago's
|
6 | Graduate School of Business for hosting these
|
7 | joint FTC/DOJ hearings to solicit testimony
|
8 | on single-firm conduct. In particular, I
|
9 | would like to thank Dean Ted Snyder and the
|
10 | staff of the Gleacher Center for offering us
|
11 | their facilities and for making the necessary
|
12 | arrangements for us to hold these hearings
|
13 | here.
|
14 | And finally, I would like to
|
15 | thank my FTC and Justice Department
|
16 | colleagues as well as the FTC's Midwest
|
17 | regional office in Chicago who have worked
|
18 | very hard to put these hearings together.
|
19 | We are honored this afternoon
|
20 | to have a distinguished group of panelists
|
21 | from the business community. Our panelists
|
22 | this afternoon are first Sean Heather from
|
23 | the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, Bruce Sewell
|
24 | from Intel Corporation, and Bruce Wark from
|
25 | American Airlines. Sean, I will note, is |
121
1 | standing in at the last moment for Stan
|
2 | Anderson who was unable to be with us.
|
3 | Our format this afternoon
|
4 | will be as follows. Each speaker will make
|
5 | a 20- to 25-minute presentation. We will
|
6 | then take a 15-minute break. And after the
|
7 | break we will reconvene and have a moderated
|
8 | discussion with our panelists.
|
9 | As Jim said at our morning
|
10 | session, these hearings in Chicago are an
|
11 | extremely important component of the joint
|
12 | FTC and Antitrust Division hearings on
|
13 | single-firm conduct under Section 2.
|
14 | Over the past eight months we
|
15 | have held hearings in Washington D.C.
|
16 | primarily focused on specific types of
|
17 | business conduct such as predatory pricing,
|
18 | refusal to deal, bundled and loyalty
|
19 | discounts, tying arrangements, exclusive
|
20 | dealing, and various types of misleading and
|
21 | deceptive conduct which have been challenged
|
22 | under Section 2.
|
23 | While some of these earlier
|
24 | panels have included business executives and
|
25 | their legal advisers, they have for the most |
122
1 | part focused on specific types of conduct and
|
2 | have relied most heavily on speakers from
|
3 | academia and the private bar.
|
4 | Our sessions today are
|
5 | somewhat different. They are designed to
|
6 | provide a forum for businesses to tell us
|
7 | what particular Section 2 issues are of
|
8 | concern to them, and to suggest ways in which
|
9 | we at the FTC and the Antitrust Division may
|
10 | be better able to address those issues and
|
11 | provide additional guidance on their
|
12 | particular areas of concern.
|
13 | Our panelists today have
|
14 | accepted our invitation to share with us
|
15 | their perspectives and views on Section 2
|
16 | issues and enforcement. I want to thank them
|
17 | all for agreeing to participate in today's
|
18 | hearing and look forward very much to hearing
|
19 | what insights they have to share with us.
|
20 | I would now like to turn
|
21 | over the podium to my colleague and
|
22 | co-moderator, Joe Matelis, from the Antitrust
|
23 | Division for any remarks he would like to
|
24 | make. Joe.
|
25 | MR. MATELIS: Thanks Karen, |
123
1 | and because my remarks will be brief, I'll do
|
2 | them sitting down.
|
3 | The Department of Justice's
|
4 | Antitrust Division is very pleased to take
|
5 | part in today's session, and I'd like to
|
6 | reiterate what Karen said, that we're
|
7 | interested in hearing about the perspectives
|
8 | of businesses. And so we're looking forward
|
9 | to your remarks today. And also repeating
|
10 | Karen, on behalf of the Antitrust Division, I
|
11 | would like to thank Bruce, Bruce, and Sean
|
12 | for coming here and agreeing to share your
|
13 | time and thoughts with us. We know that a
|
14 | lot of effort and work goes into these
|
15 | presentations, so we're extremely grateful
|
16 | for you for rendering this valuable public
|
17 | service, and particularly in February in
|
18 | Chicago.
|
19 | I would also like to thank
|
20 | on behalf of the Antitrust Division the
|
21 | Gleacher Center and the University of Chicago
|
22 | Graduate School of Business for hosting these
|
23 | hearings. And finally, I'd like to thank
|
24 | Karen and her colleagues at the FTC for
|
25 | organizing today's wonderful session. |
124
1 | Thanks.
|
2 | MS. GRIMM: Our first speaker
|
3 | this afternoon is Sean Heather. Sean is with
|
4 | the U.S. Chamber of Commerce. He serves as
|
5 | its executive director for global regulatory
|
6 | cooperation. Global regulatory cooperation
|
7 | is a new program at the Chamber focused on
|
8 | regulatory divergence around the globe and
|
9 | its impact on international trade.
|
10 | Prior to leading this project
|
11 | at the Chamber, Sean worked for nearly
|
12 | eight years in the Chamber's formulation
|
13 | and lobbying shops. He has his MBA and
|
14 | undergraduate degrees from the University of
|
15 | Illinois. Sean.
|
16 | MR. HEATHER: Thank you for
|
17 | the opportunity to appear before you today to
|
18 | address the important issue of whether and
|
19 | when specific types of single-firm conduct
|
20 | may violate antitrust law. I will summarize
|
21 | my written remarks, which the Chamber has
|
22 | separately submitted. I would ask that both
|
23 | be included as part of the record.
|
24 | I appear today on behalf of
|
25 | the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, the world's |
125
1 | largest business federation, representing more
|
2 | than 3 million businesses of every size,
|
3 | sector, and region.
|
4 | The Commission and the
|
5 | Department should be congratulated for
|
6 | holding these hearings and reaching out to
|
7 | the business community for its views on this
|
8 | critical topic.
|
9 | At the Chamber, we work
|
10 | continuously to promote free market
|
11 | principles, because we see the free market
|
12 | system as essential to ensuring a vibrant and
|
13 | productive economy. And we believe that
|
14 | balanced and effective antitrust enforcement
|
15 | is critical to ensuring a free market.
|
16 | In the U.S. we support the
|
17 | application of Section 2 of the Sherman Act
|
18 | to conduct that threatens competition and
|
19 | harms consumers. And outside the U.S., we
|
20 | support the application of similar laws.
|
21 | However, the Chamber believes
|
22 | that the U.S. and foreign competition
|
23 | authorities must use special care in policing
|
24 | single-firm conduct to avoid chilling
|
25 | behavior that is in fact both procompetitive |
126
1 | and beneficial to consumers.
|
2 | To accomplish this, we
|
3 | believe antitrust rules must be 1)
|
4 | transparent, 2) predictable, 3) consistent
|
5 | across jurisdictions, and 4), reasonably
|
6 | stable over time.
|
7 | It is important to remember
|
8 | that new products and new business practices
|
9 | are developed well ahead of their actual
|
10 | introduction and ahead of any scrutiny by
|
11 | antitrust regulators. Firms do want to obey
|
12 | the rules of the road, but discerning and
|
13 | applying those rules is becoming increasingly
|
14 | difficult. In its September 5th written
|
15 | submission to these hearings, the Chamber
|
16 | focused on the need for clear, predictable
|
17 | standards for tying and essential facilities
|
18 | analysis to domestic enforcement of Section
|
19 | 2. Today I'd like to extend these principles
|
20 | to international antitrust enforcement and
|
21 | highlight the importance of cooperation among
|
22 | antitrust enforcement officials around the
|
23 | world.
|
24 | The U.S. Chamber of Commerce
|
25 | has recently announced a major new |
127
1 | initiative, the Global Regulatory Cooperation
|
2 | Project. This project aims to increase
|
3 | awareness about and to develop successful
|
4 | strategies for combating the growing threat
|
5 | that divergent regulatory systems pose to
|
6 | competitive markets and to international
|
7 | trade.
|
8 | The need for Global
|
9 | Regulatory Cooperation is clear. Barriers to
|
10 | international trade go beyond market access
|
11 | issues. Traditionally, trade agreements and
|
12 | negotiations have focused largely on tariff
|
13 | reductions. While market access must remain
|
14 | a priority, divergent regulations are
|
15 | increasingly impeding trade, and governments
|
16 | around the world need to better understand
|
17 | the impact in-country barriers have.
|
18 | While the Chamber's project
|
19 | focuses on many types of divergent
|
20 | regulations, one area that deserves special
|
21 | consideration is competition policy. I'd
|
22 | like to make the following three points.
|
23 | First, the growing
|
24 | proliferation of antitrust enforcement around
|
25 | the world, together with the globalization of |
128
1 | business creates increasing risk of conflict
|
2 | in the application of antitrust rules to
|
3 | single-firm conduct. These conflicts impose
|
4 | costs on firms and harm consumers and are
|
5 | becoming potential barriers to international
|
6 | trade.
|
7 | Second, while many
|
8 | differences may be discerned between U.S. and
|
9 | foreign standards for single-firm conduct,
|
10 | the differences in the enforcement approach
|
11 | on tying and essential facilities analysis
|
12 | is becoming increasingly apparent.
|
13 | Third, now is the time to
|
14 | act on these differences. The U.S. must lead
|
15 | a cooperative effort among industrialized
|
16 | nations to develop and recommend appropriate
|
17 | standards for single-firm conduct and to
|
18 | promote their adoption around the world.
|
19 | Over the past 15 years, the
|
20 | number of jurisdictions with antitrust laws
|
21 | has grown from about 25 to approximately 100
|
22 | today. Many of the newer enforcement
|
23 | agencies have limited training, experience,
|
24 | and resources to police anticompetitive
|
25 | behavior and enforce their laws |
129
1 | appropriately.
|
2 | One thing is certain, the
|
3 | impact of competition decisions by any given
|
4 | enforcement agency no longer is confined by
|
5 | its home jurisdiction. Increasingly, those
|
6 | decisions reverberate around the world,
|
7 | forcing firms to conform their behavior to
|
8 | the most restrictive enforcement policies and
|
9 | increasingly have a negative impact on the
|
10 | global marketplace.
|
11 | The underlying goals of
|
12 | antitrust enforcement and trade liberalization
|
13 | are similar in that both aim to achieve open
|
14 | and competitive markets. In their
|
15 | application, however, competition laws may
|
16 | sometimes constitute barriers to trade. In
|
17 | some countries, particular enforcement actions
|
18 | may be motivated by protectionist goals. In
|
19 | other instances, differences in general legal
|
20 | standards or in remedies may have a chilling
|
21 | effect on trade.
|
22 | In her statement opening
|
23 | these hearings, Chairman Majoras remarked
|
24 | that quote: "Disagreement among competition
|
25 | authorities about how to treat unilateral |
130
1 | conduct produces uncertainty in national and
|
2 | world markets, reducing market efficiency and
|
3 | imposing costs on consumers."
|
4 | Other government officials,
|
5 | both in the Executive Branch and in Congress,
|
6 | as well as many business and Bar Association
|
7 | groups have also joined in recognizing the
|
8 | growing potential for conflict and the costs
|
9 | and burdens associated with it.
|
10 | The record clearly
|
11 | demonstrates that these costs are very real.
|
12 | For example, Microsoft has been subject to
|
13 | three different sets of remedies in three
|
14 | different jurisdictions for what is
|
15 | essentially similar conduct.
|
16 | In March 2004, the European
|
17 | Commission held that Microsoft had abused a
|
18 | dominant position in violation of Article 82
|
19 | of the EC Treaty by tying the purchase of
|
20 | Windows Media Player to the purchase of the
|
21 | Windows operating system and by refusing to
|
22 | share proprietary communication protocols with
|
23 | competitors and allow their use in developing
|
24 | operating systems that would compete with
|
25 | Microsoft's own products. |
131
1 | When the EC issued its
|
2 | decision, then-Assistant Attorney General Pate
|
3 | issued a statement criticizing it as both
|
4 | costly and unnecessary in light of the final
|
5 | judgment entered against Microsoft by the
|
6 | U.S. in 2001.
|
7 | Later Pate expressed quote
|
8 | "deep concern about the apparent basis for
|
9 | this decision and the serious potential
|
10 | divergence it represents." Noting that "It
|
11 | is unfortunate that considerations of
|
12 | international comity and deference did not,
|
13 | in the Commission's judgment, carry
|
14 | sufficient weight to avoid the significant
|
15 | divergence that has now occurred."
|
16 | Soon after the EC's decision,
|
17 | the Korea Fair Trade Commission held that
|
18 | Microsoft had abused a dominant position in
|
19 | South Korea by integrating media and instant
|
20 | messaging software into Windows and posing a
|
21 | code removal remedy similar to the one
|
22 | imposed in Europe. On that day the decision
|
23 | was announced, Deputy Attorney General
|
24 | McDonald released a statement stating that
|
25 | quote: "The Antitrust Division believes that |
132
1 | Korea's remedy goes beyond what is necessary
|
2 | or appropriate to protect consumers."
|
3 | More recently, allegations of
|
4 | illegal tying have been the focus of attack
|
5 | on Apple in Europe. Apple uses Fairplay
|
6 | Digital Rights Management technology to
|
7 | encode songs from its iTunes music online
|
8 | store. As a result, the songs may only be
|
9 | downloaded using Apple iPod devices.
|
10 | Norway's Consumer Ombudsman has found that
|
11 | Apple's DRM policies have effectively tied
|
12 | the purchase of iPods to the purchase of its
|
13 | online music, and has ordered Apple to either
|
14 | license its Fairplay technology to competing
|
15 | producers of music players or to develop a
|
16 | new open standard with those companies.
|
17 | According to press reports,
|
18 | authorities in Sweden and Denmark may follow
|
19 | suit in formally charging Apple with
|
20 | violation of local laws. And the French
|
21 | Parliament has enacted legislation that may
|
22 | require music downloads to operate across a
|
23 | range of devices, empowering a government
|
24 | body to force digital providers to share the
|
25 | information as needed to ensure such |
133
1 | interoperability.
|
2 | Significantly, while the EC
|
3 | has launched an investigation into Apple's
|
4 | music pricing policies, the EC investigation
|
5 | reportedly does not focus on this purported
|
6 | tie.
|
7 | Apple's success has come
|
8 | about as a result of innovation. Consumers
|
9 | voted with their wallets to reward Apple for
|
10 | its ability to innovate and to commercialize
|
11 | its ideas. Competition authorities should
|
12 | recognize the right of innovators to reap the
|
13 | rewards of their innovation. That is to
|
14 | protect competition, not competitors.
|
15 | Assistant Attorney General
|
16 | Tom Barnett made this point recently in
|
17 | criticizing the attack on Apple pointing out
|
18 | also that quote: "If the government is too
|
19 | willing to step in as a regulator, rivals
|
20 | will devote their resources to legal
|
21 | challenges rather than business innovation".
|
22 | In addition to these cases
|
23 | involving Microsoft and Apple where U.S.
|
24 | companies have actually been charged with
|
25 | violations of foreign laws based on legal |
134
1 | standards that are arguably divergent with
|
2 | those in the United States, there are several
|
3 | pending investigations of Intel and Qualcomm
|
4 | that may well result in significant
|
5 | conflicts.
|
6 | Recent press reports indicate
|
7 | that the E.U. might formally charge Intel
|
8 | with abusing its dominance in the market for
|
9 | microprocessors in Europe. According to
|
10 | press accounts, EC investigators potentially
|
11 | believe Intel has interfered improperly with
|
12 | the distribution and purchase of rival
|
13 | products, in part by offering rebates to
|
14 | customers that agree to purchase from Intel
|
15 | exclusively. The Korean Fair Trade
|
16 | Commission is also investigating INTEL's
|
17 | rebate policies.
|
18 | Qualcomm is also reportedly
|
19 | under investigation by both the Korean and
|
20 | Japanese Fair Trade Commissions, in part for
|
21 | offering lower royalty rates for its CDMA
|
22 | wireless technology if licensees agree to
|
23 | license such technology exclusively from
|
24 | Qualcomm.
|
25 | The EC has received a formal |
135
1 | complaint about Qualcomm's conduct from a
|
2 | group of Qualcomm competitors, but has yet to
|
3 | actually initiate a formal investigation.
|
4 | U.S. antitrust enforcement
|
5 | officials are far more cautious than foreign
|
6 | jurisdictions, however, upon investigating and
|
7 | challenging such fidelity rebates and related
|
8 | volume discounts and exclusive dealing
|
9 | practices, because in many cases they may be
|
10 | procompetitive and result in lower prices for
|
11 | consumers. Because Intel and Qualcomm may
|
12 | not be formally charged in these proceedings,
|
13 | it is hard to tell what conflicts with U.S.
|
14 | law may emerge, how severe they may be, and
|
15 | what consequences may result.
|
16 | As significant as these
|
17 | conflicts among jurisdictions with mature
|
18 | antitrust enforcement regimes may be, they
|
19 | may be eclipsed in the coming years by the
|
20 | conflicts generated by the adoption of new
|
21 | antitrust laws in emerging and transitioning
|
22 | economies.
|
23 | For example, the current
|
24 | draft of the new anti-monopoly law in China
|
25 | now under consideration contains prohibitions |
136
1 | of abuse of dominance that remain unclear,
|
2 | creating fears of an expansive and
|
3 | inconsistent enforcement approach.
|
4 | Ambiguities abound when firms may be
|
5 | considered dominant and when they may be
|
6 | found to have engaged in illegal tying and
|
7 | other abusive conduct are concerns for the
|
8 | chamber. My written statement contains
|
9 | additional details on China's proposed law.
|
10 | A greater effort must be made
|
11 | amongst the jurisdictions with established
|
12 | antitrust enforcement regimes to improve the
|
13 | content and the consistency of their rules
|
14 | governing single-firm conduct and then share
|
15 | their learning and comparatively greater
|
16 | experience with countries that may be
|
17 | developing new antitrust statutes or
|
18 | modernizing existing ones. Legislative
|
19 | drafters in China and elsewhere will be
|
20 | influenced in a positive way by the
|
21 | development of such a consensus.
|
22 | In my testimony, I have
|
23 | quoted a number of U.S. officials who have
|
24 | recognized the growing divergence in
|
25 | antitrust standards governing single-firm |
137
1 | conduct and what it means for U.S. companies
|
2 | and consumers. But recognizing the problem
|
3 | isn't enough. The U.S. government needs to
|
4 | address this problem with an increased sense
|
5 | of urgency. The Department of Justice and
|
6 | the Federal Trade Commission have devoted
|
7 | resources for many years to fostering
|
8 | cooperation, convergence, and consistency in
|
9 | antitrust enforcement efforts, as well as in
|
10 | remedies.
|
11 | They have been successful to
|
12 | a degree, but the success has been realized
|
13 | largely in the cartel and merger enforcement
|
14 | areas. Greater priority must be given to the
|
15 | area of unilateral conduct. Today, a handful
|
16 | of companies have been caught up or face the
|
17 | potential of being caught up in divergent
|
18 | interpretations of anticompetitive unilateral
|
19 | conduct.
|
20 | However, if this divergence
|
21 | in understanding of single-conduct behavior
|
22 | continues amongst the world's competition
|
23 | jurisdictions, more companies globally will
|
24 | be the target of future investigations and
|
25 | proceedings. It is this divergence that the |
138
1 | Chamber's Global Regulatory Cooperation
|
2 | project seeks to counter.
|
3 | First, the U.S. government
|
4 | must step up its efforts to encourage
|
5 | convergence in substantive antitrust standards
|
6 | for single-firm conduct, and in remedies. To
|
7 | do that, the U.S. must engage more countries
|
8 | bilaterally, and it must work towards greater
|
9 | convergence in the context of such
|
10 | multilateral organizations as the OECD and
|
11 | International Competition Network.
|
12 | The Chamber believes there is
|
13 | a significant opportunity for the U.S.
|
14 | government to have an impact in this area,
|
15 | given the fact that the FTC co-chairs the
|
16 | ICN's working group on Unilateral Conduct.
|
17 | In this leadership role, the U.S. should be
|
18 | in a position to call attention to diverging
|
19 | standards and work to reduce and eliminate
|
20 | them, particularly in the tying and essential
|
21 | facilities areas, which have proven so
|
22 | important as of late.
|
23 | Second, the preliminary draft
|
24 | outline of the Antitrust Modernization
|
25 | Commission recommends that the United States |
139
1 | should continue to pursue bilateral and
|
2 | multilateral antitrust cooperation and comity
|
3 | agreements with more of its trading partners
|
4 | and make greater use of comity provisions in
|
5 | existing cooperation agreements.
|
6 | The Chamber believes that the
|
7 | U.S. should explore the concept of enhanced
|
8 | comity, including such elements as an
|
9 | agreement amongst jurisdictions to defer to
|
10 | one another in relation to remedies.
|
11 | While existing bilateral
|
12 | agreements and the existing application of
|
13 | comity principles have certainly been useful,
|
14 | they have limitations, as illustrated by the
|
15 | inconsistent remedies imposed by the U.S.,
|
16 | E.U., and enforcement authorities in the
|
17 | Microsoft matter. Jurisdictions such as these
|
18 | with mature antitrust enforcement regimes
|
19 | should set a coherent and unified example for
|
20 | other countries by expanding their
|
21 | cooperation and making them more consistently
|
22 | successful.
|
23 | Third, the U.S. enforcement
|
24 | agencies should be encouraged to participate
|
25 | more actively and cooperatively in |
140
1 | enforcement and policy development activities
|
2 | with their foreign counterparts, by filing
|
3 | amicus briefs, for example, when U.S.
|
4 | agencies are not conducting parallel
|
5 | investigations.
|
6 | We applaud this series of
|
7 | hearings for giving your counterparts in
|
8 | Canada, Mexico, Japan, and the European Union
|
9 | the opportunity to testify last September.
|
10 | This kind of cooperative spirit and
|
11 | substantive sharing of ideas is the platform
|
12 | for starting to combat future competition
|
13 | divergence.
|
14 | Fourth, the need for
|
15 | technical assistance is clear. It is
|
16 | difficult for even the most experienced
|
17 | jurisdictions to define appropriate rules
|
18 | governing single-firm conduct, so newer
|
19 | enforcement agencies may be expected to
|
20 | struggle with them.
|
21 | U.S. agencies should review
|
22 | the adequacy of current technical assistance
|
23 | programs in the area of antitrust, and
|
24 | implement any changes that may be necessary
|
25 | to make them more effective. |
141
1 | An agency review should
|
2 | include 1), a review of programs sponsored by
|
3 | other countries as well as the U.S.; 2) a
|
4 | review of the work of international
|
5 | organizations such as the OECN and ICN; and
|
6 | 3), a review of the adequacy of U.S. funding
|
7 | levels and how that funding is deployed.
|
8 | The U.S. must approach this
|
9 | issue holistically and in cooperation with
|
10 | other developed countries to ensure that
|
11 | available resources are allocated efficiently
|
12 | and effectively and to ensure that other
|
13 | important initiatives such as the protection
|
14 | of intellectual property are pursued.
|
15 | Finally, the FTC and DOJ must
|
16 | approach these issues with a great awareness
|
17 | of the interface between competition policy
|
18 | and international trade, and the impact the
|
19 | divergent antitrust standards have on trade.
|
20 | To this end, the FTC,
|
21 | Department of Justice, USTR, State and
|
22 | Commerce Departments must coordinate better
|
23 | on these issues. The Department of Treasury
|
24 | should also be involved, as it looks to lead
|
25 | a strategic economic dialogue with China. |
142
1 | And to address protectionist tendencies,
|
2 | agencies across the U.S. government must work
|
3 | cooperatively with their counterparts around
|
4 | the world to ensure that competition policies
|
5 | support liberal trade policies.
|
6 | This effort is challenging,
|
7 | but critically important. The Chamber stands
|
8 | ready to assist the FTC and DOJ in any way
|
9 | it can, and we look forward to working with
|
10 | you. Thank you.
|
11 | (Applause)
|
12 | MS. GRIMM: Thank you, Sean.
|
13 | Our next speaker is Bruce Sewell. Bruce is
|
14 | the senior vice president and general counsel
|
15 | for Intel Corporation. He is responsible for
|
16 | Intel's legal and government affairs
|
17 | functions worldwide.
|
18 | Prior to being named general
|
19 | counsel, Bruce was Intel's director of
|
20 | litigation. Before joining Intel, Bruce was
|
21 | a litigation partner at Brown & Bane and was
|
22 | an associate at Schnodder, Harrison, Siegel &
|
23 | Lewis.
|
24 | Bruce received his J.D.
|
25 | degree from the George Washington University |
143
1 | and his bachelor's degree from the University
|
2 | of Lancaster in the United Kingdom. Bruce.
|
3 | MR. SEWELL: Good afternoon.
|
4 | Let me begin by thanking the antitrust
|
5 | enforcement agencies for giving me the
|
6 | opportunity to participate in these very
|
7 | important hearings. I appreciate the
|
8 | considerable effort that has been devoted to
|
9 | these hearings and the dedication that the
|
10 | agencys' staffs have brought to bear on these
|
11 | important issues. I'm confident that the
|
12 | agencys' report will make a significant
|
13 | contribution to the analysis of single-firm
|
14 | conduct.
|
15 | The development of the law of
|
16 | single-firm conduct is of obvious interest to
|
17 | my company. We are the defendant in a
|
18 | highly visible Section 2 litigation that has
|
19 | generated considerable interest both in the
|
20 | press and among antitrust specialists.
|
21 | I was somewhat dismayed to
|
22 | see that the plaintiff in our case used these
|
23 | hearings as a forum to rebroadcast
|
24 | allegations that it has made already in its
|
25 | District Court filings and in the press. |
144
1 | With respect to this I will only say the
|
2 | following. Intel prefers to litigate in the
|
3 | courtroom, and I will therefore not use this
|
4 | forum as a -- to argue the merits of our
|
5 | case other than to state that I unequivocally
|
6 | deny the allegations that were made against
|
7 | Intel at the January 30th hearings in
|
8 | Berkeley.
|
9 | Instead, my remarks today
|
10 | will address the policy issues that have been
|
11 | the focus of these hearings. In particular,
|
12 | I would like to discuss the appropriate role
|
13 | of Section 2 with respect to pricing and
|
14 | discounting practices. I hope that my
|
15 | company's perspective on these policy issues
|
16 | will help to advance the debate that the
|
17 | agencies have generated through these
|
18 | hearings.
|
19 | At the risk of stating the
|
20 | obvious, the challenge of Section 2
|
21 | enforcement is to curb anticompetitive
|
22 | single-firm conduct that harms consumers
|
23 | without deterring the type of aggressive
|
24 | competition that benefits consumers through
|
25 | lower prices and greater innovation. This is |
145
1 | a great challenge.
|
2 | As Professors Baumol and
|
3 | Ordover have observed almost 20 years ago,
|
4 | there is a specter that haunts our antitrust
|
5 | institutions. Its threat is that far from
|
6 | serving as the bulwark of competition, these
|
7 | institutions will become the most powerful
|
8 | instrument in the hands of those who wish to
|
9 | subvert it.
|
10 | Baumol and Ordover stressed
|
11 | the important concept that rules that make
|
12 | vigorous competition dangerous clearly foster
|
13 | protectionism. And they warned of the runner
|
14 | up who hopes to impose legal obstacles on the
|
15 | vigorous efforts of his all-to-successful
|
16 | rival.
|
17 | These observations were more
|
18 | recently echoed by Professor Preston McAfee
|
19 | and Nicholas Vakkur who catalogued seven
|
20 | strategic abuses of the antitrust laws,
|
21 | including punishing non-cooperative behavior
|
22 | and preventing a successful firm from
|
23 | competing aggressively.
|
24 | In his presentation at these
|
25 | hearings, Professor McAfee stressed that the |
146
1 | antitrust laws can be used to harass, harm,
|
2 | and extort in order to induce cooperation.
|
3 | The strategic abuse of the
|
4 | antitrust laws is of more than a passing
|
5 | concern to Intel. I was therefore
|
6 | particularly pleased to see both Chairman
|
7 | Majoras and Assistant Attorney General
|
8 | Barnett in their remarks at the beginning of
|
9 | these hearings underscore the importance of
|
10 | having rules that do not deter
|
11 | pro-competitive aggressive competition. As
|
12 | Chairman Majoras stated in her remarks:
|
13 | "There is consensus that antitrust standards
|
14 | that govern unilateral conduct must not deter
|
15 | competition, efficiency, or innovation. This
|
16 | is why we frequently worry about false
|
17 | positives. Pervasive and aggressive
|
18 | competition, in which firms consistently try
|
19 | to better each other by providing higher
|
20 | quality goods and services at lower costs, is
|
21 | crucial to maximizing consumer welfare and
|
22 | economic growth."
|
23 | Assistant Attorney General
|
24 | Barnett echoed one of our chief concerns as a
|
25 | business that devotes considerable resources |
147
1 | to antitrust compliance by stating that
|
2 | antitrust rules in the unilateral conduct
|
3 | area must set forth "clear objective
|
4 | standards that businesses can follow and that
|
5 | are also administrable for enforcers, courts,
|
6 | and juries". Particularly in the area of
|
7 | pricing behavior, as the Supreme Court has
|
8 | emphasized on many occasions, and Mr. Barnett
|
9 | endorsed in his remarks, antitrust rules must
|
10 | avoid chilling legitimate price cutting.
|
11 | This requires objective standards that rely
|
12 | on information that is available to corporate
|
13 | decision makers when they act and that allow
|
14 | more efficient firms to exploit their cost
|
15 | advantages. Sound antitrust policy also
|
16 | requires sensitivity to the potential misuse
|
17 | of the antitrust laws by less efficient
|
18 | competitors to reduce price competition.
|
19 | Government enforcement policy
|
20 | has been appropriately cautious in the area
|
21 | of pricing, taking heed of the risk of
|
22 | chilling the very conduct that the antitrust
|
23 | laws seek to encourage, that is, aggressive
|
24 | price cutting.
|
25 | At the same time, the |
148
1 | enforcement agencies have aggressively pursued
|
2 | many other forms of conduct that
|
3 | anti-competitively creates or maintains
|
4 | monopoly power.
|
5 | Without getting into the
|
6 | merits of any individual case, it is
|
7 | important to note that the agencies have
|
8 | pursued a number of different forms of
|
9 | conduct under Section 2 theories. Recent
|
10 | cases include patent settlements that may
|
11 | delay entry and thereby extend an incumbent
|
12 | supplier's exclusive rights to supply,
|
13 | representations to standard-setting
|
14 | organizations or governmental bodies regarding
|
15 | patent positions, exclusive dealing, and
|
16 | product design cases.
|
17 | The enforcement agencies have
|
18 | recognized the challenges inherent in
|
19 | aggressive enforcement of Section 2 cases.
|
20 | While bringing a number of Section 2 cases in
|
21 | recent years, the agencies have also
|
22 | expressed cognizance of the potential misuse
|
23 | of the antitrust laws by less efficient
|
24 | rivals.
|
25 | As Deputy Assistant Attorney |
149
1 | General Masoudi has noted elsewhere, an
|
2 | antitrust agency must be cautious about
|
3 | complaints it receives from competitors.
|
4 | Such complaints often try to avoid legitimate
|
5 | competition by seeking protection from the
|
6 | government from competitive pressures.
|
7 | This is particularly true
|
8 | when the subject of such complaints it price
|
9 | cutting. We hope that the agencies' final
|
10 | reports on these hearings will impart to the
|
11 | courts the benefit of the agency's experience
|
12 | in enforcing the law aggressively while
|
13 | resisting the demands of complainants who
|
14 | seek to use Section 2 to dampen competition.
|
15 | I read with considerable
|
16 | interest the assertions that were made at the
|
17 | January 30th hearing that the enforcement
|
18 | agencies have been asleep on the job or that
|
19 | they have somehow failed to enforce Section
|
20 | 2. This view simply cannot be squared with
|
21 | the record of aggressive enforce that I've
|
22 | just outlined.
|
23 | It was also suggested at that
|
24 | hearing that the enforcement agencies have
|
25 | given the high-tech area a free pass, even |
150
1 | ignoring the fact that high tech is not
|
2 | limited just to the computer industry. This
|
3 | claim is equally hard to square with reality.
|
4 | The Agency's most recent
|
5 | actions in the high-tech area include
|
6 | monopolization cases against Microsoft and
|
7 | Rambus, a substantial number of merger
|
8 | enforcement cases involving companies --
|
9 | software companies such as Oracle, PeopleSoft
|
10 | being the best known, and many other
|
11 | high-tech market cases including
|
12 | communications technology, disaster recovery
|
13 | systems and 3-D prototyping. Also massive
|
14 | fines imposed on DRAM companies and jail
|
15 | sentences on some company executives and
|
16 | ongoing criminal investigations involving
|
17 | SRAM, flat-panel displays, and graphics
|
18 | processors.
|
19 | The criminal cases and
|
20 | investigations are particularly notable
|
21 | because they involve price fixing, conduct
|
22 | designed to and having the effect of making
|
23 | consumers pay more. It seems eminently
|
24 | sensible that antitrust enforcement should
|
25 | direct itself at conduct that demonstrably |
151
1 | leads to higher prices rather than to
|
2 | attacking price cutting which is the very
|
3 | conduct that the competition laws are
|
4 | designed to promote.
|
5 | It was suggested at the
|
6 | Berkeley hearing that antitrust enforcement
|
7 | should be directed at price cutting and that
|
8 | the reality, as opposed to the myth, is that
|
9 | consumers are harmed when prices come down
|
10 | due to discounting.
|
11 | Here I could not disagree
|
12 | more with the position espoused by AMD. On
|
13 | the issue of discounting we have a
|
14 | fundamentally different point of view. We
|
15 | think that enforcement resources are
|
16 | appropriately directed at conduct that makes
|
17 | consumers pay more, not conduct that gives
|
18 | them lower prices.
|
19 | I believe that our position
|
20 | is supported by both the law as articulated
|
21 | by the Supreme Court, and by very sound
|
22 | policy considerations that underlie the
|
23 | Court's decisions. The Court's statement in
|
24 | Matsushita cogently expresses both the policy
|
25 | and its underpinnings. To quote: "Cutting |
152
1 | prices in order to increase business often is
|
2 | the very essence of competition. Thus
|
3 | mistaken inferences in cases such as this one
|
4 | are especially costly because they chill the
|
5 | very conduct the antitrust laws were designed
|
6 | to protect."
|
7 | Justice Breyer, while sitting
|
8 | on the First Circuit, made a similar
|
9 | observation in the Barry Wright case. Again
|
10 | quoting: "the consequence of a mistake here
|
11 | is not simply to force a firm to forego
|
12 | legitimate business activity it wishes to
|
13 | pursue; rather, it is to penalize a
|
14 | procompetitive price cut, perhaps the most
|
15 | desirable activity from an antitrust
|
16 | perspective that can take place in a
|
17 | concentrated industry where price typically
|
18 | exceeds costs."
|
19 | This policy has broad
|
20 | application across all areas of pricing
|
21 | conduct. As the Supreme Court said in the
|
22 | Arco versus USA Petroleum case: "Low prices
|
23 | benefit consumers regardless of how those
|
24 | prices are set, and so long as they are
|
25 | above predatory levels, they do not threaten |
153
1 | competition". We have adhered to this
|
2 | principle regardless of the type of antitrust
|
3 | claim involved. This is not only the law,
|
4 | but it is also the right antitrust policy.
|
5 | This policy recognizes that
|
6 | false positives, which are very likely to
|
7 | occur in the absence of clear-cut cost-based
|
8 | rules, can impose a high cost on society by
|
9 | punishing and thereby deterring aggressive
|
10 | price competition.
|
11 | The courts and thebr>
|
12 | enforcement agencies have recognized that the
|
13 | very tangible bird in the hand, that is lower
|
14 | prices enjoyed by consumers today, must not
|
15 | be sacrificed for the bird in the bush, the
|
16 | speculative and almost always illogical hope
|
17 | that attacking price cutting and thereby
|
18 | producing higher prices today will somehow
|
19 | produce lower prices tomorrow.
|
20 | I can tell you from years of
|
21 | experience advising a very successful
|
22 | corporation on how to compete with a very
|
23 | aggressive rival that the need for clarity in
|
24 | this area is paramount. The challenge in
|
25 | counseling a business is to ensure that the |
154
1 | company adheres to its legal obligations
|
2 | without forcing it to engage in gentlemanly
|
3 | competition in which business opportunities
|
4 | are squandered by pricing higher than is
|
5 | needed to win the deal, even though the deal
|
6 | can still be won profitably.
|
7 | Intel has long enjoyed a cost
|
8 | advantage due to its strong leadership
|
9 | position in manufacturing. And it is
|
10 | important to me and to the other lawyers
|
11 | advising our management that we neither
|
12 | deprive the company of the competitive
|
13 | advantage that comes from its hard-won,
|
14 | lower-cost position nor deprive consumers of
|
15 | the benefit of lower prices, simply because
|
16 | of unclear antitrust rules.
|
17 | You may have recently read on
|
18 | the front page of the New York Times about
|
19 | Intel's latest breakthrough in semiconductor
|
20 | manufacturing technology. This is the most
|
21 | significant change in the materials used for
|
22 | the manufacture of silicone chips since Intel
|
23 | pioneered the modern integrated circuit
|
24 | transistor more than four decades ago.
|
25 | It is no accident that Intel |
155
1 | was the first to achieve this breakthrough.
|
2 | Our company has enjoyed unparalleled
|
3 | leadership in manufacturing for most of its
|
4 | existence, and the benefits of this
|
5 | relationship position are very tangible.
|
6 | With every new generation of
|
7 | manufacturing technology, each of which is
|
8 | introduced on a roughly two-year cycle, we
|
9 | double the number of chips that can be
|
10 | produced on a wafer, holding both the wafer
|
11 | size and the chip design constant. This
|
12 | means that the manufacturing cost of any
|
13 | given chip is cut by roughly 50 percent when
|
14 | the new manufacturing technology is
|
15 | introduced.
|
16 | Now, it's a little bit more
|
17 | complicated than that because we tend to take
|
18 | advantage of this lower cost to put more
|
19 | features onto the chips which trades off some
|
20 | of that cost savings for better performing
|
21 | products. But the cost advantage of being
|
22 | first to adopt the new manufacturing
|
23 | technology is large and tangible. Our recent
|
24 | manufacturing technology breakthrough will
|
25 | ensure that we can continue to progress along |
156
1 | the same path for many years to come.
|
2 | So Intel has been on average
|
3 | nine months to a year ahead of its
|
4 | competitors in adopting these new
|
5 | manufacturing technologies. This means that
|
6 | in any given two-year cycle, we are alone in
|
7 | achieving the cost savings during the first
|
8 | year, and we are ramping up on the new
|
9 | manufacturing process during the second year
|
10 | when our competition is just beginning to
|
11 | introduce the new technology.
|
12 | Our sales executives and our
|
13 | management want to use the cost advantage
|
14 | that they enjoy as a result of our
|
15 | manufacturing leadership to win business.
|
16 | Clear antitrust rules are essential to my
|
17 | ability to guide them through the winning
|
18 | outcome to do nothing more than exploit our
|
19 | competitive advantage.
|
20 | A clear and sensible rule is
|
21 | offered by the Areeda & Hovenkamp treatise in
|
22 | its latest supplement. Quoting from that
|
23 | treatise:
|
24 | "When a discount is offered
|
25 | on a single product, whether a quantity or |
157
1 | market share discount, the discount should be
|
2 | lawful if the price, after all discounts are
|
3 | taken into account, exceeds the defendant's
|
4 | marginal cost or average variable cost. That
|
5 | is, such discounts are covered by antitrust
|
6 | or antitrust's ordinary predatory pricing
|
7 | rule."
|
8 | A similar approach has been
|
9 | proposed by former FTC chairman Tim Muris,
|
10 | who advocates a modified Brooke Group test
|
11 | based on whether the price of the total
|
12 | amount of goods sold exceeds the cost of the
|
13 | goods.
|
14 | Cost-based rules have a
|
15 | number of advantages beginning with the
|
16 | avoidance of false positives. They enable
|
17 | companies to base pricing decisions on what
|
18 | they know, that is, their own cost structure
|
19 | and the relationship of price to cost instead
|
20 | of speculation about the meaning of
|
21 | potentially vague jury instructions that
|
22 | might, for example, say that a firm must be
|
23 | allowed to compete aggressively but that it
|
24 | cannot behave in an unnecessarily restrictive
|
25 | manner. |
158
1 | Because cost-based rules are
|
2 | more predictable than the vague standards
|
3 | that have been applied by some courts in
|
4 | Section 2 cases, they are also inherently
|
5 | more administrable. And they appropriately
|
6 | condemn the type of discounting that does
|
7 | cause competitive harm, i.e. predatory
|
8 | pricing.
|
9 | The antitrust laws are a
|
10 | powerful instrument for consumer protection,
|
11 | but they can also be misused by rivals to
|
12 | attack competition. It is essential that the
|
13 | antitrust rules in the pricing area protectbr>
|
14 | consumers both from anticompetitive conduct
|
15 | that may create, maintain, or enhance a
|
16 | monopoly, and from anticompetitive abuses of
|
17 | the law by rivals that seek to stifle price
|
18 | competition.
|
19 | Thank you once again for the
|
20 | opportunity to provide these comments.
|
21 | (Applause)
|
22 | MS. GRIMM: Our third
|
23 | presenter this afternoon is Bruce Wark.
|
24 | Bruce is the Associate General Counsel for
|
25 | American Airlines, Inc., where he's been |
159
1 | since 1993. His responsibilities include
|
2 | litigation and regulatory matters, including
|
3 | those relating to airport access, airport
|
4 | rates and charges, aviation disasters,
|
5 | patents and trade secret litigation,
|
6 | international competition, airline alliances,
|
7 | and antitrust and consumer class actions.
|
8 | Bruce serves on the ABA Air
|
9 | and Space Law Forum and has written a number
|
10 | of articles relating to legal issues
|
11 | affecting the airline industry.
|
12 | He received his JD from
|
13 | Georgetown University Law Center with Honors.
|
14 | Bruce.
|
15 | MR. WARK: I absolutely view
|
16 | it as a privilege to be here today, so I'd
|
17 | like to join others in their opening comments
|
18 | by thanking the DOJ the FTC for the
|
19 | opportunity to appear here today.
|
20 | As an in-house attorney at
|
21 | American Airlines who is responsible for
|
22 | competition matters I hope to offer a unique
|
23 | perspective, one that has been defined by the
|
24 | important, turbulent, and highly competitive
|
25 | nature of the airline industry. |
160
1 | I've chosen to focus my
|
2 | comments on Section 2 predatory pricing
|
3 | claims because within the last few years
|
4 | there have been two Circuit Court decisionsbr>
|
5 | relating to predatory pricing in the airline
|
6 | industry.
|
7 | More specifically, these
|
8 | cases address the legality of decisions by
|
9 | carriers like American to match the prices of
|
10 | new entrants and to adjust capacity in
|
11 | response to the new price points in the
|
12 | marketplace.
|
13 | The Department of Justice
|
14 | actually brought the first of these cases
|
15 | against my client, American Airlines in 1999.
|
16 | I'm happy to say, as I'm sure many of you
|
17 | are aware, we prevailed in that dispute when
|
18 | in July of '03 the Tenth Circuit affirmed an
|
19 | order granting summary judgment.
|
20 | That decision found that the
|
21 | Department had failed to establish that
|
22 | American had priced its products below an
|
23 | appropriate measure of its cost as required
|
24 | by the Supreme Court's decision in, among
|
25 | other cases, the Brooke Group. |
161
1 | The second recent predation
|
2 | decision in the airline industry came in a
|
3 | case that was brought by Spirit Airlines
|
4 | against Northwest Airlines. As in the case
|
5 | against American, in that case the District
|
6 | Court held that Spirit had failed to prove
|
7 | that Northwest had priced its products below
|
8 | average variable costs on the routes in
|
9 | question, and therefore, the District Court
|
10 | entered summary judgment.
|
11 | On appeal, and unfortunately
|
12 | in my opinion, the Sixth Circuit reversed in
|
13 | a decision that, I believe, fails to apply
|
14 | the objective standards that are absolutely
|
15 | necessary to distinguish between aggressive
|
16 | competition and illegal predation under
|
17 | Section 2.
|
18 | I want to use these two
|
19 | cases today to support two important themes.
|
20 | The first is that predatory pricing claims
|
21 | unconstrained by objective standards and
|
22 | based on unproven economic theory harm the
|
23 | competition that the antitrust laws were
|
24 | intended to protect.
|
25 | As Judge Easterbrook has |
162
1 | explained, and I'm quoting here: "An argument
|
2 | that a practice is predatory is likely to
|
3 | point to exactly those things that ordinarily
|
4 | signify efficient conduct. Unless we have
|
5 | some powerful tools to separate predation
|
6 | from its cousin, hard competition, any legal
|
7 | inquiry is apt to lead to more harm than
|
8 | good."
|
9 | Given the general agreement
|
10 | that almost all price reductions, sales
|
11 | increase, additions to capacity and so on are
|
12 | beneficial, we need very good ground indeed
|
13 | to treat a particular instance of such
|
14 | conduct as unlawful.
|
15 | The second and related point
|
16 | that I want to make is that these objective
|
17 | standards should be clearly articulated. The
|
18 | point was made earlier this morning that at
|
19 | least in the area of Section 2, predatory
|
20 | pricing was an area of relative clarity. If
|
21 | that point is true, it's true only on a
|
22 | relative basis.
|
23 | Our experience with the
|
24 | Department of Justice shows that there is
|
25 | still a great deal of ambiguity about what |
163
1 | the standard should be or even how those
|
2 | standards should be applied. And as I hope
|
3 | to make clear with the rest of my comments
|
4 | today, it's also clear the courts aren't
|
5 | consistently applying these standards, as I
|
6 | think they need to be.
|
7 | Clarity on these points is
|
8 | particularly important because the antitrust
|
9 | laws can be punitive. The serious
|
10 | consequences of finding that the antitrust
|
11 | laws have been violated forces companies to
|
12 | pull their competitive punches, especially
|
13 | when the lines of aggressive competition and
|
14 | illegal conduct are not clearly delineated.
|
15 | Moreover, even if the
|
16 | defendant prevails, as we did in our case,
|
17 | merely having to defend a Section 2 case is
|
18 | a very expensive proposition, and it diverts
|
19 | a tremendous amount of management attention
|
20 | and company resources.
|
21 | Now, in making those
|
22 | comments, I recognize that given the
|
23 | complexity of markets and U.S. business,
|
24 | perfect clarity of legal standards may really
|
25 | be an unobtainable goal. Individual cases |
164
1 | will continue to have to be decided on their
|
2 | own merits, and general legal principles will
|
3 | have to be applied to unique facts.
|
4 | That said, improving of
|
5 | clarity of legal standards in this area
|
6 | should be pursued, and there are areas
|
7 | where clarification can be immediately
|
8 | accomplished such as a clear endorsement of
|
9 | average variable cost as being the only
|
10 | appropriate measure of cost in a predation
|
11 | claim.
|
12 | In our industry, despite the
|
13 | fact we have two fairly recent Circuit Court
|
14 | decisions addressing predatory pricing,
|
15 | Section 2 standards remain unacceptably
|
16 | vague. And even worse, as I've indicated
|
17 | before, I believe the Sixth Circuit decision
|
18 | in Spirit fails to demand the objective
|
19 | standards that are necessary to show that
|
20 | aggressive competition has overstepped the
|
21 | bounds of the law and is a decision that
|
22 | protects smaller competitors rather than
|
23 | competition on the merits.
|
24 | Before discussing the
|
25 | American decision and the Spirit decision in |
165
1 | more detail, I think it's useful to give some
|
2 | general observations on the airline industry
|
3 | and how we compete.
|
4 | The airline industry is the
|
5 | backbone for much of U.S. commerce, and the
|
6 | antitrust scrutiny that we find ourselves
|
7 | under is no doubt a product of the important
|
8 | role that the industry occupies.
|
9 | Last year alone American
|
10 | served about 100 million passengers. We took
|
11 | in about 20 billion in revenue. Yet those
|
12 | figures, as impressive as they are, account
|
13 | for only about 20 percent of the U.S.
|
14 | domestic airline industry.
|
15 | Until the early 1980's, the
|
16 | airline industry was a regulated business.
|
17 | But since deregulation, the industry has
|
18 | exploded, and air travel today, although far
|
19 | from perfect, is largely affordable and
|
20 | convenient.
|
21 | Airfares in real terms have
|
22 | fallen significantly, and American and other
|
23 | carriers are now able to offer thousands of
|
24 | convenient on-line connections that did not
|
25 | exist in the regulated environment. |
166
1 | At the same time, new
|
2 | entrants are consistently entering the market
|
3 | with new aircraft, lower costs, and new ideas
|
4 | on how to succeed in this crowded and mature
|
5 | marketplace. One or more of these low-cost
|
6 | carriers operate in over 80 percent of the
|
7 | routes that American flies.
|
8 | Clearly, competition has
|
9 | served the air traveler well. Shareholders
|
10 | and other stakeholders haven't faired quite
|
11 | as well however.
|
12 | American is the only Legacy
|
13 | Network carrier that's never filed for
|
14 | bankruptcy. And since the turn of thebr>
|
15 | century, we've lost billions of dollars and
|
16 | have had only one profitable year, that was
|
17 | last year, where we eeked out a profit margin
|
18 | of roughly one percent.
|
19 | These results here aren't
|
20 | intended to engender your sympathy, but
|
21 | simply to remind us that the competition in
|
22 | this industry is not only very dynamic. It's
|
23 | often brutal.
|
24 | Each day the people at
|
25 | American have to make decisions on how |
167
1 | they're going to price tens of thousands of
|
2 | markets, and in doing so they act on an
|
3 | experience base that tells them two things.
|
4 | First is that air travelers are going to be
|
5 | motivated by small differences in price.
|
6 | Second, that we are operating a network of
|
7 | interconnected routes. And when we make
|
8 | decisions as to one route, there may well be
|
9 | implication for other routes within that same
|
10 | network.
|
11 | Given our cost structure and
|
12 | position in the marketplace, maintaining a
|
13 | robust network is a competitive imperative to
|
14 | us. Our business folks are designing strategies
|
15 | that we think maximize our success, and that
|
16 | success has been and always will be adversely
|
17 | related to the success of our competitors.
|
18 | In sum, we are convinced that we have to be
|
19 | an aggressive competitor, and, in our business,
|
20 | that competition will always start with
|
21 | price.
|
22 | As the world's largest
|
23 | airline operating in this competitive
|
24 | environment, we understand the importance the
|
25 | antitrust laws play in our market-based |
168
1 | economy. We have a longstanding antitrust
|
2 | compliance program, but the ambiguity in the
|
3 | law and the very competitive nature of the
|
4 | industry make it a challenge to provide clear
|
5 | guidance on Section 2.
|
6 | The fact that we hope to
|
7 | accomplish this legal guidance under the
|
8 | circumstances is to sensitize our clients to
|
9 | potential issues and be prepared to answer
|
10 | those questions in real time as issues arise.
|
11 | For reasons that I've already
|
12 | mentioned, pricing doesn't remain constant,
|
13 | and being noncompetitive on price for even a
|
14 | short period of time can be very costly.
|
15 | Our advice has to be as real time as the
|
16 | competitive market in which our clients are
|
17 | operating. And overly conservative advice
|
18 | can inflict substantial damage on the
|
19 | company.
|
20 | We don't have the luxury of
|
21 | a week to pull data and analyze issues,
|
22 | although we know that if we end up in a
|
23 | dispute, those on the other side will review
|
24 | that data with the luxury of both time and
|
25 | hindsight and will be seeking to substantiate |
169
1 | a position that is predetermined by the
|
2 | requirements of its claim.
|
3 | As I'll explain shortly, I
|
4 | believe that's exactly what happened in
|
5 | Spirit's case against Northwest when it was
|
6 | able to avoid summary judgment.
|
7 | Moreover, we have learned
|
8 | through our experience that the Department of
|
9 | Justice's attorneys and economists have their
|
10 | own views of competition in the airline
|
11 | industry. And our views of competition in
|
12 | the industry and those of theirs are often at
|
13 | odds.
|
14 | We have the right to
|
15 | challenge those factual and legal assumptions
|
16 | as we did in our lawsuit, but that is a
|
17 | position that we desperately try to avoid.
|
18 | Given the punitive nature of the antitrust
|
19 | laws and the inevitability of private class
|
20 | action litigation, including the prospect of
|
21 | treble damages, defending ourselves in that
|
22 | situation, irrespective of the courage of our
|
23 | convictions, is high-stakes poker indeed.
|
24 | Thus, I thought of several
|
25 | examples in which we have given advice or |
170
1 | altered our conduct based not on what we
|
2 | thought was illegal, but on what we feared
|
3 | others might argue is illegal. And in these
|
4 | circumstances competition has likely been
|
5 | compromised.
|
6 | Our experience with the
|
7 | Department in its predation case illustrates
|
8 | how Section 2's lack of clarity can lead to
|
9 | significant disagreement between industry
|
10 | enforcement and how, at least in our opinion,
|
11 | overly aggressive enforcement actions
|
12 | threatened the competition that the antitrust
|
13 | laws were intended to protect.
|
14 | In making that comment,
|
15 | however, I want to note that although we
|
16 | disagreed with the Department's theories and
|
17 | decisions in that case, we didn't question
|
18 | their good faith. Despite those differences
|
19 | of opinion, I don't doubt that they decided
|
20 | to pursue the case against American, and they
|
21 | believed in the merits of their arguments and
|
22 | believed that they were fulfilling their
|
23 | obligations to protect competition and
|
24 | consumers.
|
25 | Indeed, if they're like a lot |
171
1 | of lawyers that I know, I suspect that
|
2 | despite the loss, they still think they were
|
3 | right and it's the courts that got it wrong.
|
4 | These good-faith but
|
5 | extremely important disagreements simply
|
6 | highlight the problem of the current state of
|
7 | jurisprudence under a Section 2 predation
|
8 | claim.
|
9 | Let me put our dispute with
|
10 | DOJ in a bit more historical context. The
|
11 | lawsuit was brought in the mid to late
|
12 | 1990's, at which time the airline industry,
|
13 | like the rest of the U.S. economy was
|
14 | operating near the peak of the business
|
15 | cycle. American and other large network
|
16 | carriers were profitable. And although those
|
17 | profit margins were generally in the single
|
18 | digits and was modest compared with other
|
19 | industries, they were very good when compared
|
20 | to the industry's historical returns.
|
21 | In response to these
|
22 | conditions, a number of new entrants entered
|
23 | the market, some such as Frontier and Air
|
24 | Tran are still flying today and are generally
|
25 | recognized as being successful. Other new |
172
1 | entrants that were less well managed and
|
2 | financed disappeared.
|
3 | The failure of some of
|
4 | these new entrants led to concerns that the
|
5 | markets were failing and that the actions of
|
6 | incumbent airlines, like American, where we
|
7 | matched pricing and expanded output was
|
8 | actually harming competition.
|
9 | The Department of Transportation
|
10 | even considered reregulating the industry when
|
11 | an incumbent carrier matched prices or expanded
|
12 | output in response to new entry.
|
13 | Fortunately, that regulatory
|
14 | initiative failed, and the following five or
|
15 | so years demonstrated that the marketplace
|
16 | was far more resilient and dynamic than the
|
17 | average regulations demanded.
|
18 | By the year 2000, Jet Blue
|
19 | and others had shown that a well-financed and
|
20 | managed new entrant could succeed. And
|
21 | ironically, a lot of that growth was in the
|
22 | hubs of network carriers like Denver and
|
23 | Atlanta, which were once deemed fortress
|
24 | hubs. Perhaps even more ironically, the
|
25 | alleged predators like American and Northwest |
173
1 | either filed for bankruptcy or teetered on
|
2 | the brink, while new entrant low-cost
|
3 | carriers became the most profitable and
|
4 | fastest growing segment of the market.
|
5 | The Department's case against
|
6 | American and Spirit's case against Northwest
|
7 | both raised an array of factual and legal
|
8 | issues. I don't intend to address each of
|
9 | those, but I instead want to focus on what I
|
10 | think are two of the most important, the
|
11 | first being the definition of relevant
|
12 | market, and the second being the appropriate
|
13 | measure of cost, and more particularly
|
14 | whether average variable costs is the
|
15 | appropriate standard.
|
16 | Let's start by addressing how
|
17 | the Sixth Circuit dealt with the question of
|
18 | relevant market in its Spirit decision. As
|
19 | mentioned in that case Northwest matched
|
20 | Spirit's pricing and it increased its
|
21 | capacity on routes served by Spirit, which
|
22 | arguably forced Spirit to withdraw from the
|
23 | route. Yet even after Northwest reduced its
|
24 | price and incurred additional costs, its
|
25 | revenue on the route exceeded any reasonable |
174
1 | measure of its average variable costs. As a
|
2 | result, if you define the relevant market as
|
3 | airline services on these routes, Spirit's
|
4 | case failed because it could not show that
|
5 | Northwest had priced its product below an
|
6 | appropriate measure of its cost as required
|
7 | by Brooke Group. These undisputed facts are
|
8 | what led the District Court to enter summary
|
9 | judgment.
|
10 | The Sixth Circuit reversed on
|
11 | appeal. The Court concluded that Spirit and
|
12 | the experts established a genuine issue as to
|
13 | a different definition of relevant market,
|
14 | one that divided passengers flying on the
|
15 | same airplane.
|
16 | In order to reach the
|
17 | conclusion necessary to its claim, that is
|
18 | that Northwest's revenues in some relevant
|
19 | market were less than its variables costs,
|
20 | Spirit's experts had to exclude some portion
|
21 | of revenue that Northwest is earning on these
|
22 | routes during the alleged predation period.
|
23 | They accomplished that
|
24 | objective by removing revenue of two types of
|
25 | passengers. First they excluded revenue from |
175
1 | passengers traveling on any type of
|
2 | connecting itinerary. And second and even
|
3 | more surprisingly, they removed from the
|
4 | calculation passengers who paid more than
|
5 | $225 for their ticket.
|
6 | That analysis, of course, was
|
7 | completely unrelated to any analysis that
|
8 | Northwest would have undertaken at the time
|
9 | it decided to add in price due to capacity
|
10 | on these routes. Northwest instead would
|
11 | have asked a much more straightforward and
|
12 | appropriate question, that is, with new lower
|
13 | fares and additional capacity, would it be
|
14 | able to generate sufficient revenue from any
|
15 | and all types of passengers to cover its
|
16 | costs? A yes answer to that question should
|
17 | have been the end of Spirit's claims.
|
18 | Spirit's segregation of
|
19 | passengers who paid more than $225 from those
|
20 | who pay less than $225 into separate markets
|
21 | is an artificial after-the-fact analysis that
|
22 | should not have created any genuine issue of
|
23 | fact.br>
|
24 | As a result, the Sixth
|
25 | Circuit's Spirit decision is one that harms |
176
1 | rather than promotes competition. The
|
2 | endorsement of that contrived analysis, at
|
3 | least for the purpose of avoiding summary
|
4 | judgment, puts some common carriers in a
|
5 | no-win situation of one, either not competing
|
6 | for every passenger on price and product; or
|
7 | two, recognizing that if it's too successful,
|
8 | it may have to face a treble damages jury
|
9 | trial brought by a competitor.
|
10 | Pricing capacity decisions in
|
11 | the airline industry are made in the context
|
12 | of a very dynamic marketplace, and no airline
|
13 | can possibly anticipate how the next
|
14 | plaintiff may segregate passengers on the
|
15 | same aircraft in the separate relevant
|
16 | markets, each of which is supposed to
|
17 | independently clear the test of a predatory
|
18 | pricing claim.
|
19 | I'd now like to turn to the
|
20 | question of whether a defendant priced its
|
21 | product below an appropriate measure of its
|
22 | cost. That of course was the issue that was
|
23 | determined in our case. It was also perhaps
|
24 | the most hotly disputed issue in that case
|
25 | since the facts showed that American's |
177
1 | revenues on the routes exceeded its average
|
2 | variable costs. This caused the department
|
3 | to develop alternative tests. American had
|
4 | argued against cost measures that included as
|
5 | much as 97 percent of total costs. And
|
6 | others had argued in effect that American's
|
7 | decision failed to maximize its profits.
|
8 | My point for purposes of this
|
9 | hearing is simply this. There was a great
|
10 | deal of disagreement as to what items of cost
|
11 | were properly included, how these costs
|
12 | should be calculated, and how revenues should
|
13 | be attributed to incremental costs.
|
14 | Although we prevailed on this
|
15 | basis, the Tenth Circuit decision left many
|
16 | of these disputed questions unanswered.
|
17 | The Tenth Circuit also left
|
18 | unanswered the important question of whether
|
19 | there should be a meeting competition defense
|
20 | in a Section 2 context.
|
21 | The problem of residual
|
22 | uncertainty in the Tenth Circuit case
|
23 | concerning these questions however is not
|
24 | nearly as problematic in my mind as the Sixth
|
25 | Circuit's treatment of this question. And |
178
1 | what I believe is certainly the most
|
2 | troubling statement in its decision, the
|
3 | Sixth Circuit stated, and I quote here:
|
4 | "Even if a jury were to find that Northwest's
|
5 | prices exceeded an appropriate measure of
|
6 | average variable costs, the jury must also
|
7 | consider the market structure in this
|
8 | controversy to determine if Northwest's deep
|
9 | price discounts in response to Spirit's entry
|
10 | and the accompanying expansion of its
|
11 | capacity on these routes injured competition
|
12 | by causing Spirit's departure."
|
13 | This statement from the Sixth
|
14 | Circuit offers no objective standard for the
|
15 | jury to use in distinguishing aggressive
|
16 | conduct by a large but efficient incumbent in
|
17 | the marketplace. It employs none of the
|
18 | powerful economic tools called for by Judge
|
19 | Easterbrook, and is inconsistent with the
|
20 | dictates of the Supreme Court. It simply
|
21 | constitutes an open invitation for juries and
|
22 | courts to condemn aggressive competition in
|
23 | order to protect less efficient but smaller
|
24 | competitors.
|
25 | I want to wrap up my comments |
179
1 | by offering some specific suggestions
|
2 | concerning Section 2 enforcement. First,
|
3 | given the ambiguity in the law and harm that
|
4 | a false positive can have in this area of
|
5 | the law, regulators should proceed very
|
6 | cautiously. I believe that especially in the
|
7 | context of a single product pricing case,
|
8 | regulators and courts should heed the Supreme
|
9 | Court's guidance that well-founded claims are
|
10 | extraordinarily rare, and that overly
|
11 | aggressive enforcement can harm competition.
|
12 | Predatory pricing claims are
|
13 | not an area of the law where regulators
|
14 | should pursue aggressive new theories or rely
|
15 | on untested economics.
|
16 | Second, markets are more
|
17 | resilient than is often appreciated at the
|
18 | time. The experience in our industry has
|
19 | debunked many of the theories and assumptions
|
20 | concerning the market, like that of the
|
21 | fortress hub that motivated the Department of
|
22 | Transportation to consider re-regulating the
|
23 | industry and encouraged the Department of
|
24 | Justice to file its lawsuit against American.
|
25 | Trusting markets to perceive shortcomings is |
180
1 | often the best policy.
|
2 | Third, definitions of
|
3 | relevant markets should align with the
|
4 | competitive environment, as it was perceived
|
5 | at the time by those whose conduct is being
|
6 | contested. Relevant market definitions
|
7 | contrived by lawyers and economists after the
|
8 | fact are often motivated by predetermined
|
9 | results and almost always fail to account for
|
10 | the full complexities of the market.
|
11 | Fourth, I believe there
|
12 | should be a meeting competition defense under
|
13 | Section 2. Such a rule would provide a
|
14 | clear line, and matching a competitor's price
|
15 | in the hopes of competing for every last
|
16 | customer is exactly what competitors are
|
17 | supposed to do. A competitor that cannot
|
18 | survive at the price point it has chosen is
|
19 | not the type of efficient competitor the
|
20 | antitrust laws should be protecting.
|
21 | Finally, since aggressive
|
22 | competition and predatory conduct often share
|
23 | the same characteristics, careful thought
|
24 | needs to be given to the remedies before the
|
25 | regulators commence litigation. |
181
1 | There were times in our
|
2 | dispute with the Department that we would
|
3 | have liked to resolve our differences, but
|
4 | the remedy imposed by the Department would
|
5 | have been competitively debilitating for
|
6 | American in a highly competitive industry.
|
7 | Finally, predatory pricing is
|
8 | an area of the law where remedies are more
|
9 | prone to doing more harm than good. I hope
|
10 | that these comments have been useful, and I
|
11 | look forward to the moderated portion of the
|
12 | discussion.
|
13 | (Applause)
|
14 | MS. GRIMM: I'd like to
|
15 | thank our presenters for their very fine
|
16 | presentations. We will be resuming in about
|
17 | 15 minutes. We'll take a break until then.
|
18 | (Break Taken)
|
19 | MS. GRIMM: I would like to
|
20 | start at the end with Bruce Wark. Bruce, do
|
21 | you have any comments? Do you have any
|
22 | questions of your fellow panelists?
|
23 | MR. WARK: Well, there was a
|
24 | great deal of commonality, I think, between
|
25 | what I said and what Bruce Sewell said. So |
182
1 | I'll just tell you -- say he was right and
|
2 | leave it at that.
|
3 | On the question of
|
4 | convergence, I agree it's an absolutely
|
5 | important policy goal and needs to be
|
6 | pursued. But equally importantly, you need
|
7 | to make sure you converge at the right place.
|
8 | And you know, particularly with the E.U.,
|
9 | they have a different tradition. They have
|
10 | different biases. I think they are more
|
11 | inclined to protect competitors at the
|
12 | expense of competition. And what I wouldn't
|
13 | want to see is convergence away from what we
|
14 | think is the right standard, which has been
|
15 | developed in this country. And I think the
|
16 | standards employed in this country are the
|
17 | gold standard and we need to stick with them.
|
18 | MS. GRIMM: Bruce.
|
19 | MR. SEWELL: Yeah, I
|
20 | obviously return the favor, Bruce. A lot of
|
21 | mutual admiration here.
|
22 | I guess a couple of the
|
23 | points that were made in your comments that I
|
24 | picked up on, we absolutely agree that
|
25 | average variable cost is the appropriate |
183
1 | measure, and I think we're going to explore
|
2 | that a little bit more. But we absolutely
|
3 | and wholeheartedly agree.
|
4 | The other thing that I noted
|
5 | and I'd like to just sort of reinforce this,
|
6 | I think one of the things I took from your
|
7 | comments was this notion that if you were to
|
8 | try to run a business so as to avoid being
|
9 | sued for potential anticompetitive behavior,
|
10 | that almost by definition then you have
|
11 | under-optimized from a consumer standpoint.
|
12 | And that's something that we need to be aware
|
13 | of. And that the risk of lawsuits and the
|
14 | potential punitive aspects of those private
|
15 | lawsuits is enormous. And yet at the same
|
16 | time as a company you almost cannot run your
|
17 | business to say I will never put myself in
|
18 | that position. It under-optimizes.
|
19 | With respect to Sean's
|
20 | comments, again, we're very supportive of
|
21 | this activity. The critical question, as
|
22 | Bruce mentioned, is if you harmonize
|
23 | regulation, if you adopt in effect a single
|
24 | form of regulation, then it's just so
|
25 | important to make sure that you don't go to |
184
1 | the highest regulatory level so that you
|
2 | don't end up in effect, in order to get
|
3 | consensus, always choosing the most
|
4 | regulatory or the most highly regulated
|
5 | standard. That would be an easy way to get
|
6 | to convergence, but it's not necessarily the
|
7 | best way to do it. That's about it.
|
8 | MS. GRIMM: Sean, do you
|
9 | have some comments?
|
10 | MR. HEATHER: I would just
|
11 | say to clarify what the Chamber's testimony
|
12 | was in response to both the observations that
|
13 | were made. The Chamber is not about convergence
|
14 | for convergence sake. That it is important
|
15 | that the right standard is picked and would
|
16 | agree that, we believe that, the way in which
|
17 | the U.S. looks at these issues is the gold
|
18 | standard. And the importance is taking that
|
19 | gold standard, and as my father would say,
|
20 | and de-Anglesizing the rest of the world to
|
21 | it. So it's not about convergence for
|
22 | convergence sake, but it definitely is
|
23 | obviously the theme behind the remarks I
|
24 | made.
|
25 | MS. GRIMM: Thank you. I |
185
1 | would like to delve into this question of
|
2 | average variable costs in some more detail.
|
3 | Both of our Bruce panelists have definitely
|
4 | endorsed that as a test, I would say. And I
|
5 | would just like to ask each of them to
|
6 | basically tell us more about how average
|
7 | variable costs are kind of arrived at in
|
8 | their particular industry.
|
9 | This morning we heard one of
|
10 | our panelists say that he did not think
|
11 | average variable cost was the right test,
|
12 | especially in high fixed cost industries.
|
13 | And I would just like to hear some more
|
14 | discussion from you on how the average
|
15 | variable cost test would be applied.
|
16 | MR. WARK: Yeah. Want to
|
17 | begin with me again?
|
18 | MS. GRIMM: That would be
|
19 | fine.
|
20 | MR. WARK: I think it's
|
21 | important to recognize that average variable
|
22 | cost is really a proxy for marginal cost
|
23 | because that really it the right test.
|
24 | And when you talk about
|
25 | average variable cost, one of the questions |
186
1 | that gets buried in the next level of
|
2 | analysis is variable over what period of time
|
3 | because, you know, everything is variable if
|
4 | you give it enough time.
|
5 | That said, I do think that
|
6 | average variable cost on an appropriate time
|
7 | frame is the best test because it provides
|
8 | clear guidance. And I think the problem you
|
9 | have with people who argue that maybe it
|
10 | doesn't fit in one particular case or
|
11 | another, there really is no other standard
|
12 | that they're articulating. And you end up in
|
13 | a situation like what I pointed out in the
|
14 | Spirit case where the Court's basically
|
15 | saying well, even if they don't meet average
|
16 | variable cost, you the 12 jurors decide
|
17 | whether you think this scenario is good for
|
18 | competition or not. And that is the kind of
|
19 | unobjective predatory pricing analysis that
|
20 | is surely going to result in false positives
|
21 | and will create all kinds of problems, from a
|
22 | counseling perspective, but also, I think, as
|
23 | far as consumers should be concerned.
|
24 | MS. GRIMM: Bruce?
|
25 | MR. SEWELL: Sure. Let me |
187
1 | start with one of the principles that I tried
|
2 | to make in my written statements. The laws
|
3 | that we're seeking to conform need to be
|
4 | understandable by the people who are asked to
|
5 | adhere to them. And that leads you to look
|
6 | for ways that you can translate concepts that
|
7 | are relevant for antitrust enforcement into
|
8 | concepts that are also common for business
|
9 | people.
|
10 | And average variable cost is
|
11 | a measure which is widely understood by
|
12 | business people, and I would argue
|
13 | particularly in my industry, potentially in
|
14 | Bruce's too, it's a metric that exists for
|
15 | other than just antitrust enforcement
|
16 | purposes, which means that it's also a metric
|
17 | which exists for legitimate business reasons,
|
18 | and therefore has some additional validity, I
|
19 | think, when you're asking for companies to
|
20 | talk about average variable costs.
|
21 | We at Intel have a model
|
22 | which enables us, and in fact we do a lot of
|
23 | our business planning based on average
|
24 | variable cost or marginal cost.
|
25 | Once the fabrication plant |
188
1 | has been built, we have to track the cost of
|
2 | the wafer through that plant. And we've become
|
3 | quite expert at understanding and identifying
|
4 | the various components that have to go into
|
5 | creating a final finished microprocessor, so
|
6 | the cost of the wafer, the cost of the
|
7 | electricity to power the wafer through the
|
8 | plant, the cost of the etching and the
|
9 | chemicals. All of these constituent pieces
|
10 | that go into actually moving the wafer
|
11 | through the plant itself.
|
12 | And this is a model. It's a
|
13 | metric that we use regularly in business. So
|
14 | for that reason, both intellectually, I
|
15 | think, is the correct way to look at the
|
16 | price in question from an antitrust
|
17 | perspective, but it also has that added
|
18 | benefit of being something that business
|
19 | people use in the ordinary course of
|
20 | business, and therefore it has that extra
|
21 | validity.
|
22 | MS. GRIMM: I'm going to
|
23 | follow up with what might be a naive
|
24 | question, but what is the average variable
|
25 | cost of a microprocessor that you produce? |
189
1 | MR. SEWELL: I can't answer
|
2 | that today. I could get you the answer very
|
3 | quickly, but I can't answer it off the top
|
4 | of my head. It would depend on what
|
5 | microprocessor you're talking about. So we
|
6 | have a number of different product lines
|
7 | running through different plants at different
|
8 | times on different processes. And the answer
|
9 | for one of those would be different, but it
|
10 | is known.
|
11 | MS. GRIMM: But it is known?
|
12 | MR. SEWELL: Yes.
|
13 | MS. GRIMM: In other words,
|
14 | you could go to one of your business
|
15 | colleagues and basically say give me that
|
16 | information and it would be readily
|
17 | available; is that correct?
|
18 | MR. SEWELL: Correct.
|
19 | MS. GRIMM: Sean, I'd like
|
20 | to find out more about your project that
|
21 | you're heading. I very much would. And I'd
|
22 | like you to share some additional information
|
23 | on how it is organized.
|
24 | You mentioned that divergence
|
25 | in standards is one of the things that you're |
190
1 | looking at. If we could get more information
|
2 | on that, that also would be helpful.
|
3 | MR. HEATHER: Sure. I start
|
4 | with this as background. In 1947 the average
|
5 | tariff between industrialized nations was 47
|
6 | percent. Today it stands at less than five
|
7 | percent. And that's because when international
|
8 | countries got around the negotiating table
|
9 | during the last 50 years, they began to find
|
10 | ways to open up markets.
|
11 | And so now with the Doha
|
12 | Round is hopefully coming to a successful
|
13 | conclusion, and we all cross our fingers that
|
14 | it will happen in the next few months, that
|
15 | those barriers to trade will continue to
|
16 | diminish over time.
|
17 | What is left behind is what
|
18 | we call in-country barriers, and we put these
|
19 | into kind of six buckets. Divergence in
|
20 | competition policy, intellectual property
|
21 | rights, standards, state-owned enterprises and
|
22 | subsidies, investment restrictions, and
|
23 | government procurement issues.
|
24 | In these area, we think that
|
25 | the existing policy tools that international |
191
1 | countries have, whether it be through
|
2 | bilateral, multilateral, or organizations like
|
3 | the WTO, there's an adequate mechanism by which
|
4 | to address these problems.
|
5 | And so these kinds of
|
6 | in-country barriers are important going
|
7 | forward if we're going to protect a global
|
8 | economy and I think continue to go after open
|
9 | and competitive markets in a way which builds
|
10 | on what we've done in the past.
|
11 | So the U.S. Chamber aims
|
12 | to begin to focus the U.S. government and
|
13 | governments around the world to meet this
|
14 | challenge over the next 50 years in the same
|
15 | way in which the world took on the challenge
|
16 | to opening up markets in a tariff-related
|
17 | sense.
|
18 | In terms of how we're
|
19 | organized, we have got a number of member
|
20 | companies that have been members of the
|
21 | Chamber who have expressed specific interest
|
22 | in this project, see the need for it, see
|
23 | that this being the future of trade
|
24 | discussions and negotiations. And so they've
|
25 | challenged us to take this project on and |
192
1 | moved forward. And we have them serving in
|
2 | a steering capacity.
|
3 | We are advancing on a number
|
4 | of different fronts in each of these
|
5 | different buckets, including today on the
|
6 | competition policy front.
|
7 | I think most notably in
|
8 | the news these days is Chancellor Merkel, the
|
9 | E.U. president, German Chancellor, has
|
10 | advanced the notion of a cooperative dialogue
|
11 | between the U.S. and the E.U. on regulatory
|
12 | issues. And so we're going to start
|
13 | there.
|
14 | Then additionally we'll
|
15 | begin to work through international
|
16 | department on China. We see that in a
|
17 | working partnership with the Treasury
|
18 | Department and the Strategic Economic
|
19 | Dialogue that's in place advancing these same
|
20 | kinds of principles and goals to bring about
|
21 | some sort of regulatory playing field that's
|
22 | more common than the patchwork that we see
|
23 | currently existing.
|
24 | MS. GRIMM: You mentioned
|
25 | tying and essential facilities as two areas |
193
1 | that you're particularly concerned about, and
|
2 | those are also the areas that you highlighted
|
3 | in your comments that you submitted in
|
4 | September.
|
5 | Are there any areas aside
|
6 | from tying and essential facilities that you
|
7 | are concerned about internationally?
|
8 | MR. HEATHER:
|
9 | Internationally, let me answer that by saying
|
10 | this. We are interested in making sure that
|
11 | again this is not convergence for convergence
|
12 | sake, but that there is a uniform standard
|
13 | that's being applied by antitrust
|
14 | jurisdictions around the world, and that
|
15 | standard is one that is resonating from what
|
16 | we see here in the United States happening.
|
17 | So while the comments that
|
18 | we made back in September talked about tying
|
19 | and essentially facilities, our concerns
|
20 | internationally go beyond that to any
|
21 | particular Section 2 type action, whether it
|
22 | be Article 82 of the E.U. or similar laws
|
23 | in countries around the world.
|
24 | And I think the reason which
|
25 | we brought up the tying and essential |
194
1 | facilities was because one of the concerns
|
2 | that was expressed, if you create a standard
|
3 | that is of the highest magnitude, that
|
4 | companies will then have to move to that, and
|
5 | then it would be detrimental. And I think
|
6 | that's particularly important to the issue of
|
7 | intellectual property.
|
8 | When you think about
|
9 | intellectual property, if you have as enforcement
|
10 | and remedy a disclosure of intellectual
|
11 | property, you can't contain that disclosure within
|
12 | a geographical jurisdictional of France or the
|
13 | E.U. Once the cat's out of the bag, the
|
14 | proverbial cat's out of the bag, it spreads
|
15 | quickly across the rest of the known world.
|
16 | So I think it's important
|
17 | that we highlighted essential facilities and
|
18 | tying arrangements because I think we see a
|
19 | lot of that being where the divergence is
|
20 | today. But more broadly, you would want to
|
21 | see convergence around Section 2 issues.
|
22 | MR. MATELIS: Following up a
|
23 | little bit on that, Sean, assuming that
|
24 | convergence might not be happening overnight,
|
25 | you mentioned a couple times in your speech |
195
1 | principles that could be used in areas where
|
2 | there's not convergence. You mentioned
|
3 | Assistant Attorney General Pate's reference
|
4 | to comity principals. And then later in your
|
5 | discussion you mentioned agreements to defer
|
6 | among international competition agencies.
|
7 | I'd be interested in your
|
8 | thoughts on that area in general. And Bruce,
|
9 | I suspect this is something you've thought
|
10 | about as well, and Bruce you as well have at
|
11 | it.
|
12 | MR. HEATHER: In my comments,
|
13 | I think you're referring to where we talked
|
14 | about enhanced comity. And while the U.S.
|
15 | Chamber's not at this point prepared to say
|
16 | enhanced comity is the exact way to go, we
|
17 | believe that exploring that further is a
|
18 | potential option.
|
19 | I think that one of the
|
20 | things you could do in terms of creating
|
21 | standards across the board is potentially the
|
22 | use of safe harbors, in the sense of safe
|
23 | harbors in what I believe would be termed
|
24 | the positive saying that if you have a dominant
|
25 | market share position of 50 or 60 percent, that |
196
1 | that is not defined as a dominant position, or
|
2 | to suggest certain conduct regarding tying or
|
3 | rebate policies and the like does not
|
4 | constitute an abuse of the dominant position.
|
5 | Coming up with some standards that could be
|
6 | adopted internationally would be one
|
7 | way by which you could put that kind of
|
8 | language into agreements between countries
|
9 | and then exploring the area of enhanced
|
10 | comity where potentially you could defer to
|
11 | decisions of other jurisdictions.
|
12 | MR. SEWELL: Yeah. On
|
13 | comity first and then on safe harbors. The
|
14 | reality is that sovereign countries and
|
15 | sovereign trading blocs, that's the right
|
16 | way to describe the E.U., are going to
|
17 | regulate, are going to exercise their
|
18 | sovereignty. That's perfectly within their
|
19 | right to do so.
|
20 | The problem, I think, is when
|
21 | you have agencies which are really reaching
|
22 | outside of their own geographic or area of
|
23 | sovereignty in trying to regulate conduct
|
24 | which occurs outside of that area.
|
25 | So for example, where you |
197
1 | have an agreement between two U.S. companies
|
2 | to price at a certain level, and then that
|
3 | gets reviewed in a third country which is not
|
4 | the host of either of those two companies.
|
5 | And the analysis then becomes can two U.S.
|
6 | companies price in a way which the U.S. would
|
7 | find acceptable but yet some other agency
|
8 | does not? And in those circumstances I think
|
9 | the principles of comity should really be
|
10 | argued and be respected by the agency that's
|
11 | outside of the -- in this case outside of
|
12 | the U.S.
|
13 | Where there is a clear nexus
|
14 | back to non-U.S. competition, so in the case
|
15 | of Europeans, where there is a European actor
|
16 | involved, that's a more difficult argument to
|
17 | make.
|
18 | But certainly where there is
|
19 | no European actor involved and where there's
|
20 | a tenuous connection at best back to European
|
21 | commerce, then I think it's important that
|
22 | issues of comity are respected.
|
23 | With respect to the safe
|
24 | harbor question, I actually think -- I agree
|
25 | with you entirely that we are not going to |
198
1 | get international convergence or harmonized
|
2 | antitrust laws any time soon. But I think
|
3 | there is a role for the safe harbor here. I
|
4 | think there is a threshold standard which
|
5 | some number of these 100 antitrust regulatory
|
6 | agencies around the world might be willing to
|
7 | agree should represent the -- sort of the
|
8 | bare requirements with respect to antitrust
|
9 | conduct. And that so long as companies are
|
10 | complying within that threshold standard,
|
11 | that companies should at least have a safe
|
12 | harbor from punitive litigation.
|
13 | And it might be that that's
|
14 | the first step in driving towards what would
|
15 | ultimately become a more harmonized set of
|
16 | international standards.
|
17 | MR. WARK: I really don't
|
18 | have a whole lot more to add on that issue.
|
19 | I think the points have been well made.
|
20 | MS. GRIMM: I'd like to ask
|
21 | our panelists a question similar to that that
|
22 | was asked of our morning panel, and that is
|
23 | in the area of loyalty discounts, whether
|
24 | market share provides a useful screening
|
25 | mechanism in assessing the legality of such |
199
1 | discounts, why or why not. And Bruce Sewell,
|
2 | maybe you can take a shot at that first.
|
3 | MR. SEWELL: Let me start
|
4 | with what I think you're asking and then feel
|
5 | free to probe a little bit.
|
6 | I don't fundamentally see the
|
7 | loyalty space as different or as requiring
|
8 | different treatment than a standard pricing
|
9 | inquiry would demand. So I don't see perhaps
|
10 | the relevance of the market share test.
|
11 | It seems to me that whether
|
12 | the discount is in the form of a loyalty
|
13 | discount or some other form, the essential
|
14 | inquiry remains the same. Is the price
|
15 | that's being offered across the units being
|
16 | sold above or below a predatory level? And
|
17 | if the answer is that the price is above
|
18 | what we've defined as a predatory level, then
|
19 | I think that ends the inquiry.
|
20 | If the price it below a
|
21 | predatory level, then I think there are
|
22 | remedies available and laws available to deal
|
23 | with that. But I don't see it as a different
|
24 | analysis.
|
25 | MS. GRIMM: Bruce Wark, do |
200
1 | you have anything to add to that?
|
2 | MR. WARK: Yeah. I think I
|
3 | bring almost a unique perspective because I
|
4 | think we have one of the world's most famous
|
5 | loyalty programs. It's called Advantage.
|
6 | And I think that anybody who looks at that
|
7 | and looks at how the loyalty program at least
|
8 | in our industry has grown up, it's absolutely
|
9 | pro-competitive. It's a point of competition
|
10 | that airlines engage in.
|
11 | On the other hand it's not
|
12 | exclusionary. It's clear that new entrants
|
13 | have been able to enter markets, either by
|
14 | developing their own loyalty programs,
|
15 | hooking those loyalty programs onto the
|
16 | loyalty programs of other airlines who may
|
17 | want to do the same thing, making their
|
18 | loyalty programs maybe quicker and easier to
|
19 | redeem.
|
20 | Or take the example of an
|
21 | airline like Jet Blue, which may say well,
|
22 | maybe what I'll do is I'll compete on some
|
23 | other ways and product.
|
24 | So I think the Advantage
|
25 | program in the airline industry is a great |
201
1 | example of how loyalty programs can in fact
|
2 | be very pro-competitive.
|
3 | As far as the point that
|
4 | Bruce Sewell just made, I tend to agree with
|
5 | him. Unless you've got some kind of -- if
|
6 | you can equate the loyalty program with
|
7 | making it exclusive, then maybe you have to
|
8 | analyze it in an exclusive dealing context
|
9 | rather than a predatory pricing context. But
|
10 | certainly our program doesn't work that way,
|
11 | and many don't.
|
12 | MR. SEWELL: And I'd add to
|
13 | that too that really the way to look at
|
14 | loyalty discounts is these are incentives to
|
15 | buy. These are not punishments for failure to
|
16 | buy. And that's a really fundamental
|
17 | difference.
|
18 | So the focus on incenting
|
19 | behavior and providing an advantage to buying
|
20 | more is different than threatening to punish
|
21 | in the event that a supplier were to -- that
|
22 | a customer were to buy from a different
|
23 | supplier. Very different kinds of things and
|
24 | should be treated very differently by the
|
25 | antitrust laws. |
202
1 | MR. WARK: One other point I
|
2 | guess I want to make which goes back to the
|
3 | original question is what role does market
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4 | share play. And again, I think the airline
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5 | industry is interesting because we're 20
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6 | percent of the U.S. market, which no one's
|
7 | going to say is dangerously close to
|
8 | establishing monopoly. But maybe on an
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9 | individual route or out of an individual hub
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10 | we'll be 70, 80 percent of it.
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11 | So are you going to apply
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12 | the 70 percent or the 20 percent? So that
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13 | really gets into what's your relevant market
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14 | on the loyalty program, and could you really
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15 | run a different loyalty program based upon
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16 | the location of the particular participants
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17 | in that program.
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18 | So I think when you ask the
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19 | question what market share means, at least in
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20 | my mind, part of the question is being able
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21 | to find relevant market for purposes of the
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22 | loyalty program.
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23 | MS. GRIMM: Bruce Sewell, as
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24 | I understand it, Intel has faced or is facing
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25 | inquiries in a number of different foreign |
203
1 | jurisdictions with respect to its discount
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2 | policies. Have you encountered differing
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3 | standards in those foreign jurisdictions?
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4 | And if so, how?
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5 | MR. SEWELL: Well, I'm
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6 | pleased to be able to say that I don't have
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7 | the data to answer that yet because we
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8 | haven't been the subject to different -- to
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9 | the imposition of different standards. We
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10 | are dealing with agencies around the world.
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11 | As yet we have not been put in the position
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12 | where we have to sort of harmonize those
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13 | different issues.
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14 | Having said that though, I am
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15 | concerned that the standards that will be
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16 | applied, should these agencies choose to act,
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17 | will be different.
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18 | And a quick example. The
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19 | European Commission is now wrestling with
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20 | this issue of effects based or formalistic
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21 | application of the antitrust laws. Should
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22 | one look at the intent, the conduct
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23 | exclusively, should one look at a prescribed
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24 | set of formulistic rules, or should one
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25 | really focus on the effect that the conduct |
204
1 | has in the market?
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2 | And I think in that area the
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3 | U.S. leads with its willingness to study
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4 | effects as opposed to exclusively conduct for
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5 | a formulistic approach.
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6 | So the result that may obtain
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7 | in Europe should the European competition
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8 | authorities decide to bring an action against
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9 | itself might be different because of the
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10 | application of a different test. We're not
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11 | there yet, but I worry that that's the case.
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12 | Sean mentioned the Chinese
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13 | anti-monopoly law. It's not at all clear
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14 | what kind of standards the Chinese would use
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15 | in assessing market share or in assessing
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16 | conduct under the anti-monopoly law.
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17 | It's not currently an issue
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18 | for us. We're not currently under
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19 | investigation in China. But it is not at
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20 | all inconceivable given that we are subject
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21 | to a competitor which has chosen to use a
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22 | serial antitrust complaint approach, that we
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23 | may find ourselves having to defend our
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24 | conduct in China at some point. And I have
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25 | very little confidence that I today could |
205
1 | tell you what standards would be used by the
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2 | Chinese government, how that would be
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3 | understood.
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4 | MS. GRIMM: Thank you. I'd
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5 | like to ask you a general question here
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6 | again, both Bruces, I'd appreciate your
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7 | responding.
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8 | We've talked about loyalty
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9 | discounts. We've talked about predatory
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10 | pricing. I am wondering if there are any
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11 | other areas under Section 2 that you think
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12 | need more guidance from the agencies, areas
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13 | perhaps in which we could consider safe
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14 | harbors, areas maybe needing the announcement
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15 | of some presumptions. I know it's a broad
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16 | question, but I wonder if you've given any
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17 | thought to this, or in your experience that
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18 | there are any other issues that you've found
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19 | to be of particular concern.
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20 | MR. WARK: Let me think on
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21 | that a little bit. I mean, I spoke on
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22 | predatory pricing in large part because as
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23 | the provider of essentially a single product,
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24 | I don't run into some of the bundling issues.
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25 | There aren't a whole lot of exclusive dealing |
206
1 | concerns in my business.
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2 | And obviously having defended
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3 | a predatory pricing case and having seen what
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4 | happened in the Spirit case, that is the
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5 | issue which is of most importance to me.
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6 | So I guess, as I listen to
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7 | Bruce, I'll think whether there's any other
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8 | areas. I'd be happy to have that one taken
|
9 | care of.
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10 | MS. GRIMM: Fair enough.
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11 | Bruce?
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12 | MR. SEWELL: There isn't
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13 | anything that's strictly within the antitrust
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14 | context that comes to my mind, although there
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15 | is this intersection between intellectual
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16 | property law and single-firm dominance which
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17 | I think is an area that deserves a lot more
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18 | scrutiny and could certainly benefit from
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19 | some clearer language and clearer standards.
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20 | So that would be one.
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21 | And then I think also in
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22 | this area of standardization, what happens
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23 | when a firm, either because of its size or
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24 | because of its intellectual property position
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25 | engages in a standard-setting activity. And |
207
1 | I think also we could use some clarity in
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2 | that space.
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3 | MR. MATELIS: This might be
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4 | a different way of getting at sort of the
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5 | same point, but Bruce Wark, you mentioned in
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6 | your remarks that you can recall some
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7 | instances where American refrained from what
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8 | you thought was pro-competitive conduct out
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9 | of fear of baseless antitrust suits.
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10 | Without going, you know, into
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11 | the details too much, could you explain in
|
12 | general what sorts of things you were
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13 | thinking about and, Bruce Sewell, maybe you
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14 | have some perspective on this as well. And
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15 | Sean, anything that your members have relayed
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16 | to you would be of interest too.
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17 | MR. WARK: In the Section 2
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18 | context it became clear from our litigation
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19 | experience that the Department was as much
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20 | concerned with capacity decisions as it is
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21 | with pricing. Now, from our perspective they
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22 | always went hand in hand because when you get
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23 | a lower price, you now want to compete for
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24 | anybody who might be into that lower price,
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25 | which is going to be a bigger universe than |
208
1 | what you started with.
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2 | But it was at least in the
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3 | DOJ's theory and it was also the theory in
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4 | the Spirit case that maybe you could match
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5 | the competitor, but you shouldn't expand
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6 | capacity.
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7 | Also when you go back and
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8 | you look at the history of what the DOT was
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9 | proposing, they were basically idea of being
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10 | well, you can match price, but we just don't
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11 | want you expanding output.
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12 | So with that sensitivity, you
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13 | know, we really do have to sit there and say
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14 | okay. We have to look at the market and say
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15 | well, are we comfortable expanding capacity
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16 | in that market, knowing that although we
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17 | think it's perfectly legal and
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18 | pro-competitive, are we going to have to
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19 | re-address this thing that we're adding
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20 | capacity where we shouldn't.
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21 | There are a couple of other
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22 | examples that primarily also we've had some
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23 | other disputes with the Department about,
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24 | more along the line of Section 1 cases and
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25 | how we publish fares. And details probably |
209
1 | wouldn't interest too many people here. But
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2 | that's also another area where we think we
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3 | would have to be conservative, in large part
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4 | not because we think we're wrong, but
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5 | because, you know, we're not interested in
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6 | having another argument.
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7 | MR. SEWELL: I don't want to
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8 | give you a flip answer. The temptation would
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9 | be to say whatever happened, we haven't been
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10 | very successful at it because we are
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11 | currently being sued.
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12 | The structure of my industry
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13 | is a little different than Bruce's. We
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14 | really primarily are worried about one
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15 | particular competitor. And I can't think of
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16 | any situation in which we have foregone an
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17 | opportunity that was demonstrable and was
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18 | understood was sitting on the table because
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19 | we feared a suit by our competitor.
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20 | But Intel expends an enormous
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21 | amount of resources, legal resources, trying
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22 | to figure out where these lines are and
|
23 | trying to make sure that we believe we can
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24 | defend everything that we do if challenged.
|
25 | We fully expect to be challenged and we are |
210
1 | routinely challenged.
|
2 | So I don't think we
|
3 | intentionally leave money on the table, as it
|
4 | were, or intentionally price in a way which
|
5 | does not seek to provide the maximum benefit
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6 | to consumers. But we spend an awful lot of
|
7 | time trying to make these decisions.
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8 | And as is apparent, we don't
|
9 | always get it right in the sense that we're
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10 | not successfully avoiding the litigation. We
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11 | absolutely believe that we can defend the
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12 | decisions that we've made, and we'll
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13 | eventually have that opportunity.
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14 | But it is a cost. It's a
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15 | large cost for doing business. And it would
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16 | be helped in large part by some clearer rules
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17 | so that we could set systems and educate our
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18 | clients with greater certainty about where
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19 | the lines need to be drawn.
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20 | And then we would still
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21 | probably have to defend ourselves in court,
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22 | but it would be on the basis of greater
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23 | certainty.
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24 | MR. HEATHER: If I heard
|
25 | your question right, it's do legal |
211
1 | environments lead to businesses making
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2 | decisions based on those.
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3 | MR. MATELIS: Right. And
|
4 | then in particular, are there pro-competitive
|
5 | pro-consumer business decisions that companies
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6 | -- you know, your members, for instance, are
|
7 | avoiding because they fear antitrust
|
8 | liability in some form?
|
9 | MR. HEATHER: Well, our
|
10 | members have told us on numerous occasions
|
11 | that obviously in the general sense that
|
12 | these kinds of legal environments do impact
|
13 | their business decisions. And we most
|
14 | readily track that through our Institute of
|
15 | Legal Reform, which has been around for the
|
16 | last four or five years. We release a study
|
17 | study annually that ranks the 50 states on
|
18 | whether or not they have a positive legal
|
19 | environment that encourages business
|
20 | investment or whether they have a legal
|
21 | environment that discourages business
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22 | investment.
|
23 | In that survey we haven't
|
24 | gone into antitrust issues, so I would
|
25 | leave it at generically stating that yes, |
212
1 | there is a link between cause and effect.
|
2 | And obviously companies react and make their
|
3 | business planning based on the legal
|
4 | environment.
|
5 | MS. GRIMM: I'd like to
|
6 | pursue that a little bit more in the
|
7 | international context again and basically ask
|
8 | very much the same question that was asked of
|
9 | our panelists this morning.
|
10 | In terms of how businesses
|
11 | such as yours, Bruce and Bruce, respond to
|
12 | variations in the competition laws
|
13 | internationally, in particular I'd like to
|
14 | know, for example, whether your business
|
15 | decentralizes decision making as to different
|
16 | foreign environments. Secondly, whether your
|
17 | business generally seeks to comply with the
|
18 | most restrictive laws in those environments.
|
19 | I'd also like to ask whether the uncertainty
|
20 | could even impact on where you, for example,
|
21 | Intel, put your factories.
|
22 | And fourth, I think maybe you
|
23 | answered this, but whether the difference in
|
24 | international enforcement standards
|
25 | substantially raises your cost of doing |
213
1 | business. Those are kind of four
|
2 | subquestions under the large question. But
|
3 | if you could try to address those, it would
|
4 | be helpful.
|
5 | MR. SEWELL: Sure. I'll
|
6 | start, and then if I miss one, then let me
|
7 | know.
|
8 | We start with the position
|
9 | that as a global company, we need to be
|
10 | compliant with the antitrust laws globally.
|
11 | And since there is not a unified standard for
|
12 | that, we have to look at each area in which
|
13 | we do business.
|
14 | For Intel philosophically, we
|
15 | start with the premise that we must be
|
16 | compliant in the U.S., and then overlay that
|
17 | U.S. compliance approach with foreign
|
18 | requirements to the extent that we can
|
19 | discern what those foreign requirements are.
|
20 | So at any given point, we
|
21 | would be able to answer this question by
|
22 | saying we are sure we are compliant with U.S.
|
23 | antitrust law, and we are doing everything
|
24 | that we can to be compliant with foreign
|
25 | antitrust law although it's more difficult |
214
1 | because that law is less certain in many
|
2 | cases, and in some cases even is nascent, is
|
3 | not really yet codified.
|
4 | So we decentralize the
|
5 | decision making to some degree based on that
|
6 | model. So we have antitrust experts outside
|
7 | of the U.S. who focus on antitrust compliance
|
8 | issues in major regions, not in every single
|
9 | country in which we do business.
|
10 | And we have pricing experts
|
11 | outside of the U.S. who seek to inform the
|
12 | pricing people within the central core of the
|
13 | company as to where a particular price or a
|
14 | discount or an incentive program might be
|
15 | potentially problematic outside of the U.S.
|
16 | In terms of your last point,
|
17 | was could it impact where we might select to
|
18 | do business, and the answer is in general,
|
19 | yes. It's a factor that we consider. Because
|
20 | our approach is to try to say that we will
|
21 | be compliant wherever we do business, even if
|
22 | that means that we will hire lawyers and hire
|
23 | specialists to tell us how to do that, in
|
24 | the end it's a cost of doing business that
|
25 | we would normally absorb. And the decision |
215
1 | as to where to locate a factory tends to be
|
2 | driven by things other than the antitrust
|
3 | laws in a particular country, because we just
|
4 | -- we assume that we're going to figure out
|
5 | how to live within those laws, and we'll
|
6 | absorb that cost.
|
7 | The same would not
|
8 | necessarily be true for intellectual property
|
9 | laws where the risk of putting a factory into
|
10 | a country with punitive intellectual property
|
11 | laws could be much more devastating. We'll
|
12 | figure how to get through the antitrust
|
13 | issues. Some of the IP issues are sticky.
|
14 | But the last point is that
|
15 | it certainly is that the disharmony and the
|
16 | lack of convergence represents a substantial
|
17 | and significant cost for us, and that cost
|
18 | could be alleviated or at least substantially
|
19 | reduced if we had greater consistency among
|
20 | the various laws.
|
21 | MS. GRIMM: Bruce, would you
|
22 | like to add to that?
|
23 | MR. WARK: Sure. The
|
24 | airline industry is a little different than a
|
25 | lot of industries in the sense that there |
216
1 | isn't a whole lot of foreign investment is
|
2 | U.S. airlines in part because of law and vice
|
3 | versa.
|
4 | So my competitive footprint
|
5 | in Europe, being the most important example,
|
6 | is small. So I never really have to worry
|
7 | about an Article 82 claim standing alone.
|
8 | I think where those issues do
|
9 | come up for us is we compete with airlines
|
10 | like British Airways, but we also cooperate
|
11 | with airlines like British Airways through
|
12 | airline alliances.
|
13 | So for example, I may be
|
14 | competing with them between Chicago and
|
15 | London, but I may be cooperating with them to
|
16 | move somebody from Chicago to Tel Aviv.
|
17 | So we're kind of in this
|
18 | interesting position of sometimes competing
|
19 | with airlines, sometimes cooperating with
|
20 | airlines. That's more of a Section 1 or an
|
21 | Article 81 issue, although you do have this
|
22 | kind of concept of collective dominance. I
|
23 | don't know that anybody really knows what
|
24 | that means under Article 82. I think that's
|
25 | being developed as we speak. |
217
1 | So when we talk to the other
|
2 | airlines about what we can do as an alliance,
|
3 | I can say that we always have to fall to the
|
4 | lowest common denominator. I personally
|
5 | believe there are some very pro-competitive
|
6 | things alliances can and would do but for the
|
7 | fact that again, you're always operating on
|
8 | the lowest level for fear that you will
|
9 | stumble on what is the highest competitive
|
10 | hurdle.
|
11 | MS. GRIMM: I have no more
|
12 | questions.
|
13 | MR. MATELIS: Something that
|
14 | a lot of people have spoken about today are
|
15 | loyalty discounts. Bruce, let's start with
|
16 | you. I wonder if you could -- you know, I
|
17 | think most people intuitively grasp how
|
18 | loyalty discounts help firms get business.
|
19 | But I wonder if you could help tell us by
|
20 | tracing that through to the potentially
|
21 | pro-competitive effects on consumers.
|
22 | MR. WARK: Which Bruce?
|
23 | MR. MATELIS: Bruce Sewell.
|
24 | MR. SEWELL: Maybe I'mbr>
|
25 | missing something, but the trace-through from |
218
1 | my perspective is that loyalty discounts are
|
2 | discounts. Loyalty discounts reduce the
|
3 | price that the consumer pays, and for that
|
4 | reason -- I mean, that is the essential and
|
5 | the nub of what we're trying to accomplish
|
6 | through regulation of competition.
|
7 | So the track to me is very
|
8 | simple. It's a discount. As I said before,
|
9 | I think it should be looked at as any other
|
10 | kind of pricing mechanism.
|
11 | Sometimes these discounts may
|
12 | be cash discounts. Sometimes they may be
|
13 | discounts in kind. Sometimes they may be
|
14 | incentives to cooperate in areas that
|
15 | increase visibility of the products or other
|
16 | marketing areas.
|
17 | But in the end, from the
|
18 | perspective of a consumer, all of these
|
19 | discounts ultimately produce a lower price in
|
20 | the marketplace. And I think that's the
|
21 | social benefit.
|
22 | MR. MATELIS: Are there
|
23 | cost-saving efficiencies that might not be
|
24 | readily apparent to somebody outside a firm,
|
25 | or is that not significant? |
219
1 | MR. SEWELL: Well, in our
|
2 | industry it can be very significant because
|
3 | issues of scale have such a direct impact on
|
4 | the cost. So from our perspective, there are
|
5 | pro-competitive and pro-business reasons for
|
6 | looking to expand the scale and the volume of
|
7 | parts that we sell.
|
8 | So I'm not sure that's
|
9 | directly a consumer benefit, but it's
|
10 | certainly a business justification for the
|
11 | discounting practice.
|
12 | MR. MATELIS: Bruce Wark or
|
13 | Sean, any thoughts?
|
14 | MR. WARK: I wouldn't add
|
15 | anything to that.
|
16 | MR. MATELIS: Okay. I
|
17 | wanted to return to something that Bruce
|
18 | Sewell mentioned earlier and ask it of you
|
19 | Bruce Wark. Bruce said that at Intel,
|
20 | average variable cost is a readily available
|
21 | figure often. Is that the case at American
|
22 | as well?
|
23 | MR. WARK: Well, we had a
|
24 | very long piece of litigation where in fact
|
25 | there was a great deal of argument about what |
220
1 | average variable costs should be. I think we
|
2 | thought we knew what it meant for purposes of
|
3 | that case. It was a different number than
|
4 | what the Justice thought the number should
|
5 | be.
|
6 | MR. MATELIS: I don't mean
|
7 | to interrupt you. But outside the context of
|
8 | litigation, is average variable cost a
|
9 | concept that -- or a figure that is important
|
10 | to American's own internal deliberative
|
11 | process, or do you have different ways of
|
12 | thinking about your business?
|
13 | MR. WARK: We have a route
|
14 | accounting system that takes account of all
|
15 | kinds of different layers of cost, from fully
|
16 | allocated to something that is much more
|
17 | variable. So yes, I think that the short
|
18 | answer to your question is yes.
|
19 | MR. MATELIS: Another
|
20 | predatory pricing question for -- I guess for
|
21 | you, Bruce Wark. You mentioned in your
|
22 | prepared remarks that you thought it was
|
23 | appropriate to acknowledge a meeting
|
24 | competition defense in the Section 2 context.
|
25 | I guess the flip side to -- or the argument |
221
1 | against the meeting competition defense is
|
2 | that if it precludes liability in exactly
|
3 | those situations where, you know, a low-cost
|
4 | -- a lower cost new entrant might be seeking
|
5 | to enter, and a higher cost incumbent lowers
|
6 | cost. So in that instance the meeting
|
7 | competition defense would provide a safe
|
8 | harbor for sort of the core theory of how
|
9 | predatory pricing can work to harm
|
10 | competition.
|
11 | Sort of in general give me
|
12 | your thoughts on why the meeting competition
|
13 | defense is appropriate and why my attempt to
|
14 | defend it might not be the right way to look
|
15 | at it.
|
16 | MR. WARK: Well, I think
|
17 | from the perspective of the alleged preditee,
|
18 | they picked a point in the marketplace where
|
19 | they have to decide they're going to be
|
20 | successful. We didn't.
|
21 | It is a different situation
|
22 | than when that cost is imposed on them. If
|
23 | I went out and imposed a cost on them that
|
24 | was below my measure of marginal or
|
25 | incremental costs with the intention of |
222
1 | driving them out, and they couldn't survive
|
2 | at that price, then that would be a different
|
3 | situation than when you have the alleged
|
4 | victim setting the price in the marketplace.
|
5 | If they raise their price and
|
6 | we didn't follow, that might be a different
|
7 | fact. But I think that if a competitor that
|
8 | basically sets its own price in the market
|
9 | can't survive, it's not the kind of efficient
|
10 | competitor that the competition laws are
|
11 | intended to protect.
|
12 | MR. MATELIS: Do you have
|
13 | any thoughts on how easy or hard it is to
|
14 | compare costs when you're seeking to apply
|
15 | the meeting competition defense? Is the cost
|
16 | comparative always intuitive, or are there
|
17 | hidden costs that make that comparison
|
18 | difficult?
|
19 | MR. WARK: Well, I guess
|
20 | what I'm arguing is that the defense, you
|
21 | don't have to worry about my costs. I ought
|
22 | to be able to compete for every passenger I
|
23 | can at the price determined by my competitor.
|
24 | MS. GRIMM: I think those
|
25 | are all the questions that Joe and I have. |
223
1 | I would like to ask our panelists if they
|
2 | have any additional questions or observations
|
3 | they'd like to make.
|
4 | MR. WARK: Just to simply
|
5 | extend my thanks again for the opportunity.
|
6 | MS. GRIMM: And I'd like to
|
7 | thank all of you for joining us here today.
|
8 | The weather is very challenging, and we
|
9 | really appreciate your taking time off from
|
10 | your very busy schedules to be with us and
|
11 | prepare for these hearings. Your remarks
|
12 | have been very insightful, and we appreciate
|
13 | your sharing your views with us. Can we all
|
14 | give them a hand of applause?
|
15 | (Applause)
|
16 | MS. GRIMM: Thank you all
|
17 | and have a safe trip home.
|
18 | (Which were all the
|
19 | proceedings had in the
|
20 | above-entitled cause this
|
21 | date and time.)
|
22 |
|
23 | * * *
|
24 |
|
25 | |
224
1 | CERTIFICATE OF REPORTER
|
2 |
|
3 | I, PAMELA STAFFORD, Certified Shorthand
|
4 | Reporter for the State of Illinois, do hereby certify
|
5 | that the
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6 | foregoing was reported by stenographic and mechanical
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7 | means, which matter was held on the date, and at the time
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8 | and place set out on the title page hereof and that the
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9 | foregoing constitutes a true and accurate transcript of
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10 | same.
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11 | I further certify that I am not related to any of the
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12 | parties, nor am I an employee of or related to any of the
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13 | attorneys representing the parties, and I have no
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14 | financial
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15 | interest in the outcome of this matter.
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16 | I have hereunder subscribed my hand on the
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17 | day of , .
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18 |
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19 |
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20 |
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21 |
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22 | PAMELA STAFFORD, CSR |
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