414 MONTHLY WEATHER REVZEW. SEPTEMBER, 1903
WEATHER BUREAU COOPERATION IN RECLAMATION
WORK.’
By Mr. F. H. BRANDRNBURQ, District Forecader.
Among the factors that enter into the consideration of irri-
gation projects i t is manifest that the rainfall over the catch-
ment basin is fundamental. The clistrict embraced in what
is known as the arid or semiarid region is so diversified in
topography, eo irregular as to the distribution of rainfall, and
so varied as to the other climatic conditions that have a direct
bearing on irrigation enterprises that no general discussion is
applicable to all parts of the region. Hence, in these under-
takings, it will be necessary to study the peciiliarities of each
locality with regard to evaporation, sunshine, wincls, tempera-
ture, snowfall and rainfall.
In regard to rainfall, i t may be broadly stated that east of the
Continental Divide the Tvariner half of the year brings inore
than two-thirds of the annual amount, while on tlie western
slope, as a rule, opposite conditions prevail. Precipitation is
uucertain a t best, nnd marked ilifierences in the nionthly as
well as the yearly values are common. The notion is preva-
lent that an excess or deficiency of precipitation is followed
by compensnting conditions. A study of the data of the Den-
ver station, which may be tiiken as illustrating the cliiiiatic
conditions of the eastern slope, shows that conditions xith
respect to precipitation are even more variable than those
pertaining t,o temperature and that c( tlotnhly dry or w d srulxoii
i s trot likdy /o hP ~f i i l l o t ~~~~l I)!/ f h r oiqiusitc. e.rlrc’t)it,, but t.nthr,r b!/
prac.ticnll!y tiort)id rrrit!foll.
While moderate rains lessen tlie need for irrigation and are
highly beneficial to crop growth, they add but little to the
volume discharged by the streams. During .July ancl Lhgust
downpours nre not infrequent; nearly all tlie water finds its
may into the streams in a few hours, causing damage to crops
on the lowlands, t u ditches and to railroacls for miles along
the valleys. Topography is a larger factor in connection with
these heavy storms, or cloud-bursts, and certain localities are
more likely than others to be visited. Doubtless the con-
serving of these waters will receive attention in time, not-
withstanding the fact that mater stored late in summer mill
be subject to a large loss by evaporation during the interval
that must elapse before the nest irrigation season.
Excepting certain large streams on the western slupe. from
which as yet but little water is diverted for irrigation pur-
poses, our streams are noriudly low in mitisummer, which is
the critical time in crop growth, for, as a rule, tlie altitude is
considerable and the l~lanting season about four weeks later
than in the saiiie latitude in tlie great central valleys; the
niaturiiig of oiir c+ops is thus brought into the periotl when
excessive heat and a scarcity of water are general. It ih at
such times that advantage is gladly taken of the supply
afiorrlecl by any heavy local raiiis that iunj- occur in the u1);ier
catchment basins. In Colorado a sgsteiii of telegraphic reports
of gage heights mas initiated fuur years ago by the Weather
Bureau, in cooperation with the Geological Survey, to gil e
information in this regard. The volume clischargecl lwing
puhlishecl in the morning newspapers, the inforniaticrn was
available to interested persons througliout the lower basins
one or two days before the a1Jl)rO”Ch of the increased flow.
Last year, unfortunately, the Geological Survey, owing to lack
of funds. was unable to keep up the gaging stations, and this
year a like condition in the Weather Bureau. as regards funds,
has preventecl a resumption of these reports. TTith an in-
1 The Elewnth National Irrigation c‘nngreh5 was held a t Ogrlen S P ~J -
tember 15, 1‘303, and wa+ attended by M r . F. H. Brandenburg. District
Forecaster; Robert 11. Hardinge, Swtion Director. and Walter S. Palniw,
niug, rc*hlie‘.ctively. This ih the niltlrtw
presented by RIr. Brandenburg.-C. -4.
creased number of gaging stations it will lie possible to gather
quickly, a t selected centers, advice regarding these temporary
additions to the volume and to disseminate the information,
by telegraph or otherwise, so that ditches of late construction
that are not beneficiaries in times of scarcity may profit by
that which mould otherwise be lost to thein.
Fortunately the mountain ranges, which are primarily the
cause of the aridity prevailing in the western third of our
country, furnish some compensating conditions by storing for
the crop season the moisture collected in tlie form of snow
during the wint8er. The period for which snow is thus stored
is, of course, dependent on latitude. tlie altitude of the ranges,
and whether they are covered with forests or are bare ancl
fully exposed to tlie sun and high winds. The character of
the spring, whether ~a r i ~i and early or cold and backward, is
also :in iinportant factor in regu1:tting the flow.
A s indicating in a general nny the area froni which the
greater part of the irrigiatioii supplies must l ~e drawn, it may
be o f interest to note that in Arizona the area of land 5000
feet mil over in elevation is 47,120 square iniles, or 43 per
cent of the total area. Expressed iu square miles tlie area in
TT’ashingtoii above 7000 feet has been placed a t 100(), or 2 per
cent of the wliole State; in Oregon 21500. or 3 per cent; in
Cl;tlifurnia 6246. or 4 1)er cent; in Iclalio 4100, or 5 per cent;
in Arizona G ’ i o o , or G per cent; in Nevada 13,000, or 12 per
cent; in New hIexico %,:jCjO, or 18 per cent; in Utah 20,441,
or 34 per cent, am1 in C’olora(1o 45,885, or 44 per cent.
Feeling assiireil that a knowledge of the snowfall in these
high cittcliiiient Lasins would prove of great value to irrigation
interests, the collection of titatistics regarcling tlie amount,
the distributioii, etc., was begun in C’ol(~r:td~ during the winter
uf 1896-95 aiicl 1)ul)lishecl in bulletins. together nit11 a fore-
cast of the character aiitl cluratiou of the flow that might be
expected. The snowfall bulletins, published regularly from
Deceiulrer to March or Spril in the different mountain States,
have a value beyond that of their current use, for to thein
reference must be l i d for inforination regarcling the water
SUlJ1)lY of ~nany cntchment basins not represented by full
meteorological reports.
Since variations in the auount aud clistribntioii of precipi-
tation, so c‘o~ninon in the Plains region, are not absent in tlie
muuntaiiis. the volume furnished by melting snow is subject to
iiiarkecl fluctuations. Usually the inaiimuni flow from this
swrce is attained about the inidclle of June, after which the
decline is rapid, unless the flow is augmented by rains. On the
eastern SlOlJe. as in all highly developed sections, where the S L I ~
ply furiiisliecl by a iiornial snowfall is usu:tlly inadequate, ex-
cept cluriug a sliort period following iuaiiiuuni iuelting, a dry
summer iiivarialdy emphasizes the importance of large reser-
voirs to tide oier such seasnns. It is ttlso during these periods
of drought that high wincls are coniiiion ancl evaporation most
pronounce(1, imterially increasing the need for irrigatioil
water, and :ct the bitiue time appreciably climiiiishing the stock
o f wow. I t is therefore appareiit that evaporation is an im-
portant element to Le considered in calculations pertaining to
rewrvoirs. Coiuplete data regarding the loss from this source
are not available, but Prof. Thonias Russell l i ~s shown that
cliiriiig a year of normal temperature. mind, moisture, and sun-
shine evaporation from free mater surfaces could reach ’i feet
or more in the estreme eastern and southeastern parts of Cali-
fornia. For Utah the possible loss was placed a t 70 to 75
inches; for Colora(10. between 65 ancl 50; for New Mexico, be-
tween 76 and SO inches; for Arizona, from 55 to 60 inches in
the uplsfid districts and at about 100 inches in the Tuma
desert. I n Nevada the loss was found to lie greatest, naiiiely,
80 to 100 inches.
While for niaiiy parts of this w s t area inforiuation in regard
to the different c.liluatic rleiiiei~ts i?r necehsarily incomplete, yet
in scores of enterprises tlie data collected by tlie Weather
SEPTEMBEEG, 1903.
1903. .illK. 13, 2 [J. W. ._ ._. 4 p. 111 ._ . . . 8 y. 111. ._ _. . 14, 12 iuirlnight.
4 a. iii ...... 5 a . IU ...... 6 a. 111. ._. . .
MONTEJLY WEATHEB BEVIEW.
M,(,rl.
iP2.2
ifi2.O
162.0
r60.O
760.0 i5!1.8
762.0
416
Bureau have been found valuable aids to engineers and in-
vestors. Each State is a section of the Climate and Crop Ser-
vice of the Bureau, in charge of an officid whose duty i t is to
establish stations of observation. These stations are possible
through the voluntary cooperation of public spirited citizens
willing to act as observers. Observations include a record of
the temperature, rainfall, snowfall, cloudiness, and prevailing
winds; reports are rendered monthly, and after examination
and computation at the section center, the values are published
in quarto form about the 15th of the following month. These
printed reports, with the addition of the annual summary,
furnish a convenient source of information on cliinatic features,
and may be had free of charge upon application. A consider-
able number of the stations have been in operation a great
many years, while reports from others cover a comparatively
short period. I f the monthly publication does not give a re-
port from the locality desired, application should be made to
the section director for the information, as a copy of all records
made at any time within the State in question is on file; thus,
in Colorado, the number of discontinued stations is three times
as large as that of the stations a t present in operation, although
these number nearly one hundred.
Records from mountain stationh being especially important
in the study of precipitation, efforts have been directed, for a
number of years, toward increasing the number of observers
on the upper watersheds, and while the number of such ob-
servers now cooperating is larger than ever before, there is
room for a great many more in every section of the arid
region.
The importance of these rainfall stations is not fully appre-
ciated by the general public. In the beginning the work of
reclamation will necehsarily be confined to the larger and more
promising undertakings, leaving relatively small ones for later
consideration. When these latter are taken in hand full in-
formation must be available regarcling the rainfall and its
seasonal distribution, and whether it comes in siuall amounts
or in an occasional clo~nponr or cloud-burst. It lies within
the power of this Congress to clo much to encourage persons to
undertake rainfall observation< in the higher altitudes of the
different States. As regards the furnishing of instrumental
equipment, I feel sure there mill be no dificulty. for Professor
Moore, Chief of the Bureau, hab the hearty cooperation of the
Honorable Secretary of Agriculture in all inatterb that will
further the interests of irrigation.
~~
HURRICANE IN THE GULF OF MEXICO.
Ry Cald J. I:LI II.ER*.. J I
Mr. W. c!. Devereaus, Assistant Observer, Hamna, Cuba. for-
wards the following report by Capt. J. Elligers. jr., captain of
the Norwegian steamship Jason, with reference to the hurricane
of August 14 and 15. The esact location of the vessel is not
known, other than as given in the extract from Captain Elli-
gers’s report:
We received a telegram a t Taiiipico on August 11 fioni the United State3
Weather Bureau, stating that a hurricane was approaching the Mexican
roast, but, as the following day did not show any signs of the approarh of
the storm and as our boat was new ani1 well loaded, we sailed with a cargo
of cattle at 2 p. m. of the 13th. ilirect for Havana. The wc5atht.r was clear,
with a light breeze from the east-northeabt and a normal barometer
After midnight of the 13th the wind increabed to a brisk breeze from the
north-northeast. A t 6 a . in. of the l4tlt. when we were about 1511 miles
east of Tampico, a gale buddenly blew u p from the north, with heavy
rain, the barometer began to fall rapidly, and the sea became very rough.
The wind coutinued froin the north with terrible force until 9 p. 111. of
that day, but seemed to be strongest between 12 noon and 4 p. ni.; the
rain fell in torrents, the air was sticky and much warmer than on the
preceding day, and the sea was very rough The barometer reached
the lowest point at 8:30 p. m., one reading 29.24 and the other reading
29.13 (they were together hefore the storm). From 9 to 9:20 p. in. there
was a dead calm; the rain liar1 stoppeil, hut the sea was terrihlr: tht.
only thing I can rompare i t to ih the hoiliug water in a iiiammnth kettle
At !,.a0 p. 111. the wind turneil to hoiith, through cast, and the 5tonn
66-2
came with a sudden rush from that direction, and the wind blew with
great force until 6 a. m. of the 15th. I can not estiniate the velocity of the wind, but it was very high; I had to hold myself on the boat by
clinging to R stanchion with both arms, and the wheelman had to stand
in front of the wheel so that the wind would blow him against the wheel
and not away from it.
During the 15th the storm gradually modei-tlted, and on the 16th the
hatches, which hac1 been closed for three days. were opened and 870 dead
eattlewere removed from a cargo of f s l 3 . It was by far the worst storm I ever encountered, and I have been a sailor all my life.
Abstrart of log of stmmnhip Ju801i.
tlate. 1 liarmieter.
i a. 111.. . . . .~ i5!1. 5
8 a. 111 . . . . . 7.59. I 1
!I 8 .
1
111. . . . . .
11’ 111.. . . . . . . .I i55. 0
1 13. 111. .. . . .I 752.5
2 i,. 111. .. .. .I i s i . o 8 1’. 111. . . . . . i50. 0
4 1’. 111. . . . . . 7.w. 0
5 1,. 111. . . . . . i 4 ,. 0
1; p. 111.. . . . .I 74;. 0
15,
;]’ .I n .....
s::w 1’. 1u . . .
0 1’. 111
i n p. ~1 .. . . . 12 miduiylit
‘In. 111 ..... S a . 1u .... 1’2 111.. . . . . . .
. . . .
i4.3.5 il?. 8
7-13. (;
744.5
i15.0
7.59. 0
761.5
mu. n
‘11 ehes
30.00 30.01
:m. uo 30.00
29.92
29.99
20. !I1
29. !IO
2!1. RX
2!l. 8-1
29. SO
29.76
29. il’
29. 6:;
2!1. 5 i 2!i, 53
2’9. -19
29.41
2!l. 33
29.31 29.27
29.24
Remarks.
Fine weather; light breeze from eue.; left Tamplco. Fiur weather. light breeze frqm enc.
Fiue westher. fresh hrce7e from eue. clourly; strou’g breeze uue
110.
Heavy raiu, wiud norlh, l>lowiug up yuddenl> to storm. IIrary rain. wiud north: atorni; Ir~avy sea.
Do.
1)O.
Heavy raiu; wind uorth iniwasing to hurrin.ane; ~i e s v y srs; warm s n (~ oipressivr. I%.
-
At 9 p. tu. #if the 14th it great cnlni. and then the wind trlrued from
north through eaht to si)uth. At 9:20 the cyclone canre with a sudden
rush from sonth, glass risiug. Wind 11lew with terrilile forw right U ~J
to 6 a. 111. of the 15th; after that tinir it went slowly down to storm,
ug gal^. ant1 fresh lirerze at 12 illidnight of Augabt 15-1C. The sea ~e r y rough at the time and thwe were h ~a v y rain squalls all the
tilop. During the hwricalie the tt.uilieraturr of the air was about 310
(‘elsiiis, and l~efiire the huriicane it was not nicire than 270 290 in the
niindle o f the day. Sunday morning. the ll;th, the mind was fresh breeze
from east auil the sea xery inoderate.
METHODS OF METEOROLOGICAL INVESTIGATION.
By W. N. SHAW. Superintendent of the Meteorologic%d Office, Londou.
111 address hefoie Section A, of the Britihh Asswiatiou for the Ad\ ance-
nient of Srinnc*e. a t Southport, Englauil, Sept‘niher 10, 1903.
[Rcpriute,l l‘lami the authibr’u rorrectzd q w a t e piint ]
I n opening the proceedings of the subsection devoted to
cosinical physics, which we may take to be the application of
the methods and results of mathematics and physics to prob-
lems suggested by observations of the earth, the air, or the
sky, I desire permission to call your attention to some points
of general interest in connection with that department which
deals with the air. My justification for doing so is that this
is the first occasion upon which a position in any way similar
to that which I ani now called upon to fill has been occupied
by one whose primary obligations are meteorological. That
honour I may with confidence attribute to the desire of the
Council of the Association to recognise the subject so admira-
bly represented by the distinguished inen of science who have
come across the seas to deliberate upon those meteorological
questions which are the common concern of all nations, and
whom we are specially glad to welcome as members of this
subsection. Their presence and their scientific work are
proof, if proof is required, that meteorologists can not regard
meteorological problems as clissociable from section A; that
the prosecution of ineteorological research is by the stndg of
the kinematics, the niecliaiiics, the physics, or the mathematics