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Structure of Dairy Products Table of Contents Chapter 1: Overview of Microscopical Approaches D. F. Lewis 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Light microscopy 1.2.1 Compound light microscopy 1.2.1.1 Dark field and phase contrast 1.2.1.2 Polarised Light and Differential Interference Contrast 1.2.1.3 Fluorescent Microscopy 1.2.1.4 Staining 1.2.2 Confocal scanning light microscopy 1.2.3 Specimen preparation 1.3 Electron microscopy 1.3.1 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 1.3.2 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) 1.3.2.1 Thin sectioning 1.3.2.2 Replica techniques 1.3.2.3 Dispersions 1.4 Other techniques 1.5 Conclusions 1.6 References CHAPTER 2: Instrumental Techniques for Sample Preparation D.G. Pechak and A.K. Smith 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Light Microscopy 2.2.1 Wide field light microscopy 2.2.2 Fluorescence light microscopy 2.2.3 Confocal scanning laser microscopy 2.2.4 Sectioned material for light microscopy 2.2.5 Cold Stage Light Microscopy 2.3 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 2.3.1 Electron guns 2.3.2 Cathode comparison parameters 2.3.3 Low temperature SEM 2.3.4 Environmental/variable pressure SEM 2.4 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) 2.4.1 Embedded material for TEM 2.4.2 Negative staining TEM 2.4.3 Low temperature methods for TEM 2.4.3.1 Freeze fracture replication TEM 2.4.3.2 Low temperature preparation methods 2.4.3.3 Freeze substitution for TEM 2.4.3.4 Cryo-TEM 2.4.4 Energy filtering (EF)-TEM 2.4.4.1 Introduction 2.4.4.2 Global imaging 2.4.4.3 Contrast enhancement 2.4.4.4 Thick section imaging 2.4.4.5 Frozen hydrated specimens 2.4.4.6 Electron spectroscopic imaging 2.5 X-ray microanalysis 2.6 Rheology 2.7 Light scattering 2.7.1 Laser Light Scattering 2.7.2 Dynamic light scattering 2.8 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy 2.9 Digital imaging - image analysis 2.9.1 Hardware 2.9.2 Software 2.9.3 Major steps in applying image analysis 2.9.3.1 Image acquisition 2.9.3.2 Calibration 2.9.3.3 Image enhancement 2.9.3.4 Segmentation/thresholding 2.9.3.5 Count/measure 2.9.3.6 Analyse 2.10 Laboratory safety 2.10.1 Light microscopy 2.10.2 SEM/TEM 2.11 Future techniques in structure of dairy products 2.11.1 Scanning Probe Microscopy 2.11.2 Diffusing wave and ultrasonic spectroscopy 2.11.3Microwave techniques in microscopy 2.12 References Chapter 3: Microstructure of Milk Components A.K. Smith and B.E. Campbell 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Cow¿s milk composition 3.2.1 Milk fat globule 3.2.1.1 Milk fat 3.2.1.2 Milk fat globule membrane 3.2.2 Colloidal milk proteins 3.2.2.1 Microstructure of the casein micelles 3.2.2.2 Molecular structure of the casein micelles 3.2.2.3 Interactions and stability of the casein micelles 3.2.3 Whey proteins 3.2.4 Lactose 3.3 Concluding remarks 3.4 References Chapter 4: Microstructure of Dairy Fat Products S. Martini and A. G. Marangoni 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Microstructure of cream and butter 4.2.1 Background 4.2.2 Cream 4.2.3 Whipped cream 4.2.4 Butter 4.3 Milk fat 4.3.1 Composition 4.3.2 Milk fat fractionations 4.4 Microstructure 4.4.1 Effect of minor components 4.4.2 Processing conditions 4.4.2.1 Crystallisation temperature 4.4.2.2 Cooling rate 4.4.2.3 Agitation 4.4.3 Chemical composition 4.4.3.1 Interesterification 4.4.3.2 Blending AMF with vegetable oils 4.4.3.3 Blending different AMF fractions 4.4.3.4 Blending AMF with cocoa butter (CB) 4.4.4 Addition of emulsifiers to milk fat and its blends 4.5 Rheology 4.6 Fat crystal networks and microstructure 4.7 Milk fat in emulsions 4.7.1 Introduction 4.7.2 Emulsion stability 4.7.2.1 Creaming 4.7.2.2 Flocculation 4.7.2.3 Coalescence 4.7.2.4 Partial coalescence 4.7.2.5 Ostwald ripening 4.8 Conclusions 4.9 Acknowledments 4.10 References Chapter 5: Microstructure of Concentrated and Dried Milk Products A.Y. Tamime, R.K. Robinson & M. Michel 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Patterns of production 5.3 Milk as a raw material 5.4 Concentrated milk products 5.4.1 Evaporated milk Method of manufacture Structure 5.4.2 Sweetened condensed milk Introduction Structure 5.4.3 Bulk concentrated milk 5.5 Dairy powders 5.5.1 Whole and skimmed milk powders 5.5.1.1 Background 5.5.1.2 Structure 5.5.2 Retentate milk (whole and skimmed) powders 5.5.3 Buttermilk powder 5.5.4 Whey powder 5.5.5 Whey protein concentrates (WPC) and whey protein isolates (WPI) 5.5.6 Lactose 5.5.7 Caseinates 5.6 Conclusion 5.7 References Chapter 6: Structure of Fermented Milks A.Y. Tamime, A. Hassan, E. Farnworth & T. Toba 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Background to manufacturing practice 6.3 Patterns of production and consumption 6.4 Lactic acid fermentations 6.4.1 Background 6.4.2 Liquid-type fermented milks 6.4.2.1 Ayran and dough 6.4.2.2 Buttermilk 6.4.2.3 Yakult® 6.4.3 Gel-type fermented milks 6.4.3.1 Introduction 6.4.3.2 Factors affecting the structure formation in yoghurt 6.4.3.3 Monitoring milk coagulation using confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM) 6.4.3.4 Effect of capsular EPS on structure formation and origin of void spaces around the starter cultures 6.4.3.5 How is ropiness formed? 6.4.3.6 Stabilising mechanism of EPS in yoghurt 6.5 Lactic acid - yeast fermentations 6.5.1 Kefir (kephir, kiaphur, kefyr) 6.5.1.1 Introduction 6.5.1.2 Structure of kefir 6.5.2 Koumiss (kumys, kumiss, coomys) 6.5.3 Calpis® 6.6 Lactic acid-mould fermentations 6.6.1 Viili (viiliä) 6.7 Concentrated fermented milk products 6.7.1 Labneh (labaneh) 6.7.2 Skyr 6.7.3 Ymer 6.7.4 Shrikhand 6.8 Frozen yoghurt and related products 6.9 Dried fermented milk products 6.10 Conclusions 6.11 References Chapter 7: Microstructure of Natural Cheeses D. W. Everett 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Manufacturing processes 7.2.1 High pressure processing 7.2.2 Cheese manufactured from concentrated milk 7.2.2.1 Ultrafiltered milk 7.2.2.2 Evaporated milk 7.2.3 Freezing 7.3 Compositional parameters 7.3.1 Calcium and pH 7.3.2 Salt 7.3.3 Fat-replacers or substitutes 7.3.4 Milk from different species 7.4 Fat globule microstructure 7.4.1 Homogenisation 7.4.2 Recombined milk 7.4.3 Free oil formation 7.4.4 Meltability 7.5 Protein microstructure 7.5.1 Protein hydrolysis 7.5.2 Casein structural units in cheese 7.6 Minerals 7.7 Mozzarella and other pasta filata cheeses 7.7.1 Microstructure of Mozzarella cheese 7.7.2 Protein microstructure 7.7.3 Compositional parameters 7.7.3.1 Calcium and pH 7.7.3.2 Salt 7.7.3.3 Exopolysaccharides 7.7.3.4 Fat replacers 7.7.4 Fat globule microstructure and meltability 7.7.5 Homogenisation 7.7.6 Recombined milk 7.7.7 Light scattering by cheese constituents 7.8 Cottage cheese varieties 7.9 Cream cheeses 7.10 Mould ripened cheeses 7.10.1 Background 7.10.2 Camembert cheese 7.11 Conclusions 7.12 References Chapter 8: Processed Cheese and Cheese Analogues B. B. Mulsow, D. Jaros, and H. Rohm 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Processed cheese technology 8.2.1 Gross composition and ingredients 8.2.2 Emulsifying salts 8.2.3 Manufacturing process 8.3 Rheology and structure of processed cheese 8.3.1 Background 8.3.2 Influence of blending ingredients 8.3.3 Effects of moisture and pH 8.3.4 Processing conditions 8.3.5 Changes during cooling and storage 8.4 Conclusion 8.5 References Chapter 9: Microstructure of Frozen and Dairy-Based Confectionery Products DF Lewis 9.1 Background 9.2 Technological issues 9.2.1 Ice-cream 9.2.2 Chocolate and couvertures 9.2.3 Caramel and toffee 9.3 Microscopical issues 9.3.1 Ice-cream 9.3.2 Toffee formulations 9.3.3 Chocolate and couvertures 9.4 Conclusions 9.5 References Chapter 10: The Microscope in Troubleshooting DF Lewis 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Extraneous matter 10.3 Quasi foreign materials associated with specific products 10.4 Processing plant defects 10.5 Technological issues 10.6 Conclusions 10.7 References 10.8 Bibliography 10.8.1 General/miscellaneous 10.8.2 Insects and other invertebrates 10.8.3 Hairs, fibres and plastics 10.8.4 Glass, minerals and metals 10.8.5 Plant related
Library of Congress Subject Headings for this publication:
Dairy products -- Analysis.
Dairy processing.