Research

Abu Reza, M.D. and R.M. Kini (2006). Prothrombin activators from Australian snakes. Toxin Reviews 25(3): 257-290. ISSN: 1556-9543.
NAL Call Number: RA1190.J669
Descriptors: reptiles, snakes, prothrombin activators, blood coagulation, snake venoms, Australia.

Afonso, C.L., E.R. Tulman, G. Delhon, Z. Lu, G.J. Viljoen, D.B. Wallace, G.F. Kutish, and D.L. Rock (2006). Genome of crocodilepox virus. Journal of Virology 80(10): 4978-4991. ISSN: 0022-538X.
NAL Call Number: QR360.J6
Abstract: Here, we present the genome sequence, with analysis, of a poxvirus infecting Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) (crocodilepox virus; CRV). The genome is 190,054 bp (62% G+C) and predicted to contain 173 genes encoding proteins of 53 to 1,941 amino acids. The central genomic region contains genes conserved and generally colinear with those of other chordopoxviruses (ChPVs). CRV is distinct, as the terminal 33-kbp (left) and 13-kbp (right) genomic regions are largely CRV specific, containing 48 unique genes which lack similarity to other poxvirus genes. Notably, CRV also contains 14 unique genes which disrupt ChPV gene colinearity within the central genomic region, including 7 genes encoding GyrB-like ATPase domains similar to those in cellular type IIA DNA topoisomerases, suggestive of novel ATP-dependent functions. The presence of 10 CRV proteins with similarity to components of cellular multisubunit E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase complexes, including 9 proteins containing F-box motifs and F-box-associated regions and a homologue of cellular anaphase-promoting complex subunit 11 (Apc11), suggests that modification of host ubiquitination pathways may be significant for CRV-host cell interaction. CRV encodes a novel complement of proteins potentially involved in DNA replication, including a NAD(+)-dependent DNA ligase and a protein with similarity to both vaccinia virus F16L and prokaryotic serine site-specific resolvase-invertases. CRV lacks genes encoding proteins for nucleotide metabolism. CRV shares notable genomic similarities with molluscum contagiosum virus, including genes found only in these two viruses. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that CRV is quite distinct from other ChPVs, representing a new genus within the subfamily Chordopoxvirinae, and it lacks recognizable homologues of most ChPV genes involved in virulence and host range, including those involving interferon response, intracellular signaling, and host immune response modulation. These data reveal the unique nature of CRV and suggest mechanisms of virus-reptile host interaction.
Descriptors: alligators and crocodiles virology, Chordopoxvirinae genetics, genome, viral, multigene family, adenosine triphosphatases chemistry, adenosine triphosphatases genetics, amino acid sequence, chordopoxvirinae enzymology, DNA gyrase chemistry, DNA gyrase genetics, molecular sequence data, phylogeny, protein structure, tertiary, sequence alignment, sequence analysis, DNA, sequence homology, amino acid, ubiquitin protein ligases genetics.

Ahmad, M., R. Hasan, T. Naim, M. Ahmad, and T.B. Hanif (2003). The effect of isoniazid (INH) on erythrocyte sedimentation rate in the lizard, Uromastix hardwickii. Journal of Applied Sciences 38-9: 544-548. ISSN: 1607-8926.
Abstract: Erythrocyte sedimentation rate of isoniazid treated lizard was worked out. The gradual decrease for day 5 to day 10 and day 15 was found to be statistically significant. This is indicative of increase in erythrocyte membrane permeability with increase in the span of treatment. Newer cells are flooded in the blood stream due to loss of older cells. Newer cell resist sedimentation on day 10 and day 15.
Descriptors: reptiles, lizard, isoniazid, INH, effect, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, membrane permeability.

Al Dokhi, O.A. and S.H. Al Wasel (2002). Ultrastructure of spermiogenesis in the freshwater turtle Mauremys caspica (Chelonia, Reptilia). III: the sperm tail formation. Journal of Union of Arab Biologists Cairo A Zoology 18: 327-341. ISSN: 1110-5372.
Descriptors: reptiles, freshwater turtle, Mauremys caspica, spermiogenesis, sperm tail formation, ultrastructure, Arabia.
Language of Text: Arabic; English.

Alibardi, L. (2002). Immunoreactivity of alpha- and beta-layers in lizard epidermis. Belgian Journal of Zoology 132(1): 71-81. ISSN: 0777-6276.
NAL Call Number: QL1.B45
Abstract: Reptilian epidermis may share some mechanisms of keratinization with those of mammalian and avian epidermis. The expression of keratins and proteins associated with the process of keratinization (filaggrin) and formation of the cell corneus envelope (loricrin) has been analysed at the light microscopic and ultrastructural level in the complex normal and regenerating lizard epidermis. The localization of alpha and beta-keratins, and of filaggrin-like and loricrin-like immunoreactivities has confirmed that the epidermis of lizards consists of two different layers, an alpha-layer localizing alpha-keratins and showing weak filaggrin-and loricrin-like immunoreactivities, as in the mammalian epidermis, and a beta-layer that localizes a beta-keratin immunoreactivity, such as in scutate scales and feathers of birds. The present study suggests that the seg-regation of alpha- from beta-keratin synthesis is correlated with the evolution of an intraepidermal shedding layer that allows the epidermal molt.
Descriptors: reptiles, lizard, epidermis alpha layer, beta layer, immunoreactivity, keratinization, avian, proteins, molting.

Alibardi, L., L. Dalla Valle, V. Toffolo, and M. Toni (2006). Scale keratin in lizard epidermis reveals amino acid regions homologous with avian and mammalian epidermal proteins. Anatomical Record. Part A, Discoveries in Molecular, Cellular, and Evolutionary Biology 288(7): 734-752. ISSN: 1552-4884.
Abstract: Small proteins termed beta-keratins constitute the hard corneous material of reptilian scales. In order to study the cell site of synthesis of beta-keratin, an antiserum against a lizard beta-keratin of 15-16 kDa has been produced. The antiserum recognizes beta-cells of lizard epidermis and labels beta-keratin filaments using immunocytochemistry and immunoblotting. In situ hybridization using a cDNA-probe for a lizard beta-keratin mRNA labels beta-cells of the regenerating and embryonic epidermis of lizard. The mRNA is localized free in the cytoplasm or is associated with keratin filaments of beta-cells. The immunolabeling and in situ labeling suggest that synthesis and accumulation of beta-keratin are closely associated. Nuclear localization of the cDNA probe suggests that the primary transcript is similar to the cytoplasmic mRNA coding for the protein. The latter comprises a glycine-proline-rich protein of 15.5 kDa that contains 163 amino acids, in which the central amino acid region is similar to that of chick claw/feather while the head and tail regions resemble glycine-tyrosine-rich proteins of mammalian hairs. This is also confirmed by phylogenetic analysis comparing reptilian glycine-rich proteins with cytokeratins, hair keratin-associated proteins, and claw/feather keratins. It is suggested that different small glycine-rich proteins evolved from progenitor proteins present in basic (reptilian) amniotes. The evolution of these proteins originated glycine-rich proteins in scales, claws, beak of reptiles and birds, and in feathers. Some evidence suggests that at least some proteins contained within beta-keratin filaments are rich in glycine and resemble some keratin-associated proteins present in mammalian corneous derivatives. It is suggested that glycine-rich proteins with the chemical composition, immunological characteristics, and molecular weight of beta-keratins may represent the reptilian counterpart of keratin-associated proteins present in hairs, nails, hooves, and horns of mammals. These small proteins produce a hard type of corneous material due to their dense packing among cytokeratin filaments.
Descriptors: avian proteins, lizard epidermis, epidermis embryology, keratins, lizards embryology, amino acid, avian proteins, ultrastructure, epidermis ultrastructure, immunohistochemistry, keratins genetics, lizards anatomy, histology, metabolism.

Alibardi, L., E. Spisni, A.G. Frassanito, and M. Toni (2004). Characterization of beta-keratins and associated proteins in adult and regenerating epidermis of lizards. Tissue and Cell 36(5): 333-349. ISSN: 0040-8166.
NAL Call Number: QH573.T5
Abstract: Reptilian epidermis contains two types of keratin, soft (alpha) and hard (beta). The biosynthesis and molecular weight of beta-keratin during differentiation of lizard epidermis have been studied by autoradiography, immunocytochemistry and immunoblotting. Tritiated proline is mainly incorporated into differentiating and maturing beta-keratin cells with a pattern similar to that observed after immunostaining with a chicken beta-keratin antibody. While the antibody labels a mature form of beta-keratin incorporated in large filaments, the autoradiographic analysis shows that beta-keratin is produced within the first 30 min in ribosomes, and is later packed into large filaments. Also the dermis incorporates high amount of proline for the synthesis of collagen. The skin was separated into epidermis and dermis, which were analyzed separately by protein extraction and electrophoresis. In the epidermal extract proline-labeled proteic bands at 10, 15, 18-20, 42-45, 52-56, 85-90 and 120 kDa appear at 1, 3 and 5 h post-injection. The comparison with the dermal extract shows only the 85-90 and 120 kDa bands, which correspond to collagen. Probably the glycine-rich sequences of collagen present also in beta-keratins are weakly recognized by the beta-1 antibody. Immunoblotting with the beta-keratin antibody identifies proteic bands according to the isolation method. After-saline or urea-thiol extraction bands at 10-15, 18-20, 40, 55 and 62 kDa appear. After extraction and carboxymethylation, weak bands at 10-15, 18-20 and 30-32 kDa are present in some preparations, while in others also bands at 55 and 62 kDa are present. It appears that the lowermost bands at 10-20 kDa are simple beta-keratins, while those at 42-56 kDa are complex or polymeric forms of beta-keratins. The smallest beta-keratins (10-20 kDa) may be early synthesized proteins that are polymerized into larger beta-keratins which are then packed to form larger filaments. Some proline-labeled bands differ from those produced after injection of tritiated histidine. The latter treatment does not show 10-20 kDa labeled proteins, but tends to show bands at 27, 30-33, 40-42 and 50-62 kDa. Histidine-labeled proteins mainly localize in keratohyalin-like granules and dark keratin bundles of clear-oberhautchen layers of lizard epidermis, and their composition is probably different from that of beta-keratin.
Descriptors: reptiles, lizards, beta keratins, epidermis, associated proteins, regenerating epidermis, adult, soft keratin, hard keratin, characterization.

Alibardi, L. and M. Toni (2006). Skin structure and cornification proteins in the soft-shelled turtle Trionyx spiniferus. Zoology [Jena] 109(3): 182-195. ISSN: 0944-2006.
NAL Call Number: QL1.Z769
Abstract: In contrast to most chelonians, the fully aquatic soft-shelled turtles have a smooth, unscaled, and pliable shell. The skin of the shell, tail, limbs, and neck of juveniles of Trionyx spiniferus has been studied by ultrastructural, immunocytochemical, and immunoblotting methods. The epidermis of the carapace and plastron has a thick corneous layer composed of alpha-corneocytes surrounded by a cornified cell envelope. The softer epidermis is similar to that of the shell but the epidermis and corneous layer are much thinner. Pre-corneous cells in both soft and shell epidermis are rich in vesicles produced in the Golgi apparatus and smooth endoplasmic vesicles, and contain numerous dense-core mucus-like and vesicular (lamellar) bodies. Secreted material is present among corneocytes where it probably forms an extensive intercellular lipid-mucus waterproof barrier. The dermis is very thick and composed of several layers of collagen bundles that form a plywood-patterned dermis. This dermis constitutes a strong mechanical barrier that compensates for the low content in beta-keratin, and lack of cornified scutes and dermal bones. The growth of the shell mainly occurs along the lateral margins. Immunocytochemistry reveals the presence of some beta-keratin in soft and shell epidermis, and this is confirmed by immunoblotting where bands at 18 and 32-35 kDa are present. Other proteins of the cornified cell envelope (loricrin and sciellin) or associated to lipid trafficking (caveolin-1) are also detected by immunoblotting. Loricrin positive bands at 24 and 57 kDa are present while bands cross-reactive for sciellin are seen at 45 and 53 kDa. Caveolin-1 positive bands are seen at 21-22 kDa. The presence of these proteins indicates that the epidermis is both coriaceous and waterproof. These results suggest that the shell of Trionyx is tough enough to be as mechanically efficient as the hard shell of the other turtles. At the same time, a soft shell is lighter, its shape is more easily controlled by muscles, and it allows a more controlled closure and retraction of limbs and neck inside the shell. Thus, the shell makes the animal more streamlined for swimming.
Descriptors: reptiles, swimming, soft shelled turtles, Trionyx spiniferus, skin structure, chelonians, aquatic, cornification proteins, pliable shell, ultrastructural.

Alibardi, L. (2003). Adaptation to the land: The skin of reptiles in comparison to that of amphibians and endotherm amniotes. Journal of Experimental Zoology 298B(1): 12-41. ISSN: 0022-104X.
NAL Call Number: 410 J825
Descriptors: reptiles, amphibian, skin, comparison, endoderm, amniotes, skin comparison, adaptation.

Alibardi, L. and M. Toni (2007). Immunological characterization of a newly developed antibody for localization of a beta-keratin in turtle epidermis. Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B. Molecular and Developmental Evolution 308B(2): 200-208. ISSN: print: 1552-5007; online: 1552-5015.
NAL Call Number: QL1.J87
Descriptors: reptiles, turtle epidermis, turtle scutes, beta keratin, newly developed antibody, immunological characterization.

Alves de Matos, A.P., I. Paperna, and E. Crespo (2002). Experimental infection of lacertids with lizard erythrocytic viruses. Intervirology 45(3): 150-159. ISSN: 0300-5562.
NAL Call Number: QR355.I5
Descriptors: reptiles, lizard, experimental infection, erythrocytic viruses, lacertids.

Aranyosi, A.J. and D.M. Freeman (2005). Two modes of motion of the alligator lizard cochlea: measurements and model predictions. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 118(3 Pt 1): 1585-1592. ISSN: 0001-4966.
Abstract: Measurements of motion of an in vitro preparation of the alligator lizard basilar papilla in response to sound demonstrate elliptical trajectories. These trajectories are consistent with the presence of both a translational and rotational mode of motion. The translational mode is independent of frequency, and the rotational mode has a displacement peak near 5 kHz. These measurements can be explained by a simple mechanical system in which the basilar papilla is supported asymmetrically on the basilar membrane. In a quantitative model, the translational admittance is compliant while the rotational admittance is second order. Best-fit model parameters are consistent with estimates based on anatomy and predict that fluid flow across hair bundles is a primary source of viscous damping. The model predicts that the rotational mode contributes to the high-frequency slopes of auditory nerve fiber tuning curves, providing a physical explanation for a low-pass filter required in models of this cochlea. The combination of modes makes the sensitivity of hair bundles more uniform with radial position than that which would result from pure rotation. A mechanical analogy with the organ of Corti suggests that these two modes of motion may also be present in the mammalian cochlea.
Descriptors: alligator lizard, basilar membrane physiology, cochlea physiology, lizard physiology, movement physiology, basilar membrane anatomy, histology, hair cells physiology, models.

Ariel, M. (2005). Latencies of climbing fiber inputs to turtle cerebellar cortex. Journal of Neurophysiology 93(2): 1042-1054. ISSN: 0022-3077.
Abstract: Responses of separate regions of rat cerebellar cortex (Cb) to inferior olive (IO) stimulation occur with the same latency despite large differences in climbing fiber (CF) lengths. Here, the olivocerebellar path of turtle was studied because its Cb is an unfoliated sheet on which measurements of latency and CF length can be made directly across its entire surface in vitro. During extracellular DC recordings at a given Cb position below the molecular layer, IO stimulation evoked a large negative field potential with a half-width duration of approximately 6.5 ms. On this response were smaller oscillations similar to complex spikes. The stimulating electrode was moved to map the IO and the CF path from the brain stem to the Cb. The contralateral brain stem region that evoked these responses was tightly circumscribed within the medulla, lateral and deep to the obex. This response remained when the brain stem was bathed in solutions that blocked synaptic transmission. The Cb response to IO stimulation had a peak latency of approximately 10 ms that was not dependent on the position of the recording electrode across the entire 8-mm rostrocaudal length of the Cb. However, for a constant Cb recording position, moving the stimulation across the midline to the ipsilateral brain stem and along the lateral wall of the fourth ventricle toward the peduncle did shorten the response latency. Therefore a synchronous Cb response to CF stimulation seems to be caused by changes in its conduction velocity within the entire cerebellar cortex but not within the brain stem.
Descriptors: turtle, cerebellar cortex physiology, nerve fibers physiology, reaction time physiology, turtles physiology, action potentials physiology, afferent pathways physiology, brain stem physiology.

Avall Severinsen, S., J. Morup Jorgensen, and J. Randel Nyengaard (2003). Structure and growth of the utricular macula in the inner ear of the slider turtle Trachemys scripta. Journal of the Association for Research in Otolaryngology 4(4): 505-520. ISSN: print: 1525-3961; online: 1438-7573.
Abstract: In general, postembryonic production of inner ear vestibular hair cells (HCs) is believed to occur in all nonmammalian vertebrates. However, no study on this topic has been published on reptiles and, consequently, it is not known whether this also applies to these vertebrates. Therefore, the present study applied stereological methods in order to estimate the total number of HCs in turtles of varying sizes. The findings are that in prehatchlings the utricular macula (UM) contains approximately 4000 HCs as compared to approximately 5000 in juveniles, approximately 8000 in medium-sized turtles, and approximately 12,000 in large, sexually mature turtles. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) reveals that presumably newly generated HCs with small surface areas and thin stereovilli are found in all regions of the UM. Furthermore, it reveals that utricular HCs can be classified as belonging to a specific region from the morphology of their apical structure. Striolar HCs have a large free oval-to-ovoid surface, a hair bundle with numerous stereovilli, and a short kinocilium. Rampary and cotillary HCs have smaller and slimmer free surfaces, comparatively fewer stereovilli, but much longer kinocilia. In conclusion, the current study demonstrates that postembryonic production of HCs does occur in reptiles and thereby supports the general view that this is a common trait in all nonmammalian vertebrates.
Descriptors: reptiles, slider turtle, inner ear, utricular macula, structure, growth.

Avallone, B., M. Porritiello, D. Esposito, R. Mutone, G. Balsamo, and F. Marmo (2003). Evidence for hair cell regeneration in the crista ampullaris of the lizard Podarcis sicula. Hearing Research 178(1-2): 79-88. ISSN: 0378-5955.
Abstract: We studied hair cell regeneration in the crista ampullaris of the lizard Podarcis sicula both in untreated animals and at early and late time intervals following a single high dose of gentamicin. The study was carried out using the S-phase marker 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine. Our ultrastructural and immunofluorescence studies showed that both apoptosis and hair cell regeneration happen in the lizard crista ampullaris in untreated animals, and that regenerative processes are greatly accelerated after treatment with the aminoglycoside antibiotic gentamicin. Our observations indicate that hair cell regeneration is strongly implicated in the repair of damaged sensory epithelium, and that new hair cells appear likely to arise from supporting cells.
Descriptors: reptiles, lizard, hair cell regeneration, crista ampullaris, gentamicin, apoptosis, repair, damaged sensory epithelium.

Barbour, H.R., M.A. Archer, N.S. Hart, N. Thomas, S.A. Dunlop, L.D. Beazley, and J. Shand (2002). Retinal characteristics of the ornate dragon lizard, Ctenophorus ornatus. Journal of Comparative Neurology. 450(4): 334-344. ISSN: 0021-9967.
Descriptors: reptiles, lizard, iguanas, retinal characteristics, anatomy, histology, epithelium of eye, retina physiology, retina ultrastructure, cones.

Bartell, P.A., M. Miranda Anaya, and M. Menaker (2004). Period and phase control in a multioscillatory circadian system (Iguana iguana). Journal of Biological Rhythms 19(1): 47-57. ISSN: Print: 0748-7304; online: 1552-4531.
NAL Call Number: QH527.J68
Abstract: The circadian system of the lizard Iguana iguana is composed of several independent pacemakers that work in concert: the pineal gland, retinae of the lateral eyes, and a fourth oscillator presumed to be located in the hypothalamus. These pacemakers govern the circadian expression of multiple behaviors and physiological processes, including rhythms in locomotor activity, endogenous body temperature, electroretinogram, and melatonin synthesis. The numerous, easily measurable rhythmic outputs make the iguana an ideal organism for examining the contributions of individual oscillators and their interactions in governing the expression of overt circadian rhythms. The authors have examined the effects of pinealectomy and enucleation on the endogenous body temperature rhythm (BTR) and locomotor activity rhythm (LAR) of juvenile iguanas at constant temperature both in LD cycles and in constant darkness (DD). They measured the periods (tau) of the circadian rhythms of LAR and BTR, the phase relationships between them in DD (psiAT), and the phase relationship between each rhythm and the light cycle (psiRL). Pinealectomy lengthened tau of locomotor activity in all animals tested and abolished the BTR in two-thirds of the animals. In those animals in which the BTR did persist following pinealectomy, tau lengthened to the same extent as that of locomotor activity. Pinealectomy also delayed the onset of activity with respect to its normal phase relationship with body temperature in DD. Enucleation alone had no significant effect on tau of LAR or BTR; however, after enucleation, BTR became 180 degrees out of phase from LAR in DD. After both pinealectomy and enucleation, 4 of 16 animals became arrhythmic in both activity and body temperature. Their data suggest that rhythmicity, period, and phase of overt circadian behaviors are regulated through the combined output of multiple endogenous circadian oscillators.
Descriptors: reptiles, lizard, Iguana iguana, multioscullatory circadian system, periodic, phase control, pacemakers.

Belliure, J. and J. Clobert (2004). Behavioral sensitivity to corticosterone in juveniles of the wall lizard, Podarcis muralis. Physiology and Behavior 81(1): 121-127. ISSN: 0031-9384.
Abstract: Reptiles exposed to stressful conditions respond with increases in plasma levels of corticosterone (CORT). The outcome of such hormonal fluctuations can affect the organism's physiology and behavior; however, relatively few studies in reptiles have progressed past the effects of stress on the plasma levels of CORT. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of CORT on lizard behavior. We focused on activity and thermoregulation of juveniles of the wall lizard, Podarcis muralis. Juveniles with experimentally elevated plasma CORT concentrations showed a higher moving rate and spent a greater amount of time moving. They also spent more time being involved in attempts to escape from a terrarium. This enhanced locomotor activity was associated with significant changes in thermoregulatory behavior, as CORT-increased individuals had reduced thermoregulatory activity than the controls. The same pattern of results was obtained in nature and under laboratory conditions. Thus, CORT levels appear to mediate an important trade-off between locomotor activity and thermoregulation. To our knowledge, this is the first time that the effect of CORT on lizard thermoregulation has been examined.
Descriptors: reptiles, wall lizard, Podarcis muralis, juveniles, corticosterone, behavioral sensitivity, stressful conditions, plasma levels.

Bennis, M., J. Reperant, R. Ward, J.P. Rio, S.B.A. M'hamed, and B. Jay (2006). The postnatal development of the optic nerve of a reptile (Vipera aspis): a quantitative ultrastructural study. Anatomy and Embryology 211(6): 691-705. ISSN: 0340-2061.
Descriptors: reptiles, Vipera aspis, birds, mammals, optic nerve, postnatal development, axons, ultrastructural study, electron micrographs.

Benson, K.G., L.A. Tell, L.A. Young, S. Wetzlich, and A.L. Craigmill (2003). Pharmacokinetics of ceftiofur sodium after intramuscular or subcutaneous administration in green iguanas (Iguana iguana). American Journal of Veterinary Research 64(10): 1278-1282. ISSN: 0002-9645.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 Am3A
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To determine the pharmacokinetics of ceftiofur sodium after IM and SC administration in green iguanas. ANIMALS: 6 male and 4 female adult green iguanas. PROCEDURE: In a crossover design, 5 iguanas received a single dose of ceftiofur sodium (5 mg/kg) IM, and 5 iguanas received the same dose SC. Blood samples were taken at 0, 20, and 40 minutes and 1, 2, 4, 8, 24, 48, and 72 hours after administration. After a 10-week washout period, each iguana was given the same dose via the reciprocal administration route, and blood was collected in the same fashion. Ceftiofur free-acid equivalents were measured via high-performance liquid chromatography. RESULTS: The first phase intercepts were significantly different between the 2 administration routes. Mean maximum plasma concentration was significantly higher with the IM (28.6 +/- 8.0 microg/mL) than the SC (18.6 +/- 8.3 microg/mL) administration route. There were no significant differences between terminal half-lives (harmonic mean via IM route, 15.7 +/- 4.7 hours; harmonic mean via SC route, 19.7 +/- 6.7 hours) and mean areas under the curve measured to the last time point (IM route, 11,722 +/- 7,907 microg x h/mL; SC route, 12,143 +/- 9,633 microg x h/mL). Ceftiofur free-acid equivalent concentrations were maintained > or = 2 microg/mL for > 24 hours via both routes. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: A suggested dosing schedule for ceftiofur sodium in green iguanas for microbes susceptible at > 2 microg/mL would be 5 mg/kg, IM or SC, every 24 hours.
Descriptors: reptiles, green iguanas, ceftiofur sodium, pharmacokinetics, administration, intramuscular, subcutaneous, blood samples, dosing schedule.

Bertolotto, C.E.V., K.C.M. Pellegrino, and Y. Yonenaga Yassuda (2004). Occurrence of B chromosomes in lizards: a review. Cytogenetic and Genome Research 106(2-4): 243-246. ISSN: 1424-8581.
NAL Call Number: QH431.C95
Descriptors: reptiles, B chromosomes, lizards, occurrence, review.

Bouma, M.J., C.J. Smallridge, C.M. Bull, and J. Komdeur (2007). Susceptibility to infection by a haemogregarine parasite and the impact of infection in the Australian sleepy lizard Tiliqua rugosa. Parasitology Research 100(5): 949-954. ISSN: 0932-0113.
Abstract: The Hamilton and Zuk hypothesis on haemoparasite-mediated sexual selection and certain studies of fitness are based on the assumption that blood parasite infections are detrimental to their hosts. However, there are few reports that have demonstrated harmful effects of endemic blood parasites on fitness in wild populations, and it has even been suggested that they may be non-pathogenic. In this paper, we show that individuals of the Australian sleepy lizard (Tiliqua rugosa) have smaller home ranges when they are infected with the haemogregarine blood parasite Hemolivia mariae than when no infection can be detected. An apparently contradictory result was that lizards with larger home ranges were more susceptible to infection under experimental exposure to Hemolivia. We propose that lizards sacrifice defence against pathogens by increased activity, perhaps associated with maintaining home ranges and mating opportunities. As a consequence, they gain higher parasite loads, which in turn inhibit their activity. In this case, the parasite-host interaction may act as a buffer of lizard activity.
Descriptors: reptiles, sleepy lizard, Tiliqua rugosa, blood parasites, infection, home ranges, hemogregarine parasite, susceptibility.

Brown, J.D., J.M. Richards, J. Robertson, S. Holladay, and J.M. Sleeman (2004). Pathology of aural abscesses in free-living Eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina). Journal of Wildlife Diseases 40(4): 704-712. ISSN: 0090-3558.
NAL Call Number: 41.9 W64B
Abstract: Aural abscess or abscess of the middle ear is common in free-living Eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) of Virginia (USA) and elsewhere. Although its etiology remains unknown, hypovitaminosis A has been suggested on the basis of similar lesions occurring in captive chelonians fed diets that are deficient in vitamin A. This hypothesis was supported by significantly greater body burdens of organochlorine compounds (reported disruptors of vitamin A metabolism) and a nonsignificant trend toward lower serum and hepatic vitamin A levels in free-living box turtles with this lesion. The tympanic epithelium was evaluated in 27 box turtles (10 with aural abscesses and 17 without). Lesions of the tympanic epithelium of box turtles with aural abscesses included hyperplasia, squamous metaplasia, hyperemia, cellular sloughing, granulomatous inflammation, and bacterial infection. These changes were more severe in turtles with aural abscesses than in those without and were more severe in tympanic cavities that had an abscess compared to those without when the lesion was unilateral. Organs from 21 box turtles (10 with aural abscesses and 11 without) from the study population were examined for microscopic lesions, and minimal histopathologic changes were found, none of which were similar to those found in the tympanic epithelium. Histopathologic changes in box turtles with aural abscesses were consistent with a syndrome that may involve hypovitaminosis A.
Descriptors: reptiles, Eastern box turtle, free living, aural abscesses, middle ear, hypovitaminosis A, deficient diet, chelonians, histopathologic changes.

Bulte, G., C. Verly, and G. Blouin Demers (2006). An improved blood sampling technique for hatchling emydid turtles. Herpetological Review 37(3): 318-319. ISSN: 0018-084X.
NAL Call Number: QL640.H47
Descriptors: reptiles, emydid turtles, hatchling, improved blood sampling technique.

Burghardt, G.M. (2004). Iguana research: looking back and looking ahead. In: A.C.C.R.L.H.W.K.M.E.P. Alberts (Editors), Iguanas: Biology and Conservation., University of California Press: Berkeley, Los Angeles and London., p. 1-12. ISBN: 0520238540.
Descriptors: reptiles, iguanas, biology, conservation, research, book chapter.

Calderon, M.L., G.R. de Perez, and M.P. Ramirez Pinilla (2004). Morphology of the ovary of Caiman crocodilus (Crocodylia: Alligatoridae). Annals of Anatomy 186(1): 13-24. ISSN: 0940-9602.
Descriptors: reptiles, Caiman crocodilus, ovary, morphology, reproduction.

Carroll, R. (2006). Marine adaptation in reptiles: a model for the study of large scale patterns and processes of evolution. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 26(3, Suppl. S): 48A. ISSN: 0272-4634.
Descriptors: reptiles, marine adaptation, processes of evolution, study, model, patterns, meeting abstract.
Notes: Meeting Information: 66th Annual Meeting of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology, Ottawa, Canada; October 18 -21, 2006.

Castro, H.C. and C. Rangel Rodrigues (2006). Current status of snake venom thrombin-like enzymes. Toxin Reviews 25(3): 291-318. ISSN: 1556-9543.
NAL Call Number: RA1190.J669
Descriptors: reptiles, snake venom, thrombin-like enzymes, current status, therapeutic use.

Chattopadhyay, S., N.K. Sinha, S. Banerjee, D. Roy, D. Chattopadhyay, and S. Roy (2006). Small cationic protein from a marine turtle has beta-defensin-like fold and antibacterial and antiviral activity. Proteins 64(2): 524-531. ISSN: 0887-3585.
Descriptors: reptiles, marine turtle, small cationic protein, beta-defensin like fold, antibacterial, antiviral, activity.

Chen, Q.S., Z.H. Su, and X.W. Chen (2005). Morphological studies on cells involved in mucosal immunity of the intestine in the Chinese soft-shelled turtle. Acta Hydrobiologica Sinica 29(6): 654-660. ISSN: 1000-3207.
NAL Call Number: QH540
Descriptors: reptiles, Chinese soft shelled turtle, Trionyx sinensis, intestine, mucosal immunity, cells, morphological studies.
Language of Text: Chinese; Summary in Chinese and English.

Chien, J.T., I. Chowdhury, Y.S. Lin, C.F. Liao, S.T. Shen, and J.Y. Yu (2006). Molecular cloning and sequence analysis of a cDNA encoding pituitary thyroid stimulating hormone beta-subunit of the Chinese soft-shell turtle Pelodiscus sinensis and regulation of its gene expression. General and Comparative Endocrinology 146(2): 74-82. ISSN: 0016-6480.
NAL Call Number: 444.8 G28
Abstract: A cDNA encoding thyroid stimulating hormone beta-subunit (TSHbeta) was cloned from pituitary of the Chinese soft-shell turtle, Pelodiscus sinensis, and its regulation of mRNA expression was investigated for the first time in reptile. The Chinese soft-shell turtle TSHbeta cDNA was cloned from pituitary RNA by reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and rapid amplification cDNA end (RACE) methods. The Chinese soft-shell turtle TSHbeta cDNA consists of 580-bp nucleotides, including 67-bp nucleotides of 5'-untranslated region (UTR), 402-bp of the open reading frame, and 97-bp of 3'-UTR followed by a 14 poly (A) trait. It encodes a precursor protein molecule of 133 amino acids with a putative signal peptide of 19 amino acids and a putative mature protein of 114 amino acids. The number and position of 12 cysteine residues, presumably forming six disulfide bonds, one putative asparagine-linked glycosylation site, and six proline residues that are found at positions for changing the backbone direction of the protein have been conserved in the turtle as in other vertebrate groups. The deduced amino acid sequence of the Chinese soft-shell turtle TSHbeta mature protein shares identities of 82-83% with birds, 71-72% with mammals, 49-57% with amphibians, and 44-61% with fish. The Chinese soft-shell turtle pituitaries were incubated in vitro with synthetic TRH (TSH-releasing hormone), thyroxine and triiodothyronine at doses of 10(-10) and 10(-8)M. TRH stimulated, while thyroid hormones suppressed, TSHbeta mRNA levels in dose-related manner. The sequences of cDNA and its deduced peptide of TSHbeta as well as the regulation of its mRNA level were reported for the first time in reptile.
Descriptors: Chinese soft-shell turtle, Pelodiscus sinensis, thyrotropin, beta subunit biosynthesis, genetics, turtles genetics, physiology, amino acid sequence, base sequence, cloning, molecular, DNA, complementary analysis, gene expression regulation, molecular sequence data, nucleic acid amplification techniques, RNA, messenger biosynthesis, reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, sequence analysis, DNA.

Christensen Dalsgaard, J. and G.A. Manley (2005). Directionality of the lizard ear. Journal of Experimental Biology. 208(Pt 6): 1209-1217. ISSN: 0022-0949.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.01511
NAL Call Number: 442.8 B77
Abstract: Lizards have highly sensitive ears, but most lizard heads are small (1-2 cm in diameter) compared to the wavelengths of sound of frequencies to which they are most sensitive (1-4 kHz, wavelengths 34-8.5 cm). Therefore, the main cues to sound direction that mammals use - binaural time and intensity cues due to arrival-time differences and sound shadowing by the head--will be very small in lizards. The present work shows that acoustical coupling of the two eardrums in lizards produces the largest directionality of any terrestrial vertebrate ear studied. Laser vibrometric studies of tympanic motion show pronounced directionality within a 1.8-2.4 kHz frequency band around the best frequency of hearing, caused by the interference of ipsi- and contralateral inputs. The results correspond qualitatively to the response of a simple middle ear model, assuming coupling of the tympana through a central cavity. Furthermore, observed directional responses are markedly asymmetrical, with a steep gradient of up to 50-fold (34 dB) response differences between ipsi- and contralateral frontal angles. Therefore, the directionality is easily exploitable by simple binaural subtraction in the brain. Lizard ears are the clearest vertebrate examples of directionality generated by tympanic coupling.
Descriptors: lizard, auditory perception, hearing physiology, sound localization, acoustic stimulation, tympanic membrane.

Christian, K.A., C.R. Tracy, and C.R. Tracy (2006). Evaluating thermoregulation in reptiles: An appropriate null model. American Naturalist 168(3): 421-430. ISSN: 0003-0147.
NAL Call Number: 470 Am36
Descriptors: reptiles, thermoregulation, evaluating, null model, ectotherms, thermal inertia, body mass, warming, cooling.

Clusella Trullas, S., J.S. Terblanche, J.H. van Wyk, and J.R. Spotila (2007). Low repeatability of preferred body temperature in four species of Cordylid lizards: Temporal variation and implications for adaptive significance. Evolutionary Ecology 21(1): 63-79. ISSN: 0269-7653.
Abstract: Preferred body temperatures (T sel) of ectotherms are important for ecological and evolutionary studies. In lizards, the measurement of T sel is controversial for several reasons, generally related to hypotheses addressing how T sel may evolve in the wild. Although seldom explicitly tested, evolutionary hypotheses of adaptation to local climate require that T sel meets the conditions of natural selection, which include repeatability, heritability and a link to fitness. Here, we investigated repeatability ((Sx(B, intra-class correlation coefficient) of T sel at several time-scales using four Cordylid species from heterogeneous thermal habitats. Although there was significant inter-individual variation within days (P < 0.005 in most cases), there was no significant inter-individual variation when calculated across several days (P > 0.05). Repeatability was low in all species investigated (from 0 to 0.482) when compared against other estimates of repeatability of T sel in the literature. Irrespective of how T sel was calculated, it showed inconsistent and variable temporal effects across species. Furthermore, repeatability of T sel did not change with acclimation to laboratory conditions. These data have implications for understanding the evolution of thermoregulation in these and other ectotherms.
Descriptors: reptiles, Cordylus, lizards, thermoregulation, coadaptation, inter individual variation, selection, temporal effects.

Colli, G.R., R.D. Teixeira, D.M. Scheltinga, D.O. Mesquita, H.C. Wiederhecker, and S.N. Bao (2007). Comparative study of sperm ultrastructure of five species of teiid lizards (Teiidae, Squamata), and Cercosaura ocellata (Gymnophthalmidae, Squamata). Tissue and Cell 39(1): 59-78. ISSN: 0040-8166.
Abstract: Sperm ultrastructure of five teiid lizards (Callopistes flavipunctatus, Crocodilurus amazonicus, Dicrodon guttulatum, Dracaena guianensis, and Teius oculatus), and the gymnophthalmid Cercosaura ocellata is described for the first time. Comparisons of sperm ultrastructure among these species and with those of previously examined teiids and gymnophthalmids revealed that the two groups of Teiioidea (Gymnophthalmidae and Teiidae), and the two subfamilies of Teiidae (Teiinae and Tupinambinae) could be distinguished on the basis of sperm ultrastructure data. Significant differences in sperm dimensions between Cnemidophorus and Aspidoscelis support the recent splitting of these two lineages into different genera. Our results revealed high levels of inter-generic variability in sperm ultrastructure within Teiidae, which produces a data set useful in analyzing relationships between genera and families. In phylogenetic analyses, however, sampling multiple species within teiid genera is essential and recording sperm measurements may profitably complement qualitative ultrastructural characters, maximizing the information content of these structures.
Descriptors: reptiles, teiid lizards, sperm ultrastructure, comparative study, sperm dimensions, differences, inter-generic variability.

Cowin, S. and J. Cebek (2006). Feasibility of using plastron markings in young wood turtles (Glyptemys insculpta) as a technique for identifying individuals. Herpetological Review 37(3): 305-307. ISSN: 0018-084X.
NAL Call Number: QL640.H47
Descriptors: reptiles, wood turtles, Glyptemys insculpta, plastron markings, feasability, identifying individuals, technique.

Crews, D. and M.C. Moore (2005). Historical contributions of research on reptiles to behavioral neuroendocrinology. Hormones and Behavior 48(4): 384-394. ISSN: 0018-506X.
NAL Call Number: QP801.H7H64
Abstract: Some of the first experiments in behavioral endocrinology in the 1930s were conducted with lizards, but events led to a hiatus that lasted for 30 years. In the 1960s, research resumed using techniques current at the time, but it was not until the mid-1970s that behavioral neuroendocrinology "discovered" reptiles as animal model systems. This historical review summarizes this period of work, illustrating an enormous increase in research that have led to conclusions such as (1) the phenomenon of dissociated reproductive strategies and hormone-independent behaviors, which have aided our understanding of how the "memory" of sex steroid actions is maintained. (2) Progesterone plays an important role in the organization and activation of sexual behavior in males. Progesterone also synergizes with T to control male courtship much as does estrogen and progesterone to control sexual receptivity in females. Thus, progesterone is as much a "male" hormone as it is a "female" hormone. (3) Use of cytochrome oxidase histochemistry to study the role of experience over the long term in modifying brain activity. (4) Hormone manipulations as a powerful tool to test hypotheses about the evolution of behavior in free-living animals.
Descriptors: lizards, aggression, behavior, neuroendocrinology, reptiles, physiology, gonadal steroid hormones, history, 20th century research, neuroendocrinology methods, reproduction physiology, sex factors, sexual behavior.

Custodia Lora, N. and I.P. Callard (2002). Progesterone and progesterone receptors in reptiles. General and Comparative Endocrinology 127(1): 1-7. ISSN: 0016-6480.
NAL Call Number: 444.8 G28
Abstract: The role of progesterone (P) has been most extensively studied in the female reproductive tissues (ovary, reproductive tract, mammary gland) and in the brain, in which it is an important regulator and modulator in conjunction with estradiol (E). In nonmammalian vertebrate species, less work has been done on P metabolites involved in ovulation. In addition, P induces the expression of egg-white proteins, decreases myometrial contractility, and facilitates processing of eggs, formation of eggshell, and deposition of egg-white proteins. Actions of P may be synergistic with, or antagonist to, the actions of E, depending on hormone ratios, timing of exposure, and physiological state. These effects of P are mediated through progesterone receptor isoform A (PRA), a general transcription inhibitor of P target genes, and isoform B (PRB), a specific transcriptional stimulator of some reproductive tract genes. In this review, we focus on P action and PR expression in the liver and reproductive tissues of several reptilian species, especially Chelonia, since most of the data obtained are from this group. We also present novel data showing the expression of PR in nonreproductive tissues (such as kidney, spleen, gastrointestinal tract) in the painted turtle, Chrysemys picta.
Descriptors: reptiles, painted turtle, Chrysemys picta, progesterone, progesterone receptors, ovary, reproductive tract, brain, reproductive tissues.

D'Agostini, F.M., S.L.d.B. Ribeiro, and T. De Lema (2005). A new method to prepare snake scale stratum corneum for epidermatoglyphics analyses using a scanning electron microscope. Comunicacoes Do Museu De Ciencias e Tecnologia Da PUCRS Serie Zoologia 18(1): 53-56. ISSN: 0104-6950.
Descriptors: reptiles, snake scale stratum corneum, epidermatoglyphics, analyses, prepare, new method, scanning electron microscope.
Language of Text: Portuguese.

Davis, J.R. and D.F. Denardo (2007). The urinary bladder as a physiological reservoir that moderates dehydration in a large desert lizard, the Gila monster Heloderma suspectum. Journal of Experimental Biology. 210(Pt 8): 1472-1480. ISSN: 0022-0949.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.003061
NAL Call Number: 442.8 B77
Abstract: Animals inhabiting xeric environments use a variety of behavioral and physiological strategies to balance water budgets. We studied the potential contribution of the urinary bladder to osmoregulation in a large desert lizard, the Gila monster Heloderma suspectum. Here we present results of a series of in vivo laboratory experiments which tested the hypothesis that the Gila monster urinary bladder serves as a physiological reservoir, as in amphibians and chelonians, providing water that buffers increases in plasma osmolality when food and water are unavailable. Adult Gila monsters absorbed water from the urinary bladder into circulation and absorption of water from the urinary bladder and drinking water provided similar osmoregulatory benefits within 24 h, although drinking water provided a more immediate osmotic benefit. During food and water deprivation, plasma osmolality increased 2.5 times faster in lizards with an empty urinary bladder compared with those with a full bladder. During rehydration, stereotyped binge drinking behavior increased body mass nearly 22%, which resulted in a 24% reduction in plasma osmolality and a substantial increase in bladder water within 24 h. These results support our hypothesis and demonstrate for the first time in an adult lizard that the urinary bladder can function as a long-term physiological water reservoir. This trait can provide a critical benefit to osmoregulation during the 2- to 3-month summer dry season characteristic of the deserts that Gila monsters inhabit.
Descriptors: reptiles, lizards, Gila monster, urinary bladder, water budgets, osmoregulation, dehydration, physiological reservoir, plasma osmality.

Dawo, F. and K. Mohan (2007). Development and application of an indirect ELISA test for the detection of antibodies to Mycoplasma crocodyli infection in crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus). Veterinary Microbiology 119(2-4): 283-289. ISSN: 0378-1135.
NAL Call Number: SF601.V44
Abstract: Non-availability of a standardized rapid serodiagnostic test for quick and accurate diagnosis of Mycoplasma crocodyli (M. crocodyli) infection in crocodiles was the underlining reason for conducting the present study. An indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA) for the detection of antibodies (Ab) to M. crocodyli infection in crocodile sera was developed using sonicated antigen (Ag) and anti-crocodile conjugate. The iELISA test was optimised with different reagents and at different steps. A cut-off value of percent positive greater than or equal to 53.47% resulted in an estimated sensitivity and specificity of 85.67 and 100%, respectively. The developed iELISA could be used for detection of Abs to M. crocodyli infection in crocodiles and may enable to understand the transmission of the disease.
Descriptors: retiles, crocodiles, Micoplasma crocodyli, test development, ELISA, detection of antibodies, quick, accurate, diagnosis.

Dearworth, J.R.J., L.J. Cooper, and C. McGee (2007). Parasympathetic control of the pupillary light response in the red-eared slider turtle (Pseudemys scripta elegans). Veterinary Ophthalmology 10(2): 106-110. ISSN: 1463-5216.
NAL Call Number: SF891.V47
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: We investigated effects of both vecuronium bromide, a nicotinic cholinergic antagonist, and atropine, a muscarinic cholinergic antagonist, on the pupil of the turtle to determine whether responses to light are controlled by parasympathetic innervations acting on the iris. ANIMAL STUDIED: Three red-eared slider turtles, Pseudemys scripta elegans. PROCEDURE: Turtles were secured to immobilize their head movements and then inserted into a light-integrating sphere. Both pupils were monitored through small apertures by digital video cameras. Pupil diameters were measured manually with a digital caliper. During each trial, drugs (0.4%) were topically applied, four times at 15 min intervals, to the corneas of each eye. One eye was randomly selected for treatment of the drug while the other, treated with saline (0.9% NaCl), was used as control. Pupil sizes under adaptation to light were tracked after drug or saline applications. RESULTS: Mean pupillary diameters of eyes treated with vercuronium bromide increased by 28%, reaching peak size in 90 min. Onset of response occurred 20 min after drug application and then increased at a rate having a time constant of 26 min. Recovery began at 120 min after initial application. Atropine had no effect on pupil size. No systemic side effects by drugs were observed in turtles. CONCLUSIONS: Although atropine does not cause mydriasis, vecuronium bromide does. These results suggest that the parasympathetic system in turtles acts through acetylcholine onto nicotinic receptors to stimulate pupillary light constriction.
Descriptors: reptiles, red-eared slider turtle, Pseudemys scripta elegans, pupillary light response, parasympathetic control, vecuronium bromide, atropine, pupil, iris, eye, adaption to light.

Delgado, S., M.L. Couble, H. Magloire, and J.Y. Sire (2006). Cloning, sequencing, and expression of the amelogenin gene in two scincid lizards. Journal of Dental Research 85(2): 138-143. ISSN: print: 0022-0345; online: 1544-0591.
Abstract: Our knowledge of the gene coding for amelogenin, the major enamel protein, is mainly based on mammalian sequences. Only two sequences are available in reptiles. To know whether the snake sequence is representative of the amelogenin condition in squamates, we have studied amelogenin in two scincid lizards. Lizard amelogenin possesses numerous conserved residues in the N- and C-terminal regions, but its central region is highly variable, even when compared with the snake sequence. This rapid evolution rate indicates that a single squamate sequence was not representative, and that comparative studies of reptilian amelogenins might be useful to detect the residues which are really important for amelogenin structure and function. Reptilian and mammalian enamel structure is roughly similar, but no data support amelogenin being similarly expressed during amelogenesis. By performing in situ hybridization using a specific probe, we showed that lizard ameloblasts express amelogenin as described during mammalian amelogenesis. However, we have not found amelogenin transcripts in odontoblasts. This indicates that full-length amelogenin is specific to enamel matrix, at least in this lizard.
Descriptors: lizard amelogenesis genetics, dental enamel proteins genetics, lizards genetics, reptilian proteins genetics, ameloblasts metabolism, amelogenin, amino acid sequence, base sequence, cloning, molecular, dental enamel proteins biosynthesis, dental enamel proteins chemistry, gene expression, in situ hybridization, molecular sequence data, odontoblasts metabolism, sequence analysis, DNA.

Dong, S. and Y. Kumazawa (2005). Complete mitochondrial DNA sequences of six snakes: phylogenetic relationships and molecular evolution of genomic features. Journal of Molecular Evolution 61(1): 12-22. ISSN: print: 0022-2844; online: 14342-1432.
NAL Call Number: QH359.J6
Abstract: Complete mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences were determined for representative species from six snake families: the acrochordid little file snake, the bold boa constrictor, the cylindrophiid red pipe snake, the viperid himehabu, the pythonid ball python, and the xenopeltid sunbeam snake. Thirteen protein-coding genes, 22 tRNA genes, 2 rRNA genes, and 2 control regions were identified in these mtDNAs. Duplication of the control region and translocation of the tRNALeu gene were two notable features of the snake mtDNAs. The duplicate control regions had nearly identical nucleotide sequences within species but they were divergent among species, suggesting concerted sequence evolution of the two control regions. In addition, the duplicate control regions appear to have facilitated an interchange of some flanking tRNA genes in the viperid lineage. Phylogenetic analyses were conducted using a large number of sites (9570 sites in total) derived from the complete mtDNA sequences. Our data strongly suggested a new phylogenetic relationship among the major families of snakes: ((((Viperidae, Colubridae), Acrochordidae), (((Pythonidae, Xenopeltidae), Cylindrophiidae), Boidae)), Leptotyphlopidae). This conclusion was distinct from a widely accepted view based on morphological characters in denying the sister-group relationship of boids and pythonids, as well as the basal divergence of nonmacrostomatan cylindrophiids. These results imply the significance to reconstruct the snake phylogeny with ample molecular data, such as those from complete mtDNA sequences.
Descriptors: snakes, DNA, mitochondrial genetics, evolution, molecular, phylogeny, snakes genetics, gene rearrangement, RNA, ribosomal genetics, transfer genetics, DNA, sequences.

Dutton, C.J. and P. Taylor (2003). A comparison between pre- and posthibernation morphometry, hematology, and blood chemistry in viperid snakes. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 34(1): 53-58. ISSN: 1042-7260.
NAL Call Number: SF601.J6
Abstract: Snakes from temperate climates are often made to hibernate in zoos to stimulate reproduction. Unfortunately, deaths have occurred during and after hibernation. This study evaluated the health status, pre- and posthibernation, of 31 adult viperid snakes. It included morphometric measurements, hematology, and blood chemistry. No differences were seen in body weights and weight to length ratios between pre- and posthibernation examinations, suggesting that the overall condition of the snakes did not change. No differences were seen in hematologic and blood chemistry parameters, except that bile acids (3alpha-hydroxybile acids) decreased, the implications of which are unknown. Three individuals had markedly high plasma uric acid levels posthibernation; of these, two individuals died from extensive visceral gout and one recovered with fluid therapy. Viperid snakes should be clinically healthy, well hydrated, and in good body condition when they are put into hibernation. They should be maintained in an environment with sufficient humidity and should have access to water. Blood samples should be collected on arousal for measuring plasma uric acid levels. Changes in morphometry, hematology, and blood chemistry appear to be abnormal and should be investigated thoroughly.
Descriptors: reptiles, viperid snakes, prehibernation, posthibernation, comparison hematology, blood chemistry, morphometry.

Elf, P.K. (2003). Yolk steroid hormones and sex determination in reptiles with TSD. General and Comparative Endocrinology 132(3): 349-355. ISSN: 0016-6480.
NAL Call Number: 444.8 G28
Abstract: In reptiles with temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD), the temperature at which the eggs are incubated determines the sex of the offspring. The molecular switch responsible for determining sex in these species has not yet been elucidated. We have examined the dynamics of yolk steroid hormones during embryonic development in the snapping turtle, Chelydra serpentina, and the alligator, Alligator mississippiensis, and have found that yolk estradiol (E(2)) responds differentially to incubation temperature in both of these reptiles. Based upon recently reported roles for E(2) in modulation of steroidogenic factor 1, a transcription factor known to be significant in the sex differentiation process, we hypothesize that yolk E(2) is a link between temperature and the gene expression pathway responsible for sex determination and differentiation in at least some of these species. Here we review the evidence that supports our hypothesis.
Descriptors: reptiles, snapping turtle, alligator, sex determination, incubation temperature, yolk steroid hormones, dynamics, embrtonic development.

Endo, H., R. Aoki, H. Taru, J. Kimura, M. Sasaki, M. Yamamoto, K. Arishima, and Y. Hayashi (2002). Comparative functional morphology of the masticatory apparatus in the long-snouted crocodiles. Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia 31(4): 206-213. ISSN: print: 0340-2096; online: 1439-0264.
Abstract: The masticatory muscles and their related structures of the skull were observed in the Indian gavial (Gavialis gangeticus), the false gavial (Tomistoma schlegelii), and the African slender-snouted crocodile (Mecistops cataphractus) to detail some morphological differences in comparison with the other crocodile species, and to compare and elucidate the functional strategy of themasticatory apparatus in these long-snouted species. The Musculus pterygoideus posterior was relatively smaller in the three species compared with many short-snouted crocodiles. It suggests that the masticatory power in fish-eating long-snouted species is not so high as in the short-snouted crocodiles, while the masticatory muscles were morphologically different among the three long-snouted species as follows. The M. pterygoideus posterior of the false gavial was extended in the lateral side of the lower jaw unlike the Indian gavial. The M. pseudotemporalis and the Fenestra supratemporalis were largely developed in the Indian gavial, however we suggest that the other two species possess the weak bundles in this muscle. The false gavial and the African slender-snouted crocodile have the pterygoid bone well-developed extending dorso-ventrally and it is suggested that the M. adductor mandibulae posterior attached to the pterygoid bone may be much larger than the Indian gavial. These data morphologically clarify the masticatory mechanism in the long-snouted crocodiles different from the short-snouted species, and demonstrate that the evolutional strategy to share the functional role in the masticatory muscles have been differently established between the Indian gavial and the other two species. We also obtained the morphological data in the fossil skull of the Machikane crocodile (Toyotamaphymeia machikanense) and concluded from the fossil characters that the considerable developments of the M.pterygoideus posterior and the M.pseudotemporalis in this species had not morphologically been consistent with both the Indian and false gavials.
Descriptors: reptiles, long snouted crocodiles, masticatory apparatus, functional morphology, comparative, Indian gavial, false gaval, slender snouted crocodile, masticatory muscles.

Ezaz, T., A.E. Quinn, I. Miura, S.D. Sarre, A. Georges, and J.A. Marshall Graves (2005). The dragon lizard Pogona vitticeps has ZZ/ZW micro-sex chromosomes. Chromosome Research 13(8): 763-776. ISSN: print: 0967-3849; online: 1573-6849.
NAL Call Number: QH600.C47
Abstract: The bearded dragon, Pogona vitticeps (Agamidae: Reptilia) is an agamid lizard endemic to Australia. Like crocodilians and many turtles, temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) is common in agamid lizards, although many species have genotypic sex determination (GSD). P. vitticeps is reported to have GSD, but no detectable sex chromosomes. Here we used molecular cytogenetic and differential banding techniques to reveal sex chromosomes in this species. Comparative genomic hybridization (CGH), GTG- and C-banding identified a highly heterochromatic microchromosome specific to females, demonstrating female heterogamety (ZZ/ZW) in this species. We isolated the P. vitticeps W chromosome by microdissection, re-amplified the DNA and used it to paint the W. No unpaired bivalents were detected in male synaptonemal complexes at meiotic pachytene, confirming male homogamety. We conclude that P. vitticeps has differentiated previously unidentifable W and Z micro-sex chromosomes, the first to be demonstrated in an agamid lizard. Our finding implies that heterochromatinization of the heterogametic chromosome occurred during sex chromosome differentiation in this species, as is the case in some lizards and many snakes, as well as in birds and mammals. Many GSD reptiles with cryptic sex chromosomes may also prove to have micro-sex chromosomes. Reptile microchromosomes, long dismissed as non-functional minutiae and often omitted from karyotypes, therefore deserve closer scrutiny with new and more sensitive techniques.
Descriptors: bearded dragon, Pogona vitticeps, lizards genetics, sex chromosomes, sex determination, chromosome banding, karyotyping, microdissection, nucleic acid hybridization, sex differentiation.

Ezaz, T., N. Valenzuela, F. Grutzner, I. Miura, A. Georges, R.L. Burke, and J.A. Graves (2006). An XX/XY sex microchromosome system in a freshwater turtle, Chelodina longicollis (Testudines: Chelidae) with genetic sex determination. Chromosome Research 14(2): 139-150. ISSN: print: 0967-3849; online: 1573-6849.
NAL Call Number: QH600.C47
Abstract: Heteromorphic sex chromosomes are rare in turtles, having been described in only four species. Like many turtle species, the Australian freshwater turtle Chelodina longicollis has genetic sex determination, but no distinguishable (heteromorphic) sex chromosomes were identified in a previous karyotyping study. We used comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) to show that C. longicollis has an XX/XY system of chromosomal sex determination, involving a pair of microchromosomes. C-banding and reverse fluorescent staining also distinguished microchromosomes with different banding patterns in males and females in approximately 70% cells examined. GTG-banding did not reveal any heteromorphic chromosomes, and no replication asynchrony on the X or Y microchromosomes was observed using replication banding. We conclude that there is a very small sequence difference between X and Y chromosomes in this species, a difference that is consistently detectable only by high-resolution molecular cytogenetic techniques, such as CGH. This is the first time a pair of microchromosomes has been identified as the sex chromosomes in a turtle species.
Descriptors: fresh water turtle, Chelodina longicollis, sex chromosomes genetics, sex determination genetics, turtles genetics, chromosome banding, karyotyping, nucleic acid hybridization, sex differentiation, staining and labeling.

Fahrig, B.M., M.A. Mitchell, B.E. Eilts, and D.L. Paccamonti (2007). Characterization and cooled storage of semen from corn snakes (Elaphe guttata). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 38(1): 7-12. ISSN: 1042-7260.
Abstract: The phylogenetic order Squamata has many representatives that could benefit from the use of semen preservation as a tool for assisting conservation. To date, few studies have been made evaluating the potential for collecting and preserving semen from snakes. The objectives of this study were to characterize semen parameters of the corn snake (Elaphe guttata), including appearance, volume, concentration, sperm motility, and sperm morphology, and to determine the longevity of corn snake sperm motility stored at 4 degrees C. Single semen samples were collected from 22 adult corn snakes. The appearance of the corn snake semen was generally cloudy, and the color was white to tan. Corn snake spermatozoa initially exhibited a median motility of 92.5%. Corn snakes were found to produce small-volume ejaculates (median 0.01 ml). However, the overall concentration of the snake ejaculate was high (chi = 852 x 10(6) +/- 585 x 10(6) spermatozoa/ml). Morphologically, a mean of 75.7 +/- 9.3% of the sperm cells in an ejaculate were normal. Snake ejaculate with a white appearance had significantly higher sperm concentrations (chi = 1,859 x 10(6) +/- 1,008 x 106 sperm cells/ml; F = 15.74, P = 0.001) than tan ejaculates (chi = 601 x 10(6) +/- 439 x 106 sperm cells/ml). Sperm motility decreased significantly in samples that were stored at 4 degrees C for greater than 48 hr in a refrigerator or Equitainer I. This is the first study to characterize semen volume, appearance, and concentration; sperm motility; and sperm morphology in captive corn snakes. The information derived from this study can be used to develop a model for a collection, cooled storage, and shipping program for semen from endangered or threatened captive and wild snakes.
Descriptors: reptiles, corn snakes, Elaphe guttata, cooled storage semen, characterization, semen preservation, sperm morphology, shipping, conservation.

Ferreira, A. and H. Dolder (2002). Ultrastructural analysis of spermiogenesis in Iguana iguana (Reptilia: Sauria: Iguanidae). European Journal of Morphology 40(2): 89-99. ISSN: print: 0924-3860; online: 1744-4241.
Abstract: Spermiogenesis in the lizard, Iguana iguana, was studied by transmission and scanning electron microscopy. During this process, structures such as the acrosomal complex in the spermatid head and the axonemal complex in the mid and principal pieces of the flagellum are formed. The nuclear content is initially compacted into thick, longitudinal chromatin filaments. Nuclear shape is determined by further compaction and by the manchette, a layer of microtubules surrounding the head. The acrosomal complex originates from Golgi vesicles and the interaction between the proacrosomal vesicle and the nucleus. The midpiece consists of a pair of centrioles, surrounded by a fibrous sheath and rings of simple and modified mitochondria. The centrioles sustain the axoneme that appears at the end of the midpiece. The axoneme extends throughout the principal piece of the flagellum with the 9 + 2 pattern, still surrounded by the fibrous sheath. In the endpiece, the axoneme continues, surrounded only by the plasma membrane. In the lumen of seminiferous tubules, immature spermatozoa retain abundant residual cytoplasm.
Descriptors: reptiles, Iguana, spermiogenesis, ultrastructureal analysis, scanning electron microscopy.

Foa, A. and C. Bertolucci (2003). Toward a seasonal model of the circadian system: The case of Ruin lizards. Frontiers in Bioscience 8: S236-S242. ISSN: print: 1093-9946; online: 1093-4715.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.2741/1037
Abstract: The pineal gland plays a role in the seasonal re-organization of the circadian system that occurs in Ruin lizard Podarcis sicula. In fact, either pinealectomy or melatonin implants induce an immediate transition from the circadian locomotor pattern typical of summer to the circadian locomotor pattern typical of spring or autumn. Furthermore, the degree of involvement of melatonin and the pineal in circadian organization changes dramatically with season: 1. The effects of pinealectomy, as well as those of melatonin implants on circadian locomotor rhythms are strong in summer and weak in the other seasons; 2. Daily melatonin injections entrain locomotor rhythms in summer, but not in other seasons; 3. A phase response curve for melatonin was generated in summer, but not in winter; 4. Daily injections of luzindole, an antagonist for melatonin receptors alter locomotor rhythms in summer, but not in other seasons; 5. A robust pineal-dependent circadian rhythm of circulating melatonin exists in summer, but not in spring or in autumn. This confirms that the central role of the pineal in determining circadian organization in summer and the marginal role of the pineal in either spring or autumn are respectively due to appearance (summer) or disappearance (spring, autumn) of a circadian melatonin signal in the circulation.
Descriptors: reptiles, Ruin lizard Podarcis sicula, circadian rhythm physiology, lizards physiology, models, biological, seasons.

Foa, A., R. Brandstatter, and C. Bertolucci (2006). The circadian system of ruin lizards: a seasonally changing neuroendocrine loop? Chronobiology International 23(1-2): 317-327. ISSN: print: 0742-0528; online: 1525-6073.
Abstract: Previous studies have shown that the amplitude of daily melatonin production in cultured ruin lizard pineal organs explanted in the summer is significantly higher than that from organs explanted in the winter. To test whether seasonal photoperiodic changes are decoded autonomously by the pineal gland, pineals explanted in summer were cultured in vitro and exposed to changes between winter and summer photoperiods. The changes in photoperiod duration did not affect the daily profiles of in vitro melatonin production. The discrepancy between the present in vitro results and those from lizards exposed to winter or summer photoperiods before pineal explantation supports the view that circadian information entering the pineal gland via its innervation is involved in determining seasonal changes of melatonin production in ruin lizards. We further examined whether a central component of the circadian system of ruin lizards, specifically the retinae of the lateral eyes, expresses similar seasonal changes in function as does the pineal gland. We did not find any difference between summer and autumn-winter in the effectiveness of either bilateral retinalectomy or optic nerve lesion-at the level of the optic chiasm-in altering circadian locomotor behavior in constant conditions. Both surgical procedures mostly induced a shortening of the free-running period of the locomotor rhythm of similar magnitude in all seasons. Thus, the retinae do not appear to participate in the seasonal reorganization of the circadian system in ruin lizards.
Descriptors: ruin lizards, circadian rhythm, pineal gland anatomy and histology, behavior, animal, lizards, melatonin metabolism, neurosecretory systems, photoperiod, pineal gland metabolism, retina embryology, seasons, suprachiasmatic nucleus physiology, time factors.

Ford, S.S. and S.D. Bradshaw (2006). Kidney function and the role of arginine vasotocin in three agamid lizards from habitats of differing aridity in Western Australia. General and Comparative Endocrinology 147(1): 62-69. ISSN: 0016-6480.
NAL Call Number: 444.8 G28
Abstract: Western Australian agamid lizards are diverse and inhabit mesic to very arid areas of the state. Although reptilian kidneys are unable to elaborate hyperosmotic urine, we hypothesised that the renal system of lizards inhabiting arid areas would display an enhanced ability to conserve water under the control of the antidiuretic peptide hormone, arginine vasotocin (AVT). To examine this, the renal physiological and endocrine responses to osmotic challenge in three closely-related Australian agamid lizards inhabiting arid, semi-arid, and mesic environments were studied. The species studied were Pogona minor (mesic), Ctenophorus salinarum (semi-arid), and Ctenophorus nuchalis (arid). Circulating AVT was assayed and renal variables such as glomerular filtration rate (GFR), urine flow rate (V), and fractional reabsorption of filtrate FRH2O were measured in response to hypernatraemia, water load, and dehydration. Hypernatraemia and dehydration induced antidiuresis in all three species through similar mechanisms involving both glomerular and tubular responses. However, in salt-loaded P. minor the response was largely glomerular in nature, as FRH2O did not increase relative to the hydrated condition. The magnitude of the antidiuretic response was also greater in P. minor, indicating a greater sensitivity to osmotic challenge. Plasma concentrations of AVT were significantly correlated with FRH2O in P. minor (r2=0.38, P=0.025), but with GFR in C. nuchalis (r2=0.16, P=0.041). We found that the control and mechanisms of renal function among these lizards were largely similar, and there was little support for the hypothesis that arid lizards possess physiological adaptations not present in closely-related mesic lizards. Yet, differences remain in their response to hypernatraemia which may reflect the aridity of their different environments, or their varying habits.
Descriptors: Western Australian agamid lizards, kidney physiology, lizards physiology, vasotocin physiology, water electrolyte balance, acclimatization, body water metabolism, dehydration, desert climate, environment, lizards metabolism, osmolar concentration, receptors, vasopressin metabolism, vasopressins metabolism, vasotocin blood, Western Australia.

Francisco Morcillo, J., M. Hidalgo Sanchez, and G. Martin Partido (2006). Spatial and temporal patterns of proliferation and differentiation in the developing turtle eye. Brain Research 1103(1): 32-48. ISSN: 0014-4819.
Abstract: Here we show for the first time different aspects of the pattern of neurogenesis in the developing turtle retina by using different morphological and molecular clues. We show the chronotopographical fashion of occurrence of three major aspects of retinal development: (1) morphogenesis of the optic primordia and emergence of the different retinal layers, (2) the temporal progression of neurogenesis by the cessation of proliferative activity, and (3) the apparition and cellular localization of different antigens and neuroactive substances. Retinal cells were generated in a conserved temporal order with ganglion cells born first, followed by amacrine, photoreceptor, horizontal and bipolar/Muller cells. While eventually expressed in many types of retinal neurons, Islet1 was permanently expressed in differentiating and mature ganglion cells. Calbindin-immunoreactive elements were found in the ganglion cell layer and the inner nuclear layer. Interestingly, at later stages the amount of expressing cells in these layers was reduced dramatically. On the contrary, the number of calbindin-immunoreactive photoreceptors increased as development proceeded. In addition, calretinin expressing cells were prominent in the horizontal cell bodies, and their processes extending into the outer plexiform layer were also strongly labeled. Finally, the synthesis of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) was detected in developing and matured horizontal and amacrine cells. All these maturational features began in the dorso-central area, in a region slightly displaced towards the temporal retina.
Descriptors: reptiles, developing turtle eye, spatial, temporal, patterns, proliferation, differentiation, retina, neurogenesis.

Franklin, C.E., B.M. Davis, S.K. Peucker, H. Stephenson, R. Mayer, J. Whittier, J. Lever, and G.C. Grigg (2003). Comparison of stress induced by manual restraint and immobilisation in the estuarine crocodile, Crocodylus porosus. Journal of Experimental Zoology. Part A, Comparative Experimental Biology 298(2): 86-92. ISSN: print: 1548-8969; online: 1552-499X.
NAL Call Number: QL1.J854
Descriptors: reptiles, estuarine crocodile, Crocodylus porosus, stress, manual restraint, immobilization, electrostunning, comparison, handling methods.

Frappell, P.B., T.J. Schultz, and K.A. Christian (2002). The respiratory system in varanid lizards: determinants of O(2) transfer. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular and Integrative Physiology 133(2): 239-258. ISSN: 1095-6433.
Abstract: Varanids in general exhibit greater aerobic capacities than other lizards. In a similar approach to the extensive investigations undertaken in mammals, the respiratory system in varanids is examined in terms of oxygen transfer from the air to the blood during rest and sustained locomotory activity. The parameters controlling the transfer of O(2) through the various steps of the respiratory system are appropriate to meet the maximum demands for oxygen with one possible exception, circulatory convection. Ventilatory convection is maintained during maximal aerobic locomotion ensuring adequate pulmonary ventilation and the protection of alveolar P(O(2)). Little evidence exists to indicate a mechanically imposed constraint to breathe and the possibility of a gular pump acting to assist ventilation, as a general feature of varanids remains to be determined. Alterations in the relative contributions of the ventilation-perfusion ratio, pulmonary diffusion, diffusion equilibrium and right-left shunts preserved the alveolar-arterial P(O(2)) difference, ensuring that arterial oxygenation was maintained. In those species where increases in cardiac output were limited, maximum O(2) transfer was achieved through increased extraction of oxygen at the tissues. Overall, the interrelationship of adjacent steps in the respiratory system ensures that one step cannot become limiting. Compensatory changes occur in various parameters to offset those parameters that are 'limited'. The high aerobic activity of varanid lizards would not be achievable without a compensated circulatory convection.
Descriptors: reptiles, varanid lizards, respiratory system, oxygen transfer, aerobic capacities, blood, air.

Gehr, D.D. and Y.L. Werner (2005). Age effects and size effects in the ears of gekkonomorph lizards: inner ear. Hearing Research 200(1-2): 38-50. ISSN: 0378-5955.
Abstract: Audiograms have indicated greater auditory sensitivity in larger than in smaller geckos; part of this difference, interspecifically and intraspecifically, is explained by middle-ear proportions. To investigate the contribution of the inner ear to the variation in sensitivity, we examined it in museum specimens representing 11 species and three subfamilies. We measured papilla basilaris length, and, when intact, the saccular otoconial mass. Papilla length approximated 1% of rostrum-anus length in large geckos but 2% in small geckos; in some species some inter-aural difference was indicated. Over the lumped material, relative papilla length varied as a function of body length, with highly significant correlation. Similar relations prevailed within each subfamily. However, intraspecifically the correlation of papilla basilaris length with animal size was usually nonsignificant. Hair cell populations assessed from SEM photographs were larger in the larger species but intraspecifically did not relate to an individual's size. Hence interspecifically, the dependence of auditory sensitivity on animal size seems supported by inner-ear differences but intraspecifically this relation derives only from the middle ear. Otoconial mass, as measured by its volume, was correlated with animal length both interspecifically and intraspecifically.
Descriptors: reptiles, gecko lizard, inner ear anatomy, age factors, body size, cochlear duct, hair cells, organ of Corti.

Girondot, M., P. Rivalan, R. Wongsopawiro, J.P. Briane, V. Hulin, S. Caut, E. Guirlet, and M.H. Godfrey (2006). Phenology of marine turtle nesting revealed by statistical model of the nesting season. BMC Ecology 6: 11. ISSN: 1472-6785.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1472-6785-6-11
Descriptors: reptiles, marine turtle, nesting, phenology, statistical model, nesting season, eggs, mathematical model.

Giugliano, L.G., R.D. Teixeira, G.R. Colli, and S.N. Bao (2002). Ultrastructure of spermatozoa of the lizard Ameiva ameiva, with considerations on polymorphism within the family Teiidae (Squamata). Journal of Morphology 253(3): 264-271. ISSN: 0362-2525.
NAL Call Number: 444.8 J826
Descriptors: reptiles, lizard, Ameiva ameiva, spermatozoa, ultrastructure, polymorphism, family Teiidae.

Gordos, M.A., C.E. Franklin, C.J. Limpus, and G. Wilson (2004). Blood-respiratory and acid-base changes during extended diving in the bimodally respiring freshwater turtle Rheodytes leukops. Journal of Comparative Physiology. B, Biochemical, Systemic, and Environmental Physiology 174(4): 347-354. ISSN: print: 0174-1578; online: 1432-136X.
NAL Call Number: QP33.J681
Abstract: Changes in blood-gas, acid-base, and plasma-ion status were investigated in the bimodally respiring turtle, Rheodytes leukops, during prolonged dives of up to 12 h. Given that R. leukops routinely submerges for several hours, the objective of this study was to determine whether voluntarily diving turtles remain aerobic and simultaneously avoid hypercapnic conditions over increasing dive lengths. Blood PO(2), PCO(2), and pH, as well as plasma concentrations of lactate, glucose, Na(+), K(+), Cl(-), total Ca, and total Mg were determined in venous blood collected from the occipital sinus. Blood PO(2) declined significantly with dive length; however, oxy-haemoglobin saturation remained greater than 30% for all R. leukops sampled. No changes were observed in blood PCO(2), pH, [HCO(3)(-)], or plasma glucose, with increasing dive length. Despite repeated dives lasting more than 2 h, plasma lactate remained less than 3 mmol l(-1) for all R. leukops sampled, indicating the absence of anaerobiosis. Compensatory acid-base adjustments associated with anaerobiosis (e.g. declining [Cl(-)], increasing total [Ca] and [Mg]) were likewise absent, with plasma-ion concentrations remaining stable with increasing dive length. Results indicate that R. leukops utilises aquatic respiration to remain aerobic during prolonged dives, thus effectively avoiding the development of a metabolic and respiratory acidosis.
Descriptors: reptiles, freshwater turtle, Rheodytes leukops, extended diving, acid-base changes, blood-respiratory, bimodally respiring.

Gordos, M.A., C.J. Limpus, and C.E. Franklin (2006). Response of heart rate and cloacal ventilation in the bimodally respiring freshwater turtle, Rheodytes leukops to experimental changes in aquatic PO2. Journal of Comparative Physiology B Biochemical Systemic and Environmental Physiology 176(1): 65-73. ISSN: 0174-1578.
NAL Call Number: QP33.J681
Descriptors: reptiles, freshwater turtle, Rheodytes leukops, heart rate, coacal ventilation, response, experimental changes, aquatic PO2, bimodal respiration.

Gorman, R.B., J.C. McDonagh, T.G. Hornby, R.M. Reinking, and D.G. Stuart (2005). Measurement and nature of firing rate adaptation in turtle spinal neurons. Journal of Comparative Physiology. A, Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology 191(7): 583-603. ISSN: 0340-7594.
NAL Call Number: QP33.J68
Abstract: There is sparse literature on the profile of action potential firing rate (spike-frequency) adaptation of vertebrate spinal motoneurons, with most of the work undertaken on cells of the adult cat and young rat. Here, we provide such information on adult turtle motoneurons and spinal ventral-horn interneurons. We compared adaptation in response to intracellular injection of 30-s, constant-current stimuli into high-threshold versus low-threshold motoneurons and spontaneously firing versus non-spontaneously-firing interneurons. The latter were shown to possess some adaptive properties that differed from those of motoneurons, including a delayed initial adaptation and more predominant reversal of adaptation attributable to plateau potentials. Issues were raised concerning the interpretation of changes in the action potentials' afterhyperpolarization shape parameters throughout spike-frequency adaptation. No important differences were demonstrated in the adaptation of the two motoneuron and two interneuron groups. Each of these groups, however, was modeled by its own unique combination of action potential shape parameters for the simulation of its 30-s duration of spike-frequency adaptation. Also, for a small sample of the very highest-threshold versus lowest-threshold motoneurons, the former group had significantly more adaptation than the latter. This finding was like that shown previously for cat motoneurons supplying fast- versus slow twitch motor units.
Descriptors: turtle, spinal neurons, firing rate, adaptation, measurement, action potentials, spinal cord physiology, anterior horn cells physiology, spinal cord cytology.

Guillory, K.S., S. Shoham, and R.A. Normann (2006). Discrete stimulus estimation from neural responses in the turtle retina. Vision Research 46(12): 1876-1885. ISSN: 0042-6989.
Abstract: In this paper, we investigate the decoding of flashed, full-field visual stimuli while recording from a population of retinal ganglion cells. We present a direct statistical method for determining the likelihood that a response was evoked by a particular stimulus, and use this method to estimate stimuli based on microelectrode array recordings in the turtle retina. This method uses the well-known time-varying Poisson model of neural firing, along with extensions to accommodate neural refractory periods. Unlike other approaches commonly used for Poisson processes, the specific formulation presented here is bin free and requires few user-specified parameters. Statistical dependency issues and the effects of stationarity on the estimation method are also discussed.
Descriptors: turtles, models neurological, retinal ganglion cells physiology, turtles physiology, action potentials physiology, microelectrodes, photic stimulation methods, stochastic processes.

Guirado, S. and J.C. Davila (2002). Thalamo-telencephalic connections: new insights on the cortical organization in reptiles. Brain Research Bulletin 57(3-4): 451-454. ISSN: 0361-9230.
Abstract: Tracer injections into the dorsal tier of the lacertilian dorsal thalamus revealed an extensive innervation of the cerebral cortex. The medial cortex, the dorsomedial cortex, and the medial part of the dorsal cortex received a bilateral projection, whereas the lateral part of dorsal cortex and the dorsal part of the lateral cortex received only an ipsilateral thalamic projection. Thalamocortical fibers were found superficially in all cortical regions, but in the dorsal part of the lateral cortex, varicose axons within the cellular layer were also observed. The bilateral thalamocortical projection originates from a cell population located throughout the dorsolateral anterior nucleus, whereas the ipsilateral input originates mainly from a rostral neuronal subpopulation of the nucleus. This feature suggests that the dorsolateral anterior nucleus consists of various parts with different projections. The dorsal subdivision of the lateral cortex displayed hodological and topological (radial glia processes) features of a dorsal pallium derivative. After tracer injections into the dorsal cortex of lizards, we found long descending projections that reached the striatum, the diencephalic basal plate, and the mesencephalic tegmentum, which suggests that it may represent a sensorimotor cortex.
Descriptors: reptiles, cortical organization, thalamo-telencephalic connections, new insights.

Halpern, M., A.R. Cinelli and D. Wang (2005). Prey chemical signal transduction in the vomeronasal system of garter snakes. In: R.T. Mason, M.P. LeMaster and D. Mueller-Schwarze (Editors), Chemical Signals in Vertebrates 10, Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.: New York, NY, p. 242-255. ISBN: 0387251596.
NAL Call Number: QP455 .I54 2003
Descriptors: reptiles, garter snakes, vermeronasal system, prey chemical signal transduction.

Hammerton, K.M., N. Jayasinghe, R.A. Jeffree, and R.P. Lim (2003). Experimental study of blood lead kinetics in estuarine crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) exposed to ingested lead shot. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 45(3): 390-398. ISSN: 0090-4341.
NAL Call Number: TD172.A7
Descriptors: reptiles, Crocodylus porosus, crocodiles, estuaries, blood, lead shot toxicity, lead poisoning, kinetics, ingestion, in vitro studies, hematologic tests, blood chemistry, intestinal absorption, digestion , digestive system, stomach, bioaccumulation.

Hanley, C.S., S.J. Hernandez Divers, S. Bush, and K.S. Latimer (2004). Comparison of the effect of dipotassium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid and lithium heparin on hematologic values in the green iguana (Iguana iguana). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 35(3): 328-332. ISSN: 1042-7260.
NAL Call Number: SF601.J6
Abstract: We compared the effects of dipotassium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and lithium heparin on hematologic values of green iguanas (Iguana iguana). Thirty-two privately owned sibling iguanas had blood drawn, and the sample was divided into three components: an EDTA tube, a heparin tube, and a nonanticoagulated blood smear. A full reptilian complete blood count was performed on each anticoagulated sample, and white blood cell (WBC) and leukocyte differential counts were performed on the whole-blood smears. Heparin and EDTA samples differed significantly in absolute values of thrombocytes, WBC, heterophils, and monocytes. The EDTA had no significant effect on the packed cell volume or plasma protein values, and the white blood count and differential counts produced with EDTA were more similar to those of the nonanticoagulated blood smear than were the counts produced with heparin.
Descriptors: reptiles, green iguana, hematologic values, dipotassium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, lithium heparin, anticoagulants, effects, blood count.

Harms, C.A., K.M. Mallo, P.M. Ross, and A. Segars (2003). Venous blood gases and lactates of wild loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) following two capture techniques. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 39(2): 366-374. ISSN: 0090-3558.
NAL Call Number: 41.9 W64B
Abstract: During summer of 2001, venous blood gases were determined in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) captured by trawl (n = 16) in coastal waters of South Carolina and Georgia (USA) as part of a sea turtle census program and captured in pound nets (n = 6) in coastal North Carolina (USA) during a study of sea turtle population biology. Trawls were towed for 30 min, so turtles captured were forcibly submerged for < or = 30 min. Pound nets are passive gear in which fish and sea turtles are funneled into a concentrated area and removed periodically. Sea turtles in pound nets are free to surface and to feed at will. Blood was obtained from the dorsal cervical sinus as quickly as possible after landing on the boat (range 2-10 min trawl, 1-2 min pound net) and at 30 min after landing just prior to release. Blood gases including pH, partial pressures of O2 and CO2 (pO2, pCO2), and lactate were measured within 10 min. Instrument measurements for pH, pO2, and pCO2 made at 37 C were corrected to cloacal temperature and HCO3- was calculated from temperature-corrected pH and pCO2. Venous blood pH and bicarbonate were higher, and pO2 and lactate were lower from pound net-captured turtles compared to trawl captured turtles at the initial sampling time. In pound net turtles, pH and bicarbonate declined and lactate increased during 30 min on deck. In trawled sea turtles, venous blood pH increased and pCO2 and pO2 decreased during the 30 min on deck. Both capture systems caused perturbations in blood gas, acid-base, and lactate status, though alterations were greater in trawl captured turtles.
Descriptors: reptiles, loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, wild, capture techniques, venous blood gases, lactates, acid-base.

Harms, C.A., M.G. Papich, M.A. Stamper, P.M. Ross, M.X. Rodriguez, and A.A. Hohn (2004). Pharmacokinetics of oxytetracycline in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) after single intravenous and intramuscular injections. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 35(4): 477-488. ISSN: 1042-7260.
NAL Call Number: SF601.J6
Abstract: The pharmacokinetics of oxytetracycline in 2-yr-old loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) after single i.v. and i.m. injections were studied for biologic marking and therapeutic applications. Twenty juvenile turtles were divided into two treatment groups. Ten animals received 25 mg/kg of oxytetracycline i.v. and 10 received the same dosage i.m. Plasma oxytetracycline concentrations were analyzed by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. Data from the i.v. route best fit a three-compartment model, whereas noncompartmental analysis was used to compare data from both the i.v. and i.m routes. For the i.v. route, means for maximum plasma concentration, terminal phase half-life, systemic clearance, and apparent volume of distribution at steady state were 6.6 microg/ml, 66.1 hr, 290.7 ml/hr/kg, and 18.4 L, respectively. For the i.m. route, means for systemic availability, maximum plasma concentration, and elimination half-life were 91.8%, 1.6 microg/ml, and 61.9 hr, respectively. The remarkably high apparent volume of distribution may possibly be associated with a deep compartment of drug disposition such as bone deposition associated with the large skeletal mass of turtles and the fact that these were well-nourished, growing juveniles. Although maximum plasma concentration by i.m. administration was lower than for the i.v. route, the long elimination time indicates that an infrequent dosing interval may be effective for sensitive bacteria.
Descriptors: reptiles, loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, oxytetracycline, pharmacokinetics, intravenous, intramuscular, single injections.

Harms, H.K., R.T. Paitz, R.M. Bowden, and F.J. Janzen (2005). Age and season impact resource allocation to eggs and nesting behavior in the painted turtle. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 78(6): 996-1004. ISSN: 1522-2152.
NAL Call Number: QL1.P52
Abstract: Theory predicts that in long-lived organisms females should invest less energy in reproduction and more in growth and self-maintenance early in life, with this balance shifting as females age and the relative value of each reproductive event increases. We investigated this potential trade-off by characterizing within-population variation in resource allocation to eggs by female painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) and relating this variation to their nesting ecology and life history. We examined lipid and protein allocation to yolks, accounting for both relative female age and seasonal effects (first vs. second clutches within a female). Older females appear to increase their investment in reproduction by producing larger eggs, but these eggs are not disproportionately more lipid or protein rich than the smaller eggs from younger females. Within the nesting season, first clutches have more lipid and protein than second clutches. We also found that younger females nest closer to the water than older females. Our results indicate that trade-offs involving resource allocation and nesting behavior do occur both seasonally and with age, suggesting ontogenetic variation in life-history strategies in this long-lived organism.
Descriptors: reptiles, painted turtle, Chrysemys picta, nesting behavior, age, season, eggs, resource allocation, impact, reproduction, energy.

Helmick, K.E., M.G. Papich, K.A. Vliet, R.A. Bennett, and E.R. Jacobson (2004). Pharmacokinetics of enrofloxacin after single-dose oral and intravenous administration in the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 35(3): 333-340. ISSN: 1042-7260.
NAL Call Number: SF601.J6
Descriptors: reptiles, American alligator, Alligator mississippiensis, enrofloxacin, single dose, intravenous, oral, pharmacokinetics.

Hernandez Franyutti, A., M.C. Uribe Aranzabal, and L.J.J. Guillette (2005). Oogenesis in the viviparous matrotrophic lizard Mabuya brachypoda. Journal of Morphology 265(2): 152-164. ISSN: 0362-2525.
NAL Call Number: 444.8 J826
Descriptors: lizards, physiology, oogonia physiology, vitellogenesis physiology, chromosomes, ultrastructure, cytoplasm physiology, ultrastructure, egg yolk physiology, ultrastructure, anatomy, histology, ovulation physiology.

Hicks, J.W. (2002). The physiological and evolutionary significance of cardiovascular shunting patterns in reptiles. News in Physiological Sciences 17: 241-245. ISSN: print: 0886-1714; online: 1522-161X.
Abstract: The morphology of the reptilian heart results in the mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood (cardiac shunts). In birds and mammals cardiac shunts are detrimental, but in reptiles this condition is often considered a derived trait, conveying important physiological functions and favored by natural selection. Alternative views are advanced suggesting that, in reptiles, cardiac shunts represent either an ancestral condition or an embryonic trait.
Descriptors: reptiles, cardiovascular physiology, evolution, heart physiology, shunting patterns, significance, heart, blood.

Hidalgo Sanchez, M., J. Francisco Morcillo, J. Navascues, and G. Martin Partido (2007). Early development of the optic nerve in the turtle Mauremys leprosa. Brain Research 1137(1): 35-49. ISSN: 0006-8993.
Descriptors: reptiles, turtle, Mauremys leprosa, optic nerve, early development, electron microscopy, optic axons, growth cones, glial cells.

Hochscheid, S., F. Bentivegna, and J.R. Speakman (2003). The dual function of the lung in chelonian sea turtles: buoyancy control and oxygen storage. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 297(2): 123-140. ISSN: 0022-0981.
NAL Call Number: QH91.A1J6
Descriptors: reptiles, chelonian sea turtles, lung, dual function, buoyancy control, oxygen storage.

Hoglund, E., W.J. Korzan, M.J. Watt, G.L. Forster, T.R. Summers, H.F. Johannessen, K.J. Renner, and C.H. Summers (2005). Effects of L-DOPA on aggressive behavior and central monoaminergic activity in the lizard Anolis carolinensis, using a new method for drug delivery. Behavioural Brain Research 156(1): 53-64. ISSN: 0166-4328.
Abstract: The dopamine (DA) precursor, L-DOPA (500 microg), was injected into living crickets, which were ingested (one each) by adult male Anolis carolinensis. This method of delivery elevated plasma L-DOPA and DA concentrations by approximately 1000-fold. In contrast, plasma epinephrine (Epi) and norepinephrine (NE) were not influenced by L-DOPA treatment, although they were elevated following the consumption of the cricket. Lizards that ingested L-DOPA treated crickets had elevated L-DOPA in all brain regions measured, with DA and/or DOPAC also increased significantly in most brain regions studied. Despite increased DA levels in the striatum and nucleus accumbens as a response to L-DOPA, the treatment had no influence on general motor activity. Central serotonin, NE, and Epi systems were not affected in any brain region by oral L-DOPA treatment. In addition, aggression was inhibited by this dose of L-DOPA, even though there was no effect on serotonergic systems. This is surprising because controlling aggressive behavior is usually considered the province of serotonergic activity. Aggression was measured before and after treatment, and while saline-treated lizards retained the full vigor of aggressive activity, those fed a cricket injected with L-DOPA were only one-third as aggressive after treatment. As L-DOPA treatment did not affect general motor activity, the effect appears to be directly associated with aggression. This is supported by the observation that L-DOPA treatment delayed latency to eyespot darkening, which predicts the latency to aggression.
Descriptors: lizard, Anolis carolinensis, behavior, L-DOPA, agressive behavior, central monoaminergic activity, drug delivery method, crickets, dopamine.

Hong, M.L., L.R. Fu, R.P. Wang, and H.T. Shi (2003). The advances in the research of the turtle's disease. Chinese Journal of Zoology 38(6): 115-119. ISSN: 0250-3263.
Descriptors: reptiles, turtles, diseases, research, advances, review, cause, diagnosis.
Language of Text: Chinese; Summary in Chinese and English.

Hornby, T.G., J.C. McDonagh, R.M. Reinking, and D.G. Stuart (2002). Electrophysiological properties of spinal motoneurons in the adult turtle. Journal of Comparative Physiology. A, Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology 188(5): 397-408. ISSN: 0340-7594.
NAL Call Number: QP33.J68
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to develop a scheme for classifying turtle motoneurons, such that their properties could be compared to those of other vertebrate species, including, in particular, the cat. A 130-cell sample of turtle motoneurons was provisionally classified into four groups (1-4) on the basis of a cluster analysis of the cells' intracellularly recorded input resistance, rheobase, and slope of their stimulus current-spike frequency relation. These measurements, using sharp microelectrodes and an in vitro spinal cord slice preparation, were particularly robust. It is argued that the cat counterpart of our turtle type 1, 2, and 3 motoneurons innervate slow-twitch muscle fibers, fast-twitch-oxidative fibers, and fast-twitch-glycolytic fibers, respectively. Our turtle type 4 motoneuron is thought analogous to a particularly high-threshold cat and human cell that innervates highly fatigable fast-twitch muscle fibers in both species. Our turtle type 1 category may include cells that innervate non-twitch muscle fibers, which are found in other non-mammalian vertebrates. To advance comparative spinal cord neurobiology, the present results invite comparison to the motoneurons of other vertebrate species, which have yet to be subjected to similar or other classification procedures.
Descriptors: reptiles, adult turtle, classifying spinal motoneurons, electrophysiological properties, cells, cluster analysis.

Huang, X.G. and X.B. Wu (2005). Immunohistochemical study on gastrointestinal endocrine cells of four reptiles. World Journal of Gastroenterology 11(35): 5498-5505. ISSN: 1007-9327.
Abstract: AIM: To clarify the types, regional distributions and distribution densities as well as morphological features of gastrointestinal (GI) endocrine cells in various parts of the gastrointestinal track (GIT) of four reptiles, Gekko japonicus, Eumeces chinensis, Sphenomorphus indicus and Eumeces elegans. METHODS: Paraffin-embedded sections (5 mum) of seven parts (cardia, fundus, pylorus, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, rectum) of GIT dissected from the four reptiles were prepared. GI endocrine cells were revealed by using immunohistochemical techniques of streptavidin-peroxidase (S-P) method. Seven types of antisera against 5-hydroxy-tryptamine (5-HT), somatostatin (SS), gastrin (GAS), glucagon (GLU), substance P (SP), insulin and pancreatic polypeptide were identified and then GI endocrine cells were photomicrographed and counted. RESULTS: The GI endocrine system of four reptiles was a complex structure containing many endocrine cell types similar in morphology to those found in higher vertebrates. Five types of GI endocrine cells, namely 5-HT, SS, GAS, SP and GLU immunoreactive (IR) cells were identified in the GIT of G. japonicus, E. chinensis and S. indicus; while in the GIT of E. elegans only the former three types of endocrine cells were observed. No PP- and INS- IR cells were found in all four reptiles. 5-HT-IR cells, which were most commonly found in the pylorus or duodenum, distributed throughout the whole GIT of four reptiles. However, their distribution patterns varied from each other. SS-IR cells, which were mainly found in the stomach especially in the pylorus and/or fundus, were demonstrated in the whole GIT of E. chinensis, only showed restricted distribution in the other three species. GAS-IR cells, with a much restricted distribution, were mainly demonstrated in the pylorus and/or the proximal small intestine of four reptiles. GLU-IR cells exhibited a limited and species-dependent variant distribution in the GIT of four reptiles. SP-IR cells were found throughout the GIT except for jejunum in E. elegans and showed a restricted distribution in the GIT of G. japonicus and S. indicus. In the GIT of four reptiles the region with the highest degree of cell type heterogeneity was pylorus and most types of GI endocrine cells along the GIT showed the peak density in pylorus as well. CONCLUSION: Some common and unique features of the distribution and morphology of different types of GI endocrine cells are found in four reptiles. This common trait may reflect the similarity in digestive physiology of various vertebrates.
Descriptors: reptiles, Gekko japonicus, Eumeces chinensis, Sphenomorphus indicus, Eumeces elegans, immunohistochemical study, gastrointestinal endocrine cells, metabolism, immunohistochemistry, lizards anatomy, histology, lizards metabolism, morphological features, anatomy, histology, digestive physiology.

Irwin, W.P. and K.J. Lohmann (2005). Disruption of magnetic orientation in hatchling loggerhead sea turtles by pulsed magnetic fields. Journal of Comparative Physiology. A, Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology 191(5): 475-480. ISSN: 0340-7594.
NAL Call Number: QP33.J68
Abstract: Loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) derive both directional and positional information from the Earth's magnetic field, but the mechanism underlying magnetic field detection in turtles has not been determined. One hypothesis is that crystals of biogenic, single-domain magnetite provide the physical basis of the magnetic sense. As a first step toward determining if magnetite is involved in sea turtle magnetoreception, hatchling loggerheads were exposed to pulsed magnetic fields (40 mT, 4 ms rise time) capable of altering the magnetic dipole moment of biogenic magnetite crystals. A control group of turtles was treated identically but not exposed to the pulsed fields. Both groups of turtles subsequently oriented toward a light source, implying that the pulsed fields did not disrupt the motivation to swim or the ability to maintain a consistent heading. However, when swimming in darkness under conditions in which turtles normally orient magnetically, control turtles oriented significantly toward the offshore migratory direction while those that were exposed to the magnetic pulses did not. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that at least part of the sea turtle magnetoreception system is based on magnetite. In principle, a magnetite-based magnetoreception system might be involved in detecting directional information, positional information, or both.
Descriptors: loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, electromagnetic fields, magnetic disruption, orientation, turtle physiology, pulsed magnetic fields.

Jakes, K.A., P.J. O'Donoghue, and J. Whittier (2003). Ultrastructure of Hepatozoon boigae (Mackerras, 1961) nov. comb. from brown tree snakes, Boiga irregularis, from northern Australia. Parasitology Research 90(3): 225-231. ISSN: 0932-0113.
NAL Call Number: QL757.P377
Abstract: Intraerythrocytic bodies identified as haemogregarine gamonts were found in 29% of 97 brown tree snakes (Boiga irregularis) examined during a haematological survey of reptiles in Australasia during 1994-1998. The morphological characteristics of the parasites were consistent with those of Haemogregarina boigae Mackerras, 1961, although the gamonts were slightly larger and lacked red caps but contained distinctive polar grey capsules. Gamonts did not distend host cells but laterally displaced their nuclei. They were contained within parasitophorous vacuoles and possessed typical apicomplexan organelles, including a conoid, polar rings, rhoptries and micronemes. Schizonts producing up to 30 merozoites were detected in endothelial cells of the lungs of 11 snakes. The absence of erythrocytic schizogony suggests the parasites belong to the genus Hepatozoon. Electron microscopy also revealed the presence of curious encapsulated organisms in degenerating erythrocytes. These stages did not possess apical complex organelles and were surrounded by thick walls containing circumferential junctions and interposed strips reminiscent of oocyst sutures.
Descriptors: reptiles, brown tree snakes, Boiga irregularis, parasites, coccidiosis, eucoccidiida ultrastructure, erythrocytes ultrastructure, Hepatozoon boigae ultrastructure, Australia.

Jessop, T.S., J.M. Sumner, C.J. Limpus, and J.M. Whittier (2004). Interplay between plasma hormone profiles, sex and body condition in immature hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) subjected to a capture stress protocol. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular and Integrative Physiology 137(1): 197-204. ISSN: 1095-6433.
Abstract: We investigated plasma hormone profiles of corticosterone and testosterone in immature hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) in response to a capture stress protocol. Further, we examined whether sex and body condition were covariates associated with variation in the adrenocortical response of immature turtles. Hawksbill turtles responded to the capture stress protocol by significantly increasing plasma levels of corticosterone over a 5 h period. There was no significant sex difference in the corticosterone stress response of immature turtles. Plasma testosterone profiles, while significantly different between the sexes, did not exhibit a significant change during the 5 h capture stress protocol. An index of body condition was not significantly associated with a turtle's capacity to produce plasma corticosterone both prior to and during exposure to the capture stress protocol. In summary, while immature hawksbill turtles exhibited an adrenocortical response to a capture stress protocol, neither their sex nor body condition was responsible for variation in endocrine responses. This lack of interaction between the adrenocortical response and these internal factors suggests that the inactive reproductive- and the current energetic- status of these immature turtles are important factors that could influence plasma hormone profiles during stress.
Descriptors: reptiles, immature hawksbill turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata, capture stress protocol, interplay, plasma hormone profiles, sex and body condition.

Johnson, A.J., A.P. Pessier, and E.R. Jacobson (2007). Experimental Transmission and Induction of Ranaviral Disease in Western Ornate Box Turtles (Terrapene ornata ornata) and Red-Eared Sliders (Trachemys scripta elegans). Veterinary Pathology 44(3): 285-297. ISSN: 0300-9858.
Online: http://www.vetpathology.org/cgi/content/abstract/44/3/285
NAL Call Number: 41.8 P27
Abstract: An experimental transmission study was designed to determine whether a causal relationship exists between a Ranavirus (BSTRV) isolated from a Burmese star tortoise that died and the lesions observed in that tortoise. A pilot study was performed with 3 box turtles (Terrapene ornata ornata) and 3 red-eared sliders (RESs; Trachemys scripta elegans) to assess their suitability in a larger study. Based on the outcome of this study, RESs were selected, and 2 groups of 4 RESs received either an oral (PO) or intramuscular (IM) inoculum containing10(5) 50% Tissue Culture Infecting Dose (TCID(50)) of a BSTRV-infected cell lysate. One turtle each was mock inoculated PO or IM with the same volume of uninfected cell lysate. Three of four IM-inoculated RESs developed clinical signs (nasal and ocular discharge [3 of 3], oral plaques [1 of 3], conjunctivitis and hyphema [1 of 3] and extreme lethargy [3 of 3]). A Ranavirus was isolated from kidney homogenates of 3 euthanatized turtles; DNA sequences of a portion of the major capsid protein gene were amplified by polymerase chain reaction. Consistent histologic lesions were observed only in IM-inoculated turtles and included fibrinoid vasculitis centered on splenic ellipsoids, multifocal hepatic necrosis, and multicentric fibrin thrombi in a variety of locations, including hepatic sinusoids, glomerular capillary loops, and pulmonary capillaries. Virions compatible with Ranavirus were observed within necrotic cells of the spleen of 1 IM-inoculated turtle using transmission electron microscopy. This study fulfills Koch's postulates, confirming a causal relationship between BSTRV and the clinical and histologic changes in chelonians infected with this virus.
Descriptors: reptiles, box turtles, experimental transmission, induction, ranaviral disease, inoculated, PO, IM, clinical signs, Koch's postulates.

Jones, M.S. and M. Ariel (2006). The effects of unilateral eighth nerve block on fictive VOR in the turtle. Brain Research 1094(1): 149-162. ISSN: 0006-8993.
Abstract: Multiunit activity during horizontal sinusoidal motion was recorded from pairs of oculomotor, trochlear, or abducens nerves of an in vitro turtle brainstem preparation that received inputs from intact semicircular canals. Responses of left oculomotor, right trochlear and right abducens nerves were approximately aligned with leftward head velocity, and that of the respective contralateral nerves were in-phase with rightward velocity. We examined the effect of sectioning or injecting lidocaine (1-2 microL of 0.5%) into the right vestibular nerve. Nerve block caused a striking phase shift in the evoked response of right oculomotor and left trochlear nerves, in which (rightward) control responses were replaced by a smaller-amplitude response to leftward table motion. Such "phase-reversed" responses were poorly defined in abducens nerve recordings. Frequency analysis demonstrated that this activity was advanced in phase relative to post-block responses of the respective contralateral nerves, which were in turn phase-advanced relative to pre-block controls. Phase differences were largest (approximately 10 degrees) at low frequencies (approximately 0.1 Hz) and statistically absent at 1 Hz. The phase-reversed responses were further investigated by eliminating individual canal input from the left labyrinth following right nVIII block, which indicated that the activation of the vertical canal afferents is the source of this activity.
Descriptors: oculomotor muscles, vestibulo ocular reflex (VOR), semicircular canals, turtles, vestibular nerve, abducens nerve cytology, action potentials, brain stem, denervation, eye movements, functional laterality, head movements, lidocaine, motor neurons physiology, musculoskeletal equilibrium, neural pathways, trochlear nerve.

Kabelik, D., S.L. Weiss, and M.C. Moore (2006). Steroid hormone mediation of limbic brain plasticity and aggression in free-living tree lizards, Urosaurus ornatus. Hormones and Behavior 49(5): 587-597. ISSN: 0018-506X.
NAL Call Number: QP801.H7H64
Abstract: The neural mechanisms by which steroid hormones regulate aggression are unclear. Although testosterone and its metabolites are involved in both the regulation of aggression and the maintenance of neural morphology, it is unknown whether these changes are functionally related. We addressed the hypothesis that parallel changes in steroid levels and brain volumes are involved in the regulation of adult aggression. We examined the relationships between seasonal hormone changes, aggressive behavior, and the volumes of limbic brain regions in free-living male and female tree lizards (Urosaurus ornatus). The brain nuclei that we examined included the lateral septum (LS), preoptic area (POA), amygdala (AMY), and ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH). We showed that the volumes of the POA and AMY in males and the POA in females vary with season. However, reproductive state (and thus hormonal state) was incompletely predictive of these seasonal changes in males and completely unrelated to changes in females. We also detected male-biased dimorphisms in volume of the POA, AMY, and a dorsolateral subnucleus of the VMH but did not detect a dimorphism between alternate male morphological phenotypes. Finally, we showed that circulating testosterone levels were higher in males exhibiting higher frequency and intensity of aggressive display to a conspecific, though brain nucleus volumes were unrelated to behavior. Our findings fail to support our hypothesis and suggest instead that plasma testosterone level covaries with aggression level and in a limited capacity with brain nucleus volumes but that these are largely unrelated relationships.
Descriptors: reptiles, free living tree lizards, Urosaurus ornatus, steroid hormonelimbic brain plasticity, aggression, testosterone.
Notes: Comment In: Horm Behav. 2006 May;49(5):577-9.

Katsu, Y., J. Myburgh, S. Kohno, G.E. Swan, L.J.J. Guillette, and T. Iguchi (2006). Molecular cloning of estrogen receptor alpha of the Nile crocodile. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular and Integrative Physiology 143(3): 340-346. ISSN: 1095-6433.
Abstract: Estrogens are essential for normal reproductive activity in female and male vertebrates. In female reptiles, they are essential for ovarian differentiation during a critical developmental stage. To understand the molecular mechanisms of estrogen action in the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus), we have isolated cDNA encoding the estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha) from the ovary. Degenerate PCR primers specific to ER were designed and used to amplify Nile crocodile cDNA from the ovary. The full-length Nile crocodile ERalpha cDNA was obtained using 5' and 3' rapid amplification cDNA ends (RACE). The deduced amino acid sequence of the Nile crocodile ERalpha showed high identity to the American alligator ERalpha (98%), caiman ER (98%), lizard ER (82%) and chicken ERalpha (92%), although phylogenetic analysis suggested profound differences in the rate of sequence evolution for vertebrate ER sequences. Expression of ERalpha was observed in the ovary and testis of juvenile Nile crocodiles. These data provide a novel tool allowing future studies examining the regulation and ontogenic expression of ERalpha in crocodiles and expands our knowledge of estrogen receptor evolution.
Descriptors: alligators, amino acid sequence, base sequence, gonads metabolism, molecular sequence data, phylogeny, tertiary protein structure, sequence alignment, Nile crocodile, Crocodylus niloticus, molecular cloning, alpha estrogen receptor.

Khalifa, S.A. (2003). Comparative ultrastructure study on spermiogenesis in two lizards, Tarentola annularis and Agama stellio. Journal of Union of Arab Biologists Cairo A Zoology 20: 29-40. ISSN: 1110-5372.
Descriptors: reptiles, lizards, Agama stellio, Tarentola annularis, spermatogenesis, comparative ultrastructure study.
Language of Text: Arabic; English.

Kienzle, E., G. Kopsch, P. Koelle, and M. Clauss (2006). Chemical composition of turtles and tortoises. Journal of Nutrition 136(7 Suppl): 2053s-2054s. ISSN: 0022-3166.
NAL Call Number: 389.8 J82
Descriptors: reptiles, turtles, tortoises, pets, nutrient requirements, animal feeding, body composition, chemical composition, animal growth, crude protein, ash content, calcium, phosphorus, iron, copper, zinc, liver, turtle shells, tortoise shells.
Notes: Poster presented at the Waltham International Sciences Symposium on "Innovations in Companion Animal Nutrition," September 14 - 18, 2005, Washington, DC.

Knapp, C.R. and A.K. Owens (2005). An effective new radio transmitter attachment technique for lizards. Herpetological Review 36(3): 264-266. ISSN: 0018-084X.
NAL Call Number: QL640.H47
Descriptors: reptiles, lizards, radio telemetry, radio transmitter, attachment technique.

Krohmer, R.W., D. Martinez, and R.T. Mason (2004). Development of the renal sexual segment in immature snakes: effect of sex steroid hormones. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular and Integrative Physiology 139(1): 55-64. ISSN: 1095-6433.
Abstract: The renal sexual segment (RSS) of immature Northern and Diamondback Water Snakes and Red-Sided Garter Snakes exhibited varying responses to testosterone or 17beta-estradiol. In both male and female water snakes, kidney mass was not a reliable indicator of hormone treatment, whereas tubule diameter, epithelial height and number of sexual granules responded to hormone treatment. In male water snakes, either hormone initiated granule development by day 16; by day 23, only testosterone increased granule density. Female water snakes receiving either hormone exhibited a small number of granules by day 16; by day 23, granules increased only in Diamondback Water Snakes receiving testosterone. Hormones did not initiate RSS hypertrophy in female Red-Sided Garter Snakes. Tubule diameter and epithelial height of testosterone-treated males exhibited significant hypertrophy, while 17beta-estradiol initiated significant increases in tubule diameter. Garter snakes initiated sexual granule development in response to hormone treatment with males exhibiting a greater response than females and testosterone stimulating a greater response than 17beta-estradiol. Sex steroids appear to mimic sexual maturity in immature snakes initiating RSS development. Whereas the RSS of adult males respond to testosterone, our data suggest specific changes in the RSS of females during maturation effectively negates the effect of 17beta-estradiol evident in immature female RSS.
Descriptors: reptiles, immature snakes, renal sexual segment, development, sex steroids, effect.

Kuraku, S., J. Ishijima, C. Nishida Umehara, K. Agata, S. Kuratani, and Y. Matsuda (2006). cDNA-based gene mapping and GC3 profiling in the soft-shelled turtle suggest a chromosomal size-dependent GC bias shared by sauropsids. Chromosome Research 14(2): 187-202. ISSN: print: 0967-3849; online: 1573-6849.
NAL Call Number: QH600.C47
Abstract: Mammalian and avian genomes comprise several classes of chromosomal segments that vary dramatically in GC-content. Especially in chicken, microchromosomes exhibit a higher GC-content and a higher gene density than macrochromosomes. To understand the evolutionary history of the intra-genome GC heterogeneity in amniotes, it is necessary to examine the equivalence of this GC heterogeneity at the nucleotide level between these animals including reptiles, from which birds diverged. We isolated cDNAs for 39 protein-coding genes from the Chinese soft-shelled turtle, Pelodiscus sinensis, and performed chromosome mapping of 31 genes. The GC-content of exonic third positions (GC3) of P. sinensis genes showed a heterogeneous distribution, and exhibited a significant positive correlation with that of chicken and human orthologs, indicating that the last common ancestor of extant amniotes had already established a GC-compartmentalized genomic structure. Furthermore, chromosome mapping in P. sinensis revealed that microchromosomes tend to contain more GC-rich genes than GC-poor genes, as in chicken. These results illustrate two modes of genome evolution in amniotes: mammals elaborated the genomic configuration in which GC-rich and GC-poor regions coexist in individual chromosomes, whereas sauropsids (reptiles and birds) refined the chromosomal size-dependent GC compartmentalization in which GC-rich genomic fractions tend to be confined to microchromosomes.
Descriptors: Chinese soft-shelled turtle, Pelodiscus sinensis, base composition genetics, chromosome mapping methods, chromosomes, turtles genetics, chickens genetics, cloning, molecular, DNA, complementary genetics, complementary metabolism, evolution, molecular, genome, in situ hybridization, fluorescence, models, biological, phylogeny.

Lee, E.J., D.K. Merwine, L.B. Mann, and N.M. Grzywacz (2005). Ganglion cell densities in normal and dark-reared turtle retinas. Brain Research 1060(1-2): 40-46. ISSN: 0006-8993.
Abstract: In dark-reared, neonatal turtle retinas, ganglion cell receptive fields and dendritic trees grow faster than normal. As a result, their areas may become, on average, up to twice as large as in control retinas. This raises the question of whether the coverage factor of dark-reared ganglion cells is larger than normal. Alternatively, dark rearing may lead to smaller-than-normal cell densities by accelerating apoptosis. To test these alternatives, we investigated the effect of light deprivation on densities and soma sizes of turtle retinal ganglion cells. For this purpose, we marked these cells using retrograde labeling of fixed turtle retinas with DiI (1,1'-dioctadecyl-3,3,3',3'-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate). Control turtles were maintained in a regular 12-h light/dark cycle from hatching until 4 weeks of age, whereas dark-reared turtles were maintained in total darkness for the same period. Ganglion cells in the control and dark-reared retinas were found to be similar in density and soma sizes. These results show that the mean coverage factor of turtle dark-reared ganglion cells is larger than normal.
Descriptors: turtles, neonatal, retinal ganglion cells, cytology, sensory deprivation, dark-reared, physiology, normal-reared, neonatal, retinas.

Li, M., B.G. Fry, and R.M. Kini (2005). Eggs-only diet: its implications for the toxin profile changes and ecology of the marbled sea snake (Aipysurus eydouxii). Journal of Molecular Evolution 60(1): 81-89. ISSN: print: 0022-2844; online: 1432-1432.
NAL Call Number: QH359.J6
Abstract: Studies so far have correlated the variation in the composition of snake venoms with the target prey population and snake's diet. Here we present the first example of an alternative evolutionary link between venom composition and dietary adaptation of snakes. We describe a dinucleotide deletion in the only three finger toxin gene expressed in the sea snake Aipysurus eydouxii (Marbled Sea Snake) venom and how it may have been the result of a significant change in dietary habits. The deletion leads to a frame shift and truncation with an accompanying loss of neurotoxicity. Due to the remarkable streamlining of sea snake venoms, a mutation of a single toxin can have dramatic effects on the whole venom, in this case likely explaining the 50- to 100-fold decrease in venom toxicity in comparison to that of other species in the same genus. This is a secondary result of the adaptation of A. eydouxii to a new dietary habit--feeding exclusively on fish eggs and, thus, the snake no longer using its venom for prey capture. This was parallel to greatly atrophied venom glands and loss of effective fangs. It is interesting to note that a potent venom was not maintained for use in defense, thus reinforcing that the primary use of snake venom is for prey capture.
Descriptors: marbled sea snake, Aipysurus eydouxii, diet, eggs only diet, toxin profile changes, venom, prey capture, dietary adaptation, loss of neurotoxicity.

Li, Y., X. Wu, X. Ji, P. Yan, and G. Amato (2007). The complete mitochondrial genome of salt-water crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) and phylogeny of crocodilians. Journal of Genetics and Genomics 34(2): 119-128. ISSN: 1673-8527.
NAL Call Number: QH426
Descriptors: reptiles, crocodile, Crocodylus porosus, salt water, mitochindrial genome, complete, phylogeny, nucleotide sequence.

Lin, Y.J. and J.R. Edelman (2005). Chromocenters and regeneration of teeth in reptiles: a correlation. Nucleus Calcutta 48(3): 171-172. ISSN: 0029-568X.
Descriptors: reptiles, Iguana iguana, chromocenters, regeneration of teeth, correlation.

Lin, Z.H. and X. Ji (2005). Partial tail loss has no severe effects on energy stores and locomotor performance in a lacertid lizard, Takydromus septentrionalis. Journal of Comparative Physiology. B, Biochemical, Systemic, and Environmental Physiology 175(8): 567-573. ISSN: print: 0174-1578; online: 1432-136X.
NAL Call Number: QP33.J681
Abstract: Many species of lizards use caudal autotomy as a defense strategy to avoid predation, but tail loss entails costs. These topics were studied experimentally in the northern grass lizard, Takydromus septentrionalis. We measured lipids in the three-tail segments removed from each of the 20 experimental lizards (adult females) initially having intact tails to evaluate the effect of tail loss on energy stores; we obtained data on locomotor performance (sprint speed, the maximal length traveled without stopping and the number of stops in the racetrack) for these lizards before and after the tail-removing treatments to evaluate the effect of tail loss on locomotor performance. An independent sample of 20 adult females that retained intact tails was measured for locomotor performance to serve as controls for successive measurements taken for the experimental lizards. The lipids stored in the removed tail was positively correlated with tailbase width when holding the tail length constant, indicating that thicker tails contained more lipids than did thinner tails of the same overall length. Most of the lipids stored in the tail were concentrated in the proximal portion of the tail. Locomotor performance was almost unaffected by tail loss until at least more than 71% of the tail (in length) was lost. Our data show that partial tail loss due to predatory encounters or other factors may not severely affect energy stores and locomotor performance in T. septentrionalis.
Descriptors: reptiles, lacertid lizard, Takydromus septentrionalis, partial tail loss, energy stores, effects, locomotor performance, defense strategy, predation.

Llewelyn, J., R. Shine, and J.K. Webb (2006). Time of testing affects locomotor performance in nocturnal versus diurnal snakes. Journal of Thermal Biology 31(3): 268-273. ISSN: 0306-4565.
NAL Call Number: QP82.2.T4J6
Descriptors: reptiles, nocturnal snakes, diurnal snakes, locomotor performance, time of testing, affects, time of day.

Lu, Y.A., Y. Wang, A.A. Aguirre, Z.S. Zhao, C.Y. Liu, V.R. Nerurkar, and R. Yanagihara (2003). RT-PCR detection of the expression of the polymerase gene of a novel reptilian herpesvirus in tumor tissues of green turtles with fibropapilloma. Archives of Virology 148(6): 1155-1163. ISSN: 0304-8608.
NAL Call Number: 448.3 Ar23
Descriptors: reptiles, green turtles, Chelonia mydas, papilloma, animal diseases, gene expression, tissue distribution, Herpesviridae, etiology.

Lutterschmidt, D.I. and R.T. Mason (2005). A serotonin receptor antagonist, but not melatonin, modulates hormonal responses to capture stress in two populations of garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis and Thamnophis sirtalis concinnus). General and Comparative Endocrinology 141(3): 259-270. ISSN: 0016-6480.
NAL Call Number: 444.8 G28
Abstract: Hormonal and behavioral responses to a stressor depend on many factors, including the influence of other hormones. We examined the role of melatonin in modulating hormonal responses to capture stress in two populations of male garter snakes, Thamnophis sirtalis. Studies of red-sided (T. sirtalis parietalis) and red-spotted (T. sirtalis concinnus) garter snakes were conducted in the field with free-living snakes. Populations of red-sided garter snakes in south-central Manitoba, Canada undergo a period of winter dormancy for approximately 8 months each year followed by an attenuated mating season (4-5 weeks) in early spring. In contrast, the mid-latitude red-spotted garter snake in western Oregon, USA has an extended breeding season and can be active during 10-12 months of the year given appropriate environmental conditions. We chose to study these two populations of garter snakes to investigate possible variation in melatonin function among snakes with different suites of environmental adaptations. To better address these questions, we also examined the effects of 5-hydroxytryptophan (a precursor of melatonin synthesis) and ketanserin (a serotonergic type 2A receptor antagonist) on hormonal responses to capture stress. We observed a trend of increased corticosterone and decreased androgen concentrations in northern-latitude red-sided garter snakes (T. sirtalis parietalis) subjected to 4 h of capture stress during the spring. However, these differences were not statistically significant. During the fall, red-sided garter snakes showed no change in corticosterone or androgen concentrations in response to the capture stress treatments. We speculate that northern-latitude red-sided garter snakes suppress hormonal responses to capture stress during preparation for winter dormancy. Treatment with melatonin, 5-hydroxytryptophan, or ketanserin did not significantly influence corticosterone or androgen concentrations of northern-latitude red-sided garter snakes during the spring or fall. Mid-latitude red-spotted garter snakes (T. sirtalis concinnus) from Oregon showed a statistically significant increase in corticosterone concentrations in response to 4 h of capture stress; treatment with melatonin, 5-hydroxytryptophan, or ketanserin prior to capture stress had no significant influence on plasma corticosterone concentrations. Androgen concentrations of mid-latitude red-spotted garter snakes in response to capture stress were significantly lower than those of non-stressed control snakes. Neither melatonin nor 5-hydroxytryptophan influenced the change in androgen concentrations during capture stress. However, androgen concentrations of snakes treated with ketanserin prior to 4 h of capture stress did not differ significantly from those of non-stressed control snakes. These studies suggest that melatonin does not modulate hormonal responses to capture stress in this ectothermic model. Our results also suggest that a serotonin-regulated system may play a role in modulating the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis during physiological stress responses.
Descriptors: garter snakes, Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis and Thamnophis sirtalis concinnus, capture stress, serotonin receptor antagonist, melatonin, hormonal response, modulates, stressor, behavioral response.

Lutz, P.L. and S.L. Milton (2004). Negotiating brain anoxia survival in the turtle. Journal of Experimental Biology 207(Pt 18): 3141-3147. ISSN: 0022-0949.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.01056
NAL Call Number: 442.8 B77
Abstract: The turtle brain's extraordinary ability to tolerate anoxia is based on constitutive and expressed factors. Constitutive factors that predispose for anoxia tolerance include enhanced levels of glycogen stores, increased densities of protective receptors, elevated antioxidant capacities and elevated heat shock protein. However, to survive an anoxic insult, three distinct phases must be negotiated successfully. (1) A coordinated downregulation of ATP demand processes to basal levels. This phase, which takes 1-2 h, includes a reduction in voltage-gated K(+) (Kv) channel transcription and a substantial increase in Hsp72 and Hsc73 levels. During this period, adenosine and K(ATP) channels mediate several key events including channel arrest initiation and a reduction in the release of excitatory amino acids (EAAs). (2) Long-term survival (days) at basal levels of ATP expenditure. Neuronal network integrity is preserved through the continued operation of core activities. These include periodic electrical activity, an increased release of GABA and a continued release of glutamate and dopamine. Adenosine and GABA modulate the glutamate release. There is a further increase in Hsc73, indicating a 'housekeeping' role for this protein during this period. (3) A rapid upregulation of neuronal processes when oxygen becomes available to restore full function, together with the activation of protection mechanisms against reperfusion-generated reactive oxygen species.
Descriptors: reptiles, turtle, anoxia metabolism, brain metabolism, oxygen metabolism, anoxia tolerance, glycogen stores.

Macey, J.R., J.A.I. Schulte, J.J. Fong, I. Das, and T.J. Papenfuss (2006). The complete mitochondrial genome of an agamid lizard from the Afro-Asian subfamily Agaminae and the phylogenetic position of Bufoniceps and Xenagama. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 39(3): 881-886. ISSN: 1055-7903.
NAL Call Number: QH367.5.M56
Descriptors: reptiles, agamid lizard, complete mitochondrial genome, subfamily, Agaminae, Bufoniceps, Xenagama.

Maginniss, L.A., S.A. Ekelund, and G.R. Ultsch (2004). Blood oxygen transport in common map turtles during simulated hibernation. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 77(2): 232-241. ISSN: 1522-2152.
NAL Call Number: QL1.P52
Abstract: We assessed the effects of cold and submergence on blood oxygen transport in common map turtles (Graptemys geographica). Winter animals were acclimated for 6-7 wk to one of three conditions at 3 degrees C: air breathing (AB-3 degrees C), normoxic submergence (NS-3 degrees C), and hypoxic (PO2=49 Torr) submergence (HS-3 degrees C). NS-3 degrees C turtles exhibited a respiratory alkalosis (pH 8.07; PCO2=7.9 Torr; [lactate]=2.2 mM) relative to AB-3 degrees C animals (pH 7.89; PCO2=13.4 Torr; [lactate]=1.1 mM). HS-3 degrees C animals experienced a profound metabolic acidosis (pH 7.30; PCO2=7.9 Torr; [lactate]=81 mM). NS-3 degrees C turtles exhibited an increased blood O2 capacity; however, isoelectric focusing revealed no seasonal changes in the isohemoglobin (isoHb) profile. Blood O2 affinity was significantly increased by cold acclimation; half-saturation pressures (P50's) for air-breathing turtles at 3 degrees and 22 degrees C were 6.5 and 18.8 Torr, respectively. P50's for winter animals submerged in normoxic and hypoxic water were 5.2 and 6.5 Torr, respectively. CO2 Bohr slopes (Delta logP50/Delta pH) were -0.15, -0.16, and -0.07 for AB-3 degrees C, NS-3 degrees C, and HS-3 degrees C turtles, respectively; the corresponding value for AB-22 degrees C was -0.37. The O2 equilibrium curve (O2EC) shape was similar for AB-3 degrees C and NS-3 degrees C turtles; Hill plot n coefficients ranged from 1.8 to 2.0. The O2EC shape for HS-3 degrees C turtles was anomalous, exhibiting high O2 affinity below P50 and a right-shifted segment above half-saturation. We suggest that increases in Hb-O2 affinity and O2 capacity enhance extrapulmonary O2 uptake by turtles overwintering in normoxic water. The anomalous O2EC shape and reduced CO2 Bohr effect of HS-3 degrees C turtles may also promote some aerobic metabolism in hypoxic water.
Descriptors: reptiles, map turtles, blood oxygen transport, simulated hibernation, acclimatization, cold, hypothermia, oxygen blood, metabolism.

Mahmoud, I.Y., J.R. Paulson, M. Dudley, J.S. Patzlaff, and A.Y. Al Kindi (2004). Secretory proteins in the reproductive tract of the snapping turtle, Chelhydra serpentina. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular and Integrative Physiology 139(4): 487-494. ISSN: 1095-6433.
Abstract: SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis was used to separate the secretory proteins produced by the epithelial and endometrial glands of the uterine tube and uterus in the snapping turtle Chelydra serpentina. The proteins were analyzed throughout the phases of the reproductive cycle from May to August, including preovulatory, ovulatory, postovulatory or luteal, and vitellogenic phases. The pattern of secretory proteins is quite uniform along the length of the uterine tube, and the same is true of the uterus, but the patterns for uterine tube and uterus are clearly different. We identify 13 major proteins in C. serpentina egg albumen. Bands co-migrating with 11 of these are found in the uterine tube, but at most 4 are found in the uterus, suggesting that the majority of the albumen proteins are most likely secreted in the uterine tube, not in the uterus. Although some of the egg albumen proteins are present in the uterine tube only at the time of ovulation, most of the bands corresponding to albumen proteins are present throughout the breeding season even though the snapping turtle is a monoclutch species. These results suggest that the glandular secretory phase in the uterine tube is active and quite homogeneous in function regardless of location or phase of the reproductive cycle.
Descriptors: reptiles, snapping turtle, Chelydra serpentina, secretory proteins, reproductive tract, reproductive cycle.

Mallo, K.M., C.A. Harms, G.A. Lewbart, and M.G. Papich (2002). Pharmacokinetics of fluconazole in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) after single intravenous and subcutaneous injections, and multiple subcutaneous injections. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 33(1): 29-35. ISSN: 1042-7260.
NAL Call Number: SF601.J6
Abstract: Superficial and systemic mycotic infections are common among clinically ill sea turtles, which places growing importance on the establishment of pharmacokinetic-based dosage regimens for antifungal drugs. The pharmacokinetic properties of the antifungal drug fluconazole, after intravenous (i.v.) and subcutaneous (s.c.) injections, were studied in juvenile loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) housed at 23.0-26.5 degrees C. Fluconazole pharmacokinetic properties were further assessed in a multiple-dose s.c. regimen derived from the pharmacokinetic parameters determined in the single-dose study. Pharmacokinetic parameters were calculated, using a two-compartment model, from plasma concentration-time data obtained after single i.v. and s.c. administrations of fluconazole at a dosage of 2.5 mg/ kg body weight in six juvenile sea turtles. Blood samples were collected at intervals through 120 hr after each dose, and the concentration of fluconazole in plasma was measured by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. The i.v. and s.c. elimination half-lives were 139.5 +/- 36.0 and 132.6 +/- 48.7 hr (mean +/- SD), respectively. Systemic clearance of fluconazole was 8.2 +/- 4.3 ml/kg x hr, and the apparent volume of distribution at steady state was 1.38 +/- 0.29 L/kg. A multiple-dose regimen was derived, which consisted of a loading dose of 21 mg/kg body weight and subsequent doses of 10 mg/kg administered through s.c. injection every 120 hr (5 days). This regimen was administered to four juvenile sea turtles for 10 days, and blood samples were taken to determine peak and trough plasma concentrations of fluconazole. The mean concentrations for the two peak concentrations were 16.9 +/- 1.1 and 19.1 +/- 2.8 microg/ml 4 hr after dosing, and the mean concentrations for the three trough concentrations were 7.2 +/- 2.2, 10.4 +/- 2.7, and 10.7 +/- 2.9 microg/ml 120 hr after dosing. The terminal half-life after the last dose was calculated at 143 hr. Throughout the multiple dosing, fluconazole concentrations remained above approximately 8 microg/ml, a concentration targeted when treating mycotic infections in humans. The results of this study suggest that fluconazole can be effectively administered to sea turtles at a dosage of 10 mg/kg every 5 days after a loading dose of 21 mg/kg.
Descriptors: reptiles, loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, fluconazole, pharmacokinetics, injections, intravenous, subcutaneous, antifungal drugs.

Manley, G.A. (2004). The lizard basilar papilla and its evolution. Springer Handbook of Auditory Research 22: 200-223. ISSN: 0947-2657.
Descriptors: reptiles, lizard, basilar papilla, evolution, auditory research.

Marcu Lapadat, M. (2001). Catecolaminele si functia tiroidiana la reptile. II. Actiunea noradrenalinei (iarna). [Catecholamines and thyroid function in reptiles. II. Effects of noradrenaline administration (cold season)]. Analele Universitatii Bucuresti Biologie 50: 91-97. ISSN: 0378-8989.
Descriptors: reptiles, catecholamines, thyroid function, noradrenaline administration, effects.
Language of Text: Romanian; Summary in English and Romanian.

Martin, J., N. Kogo, T.X. Fan, and M. Ariel (2003). Morphology of the turtle accessory optic system. Visual Neuroscience 20(6): 639-649. ISSN: 0952-5238.
Online: http://journals.cambridge.org/
Descriptors: reptiles, turtle, accessory optic system, morphology, eyes.

Martinez Marcos, A., I. Ubeda Banon, E. Lanuza, and M. Halpern (2005). Chemoarchitecture and afferent connections of the "olfactostriatum": a specialized vomeronasal structure within the basal ganglia of snakes. Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy 29(1): 49-69. ISSN: 0891-0618.
Abstract: The olfactostriatum, a portion of the striatal complex of snakes, is the major tertiary vomeronasal structure in the ophidian brain, receiving substantial afferents from the nucleus sphericus, the primary target of accessory olfactory bulb efferents. In the present study, we have characterized the olfactostriatum of garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis) on the basis of chemoarchitecture (distribution of serotonin, neuropeptide Y and tyrosine hydroxylase) and hodology (afferent connections). The olfactostriatum is densely immunoreactive for serotonin and neuropeptide Y and shows moderate-to-weak immunoreactivity for tyrosine hydroxylase. In addition to afferents from the nucleus sphericus, the olfactostriatum receives inputs from the dorsal and lateral cortices, nucleus of the accessory olfactory tract, external and dorsolateral amygdalae, dorsomedial thalamic nucleus, ventral tegmental area and raphe nuclei. Double labeling experiments demonstrated that the distribution of serotonin and neuropeptide Y in this area almost completely overlaps the terminal field of projections from the nucleus sphericus. Also, serotonergic and dopaminergic innervation of the olfactostriatum likely arise, respectively, from the raphe nuclei and the ventral tegmental area, whereas local circuit neurons originate the neuropeptide Y immunoreactivity. These results indicate that the olfactostriatum of snakes could be a portion of the nucleus accumbens, with features characteristic of the accumbens shell, devoted to processing vomeronasal information. Comparative data suggest that a similar structure is present in the ventral striatum of amphibians and mammals.
Descriptors: reptiles, garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis, olfactostriatum, chemoarchitecture, afferent connections, vermeronasalstructure, ganglia.

Masunaga, G. and H. Ota (2003). Growth and reproduction of the sea snake, Emydocephalus ijimae, in the central Ryukyus, Japan: a mark and recapture study. Zoological Science 20(4): 461-470. ISSN: 0289-0003.
NAL Call Number: QL1.Z68
Abstract: A mark and recapture study was carried out for three years on a population of the Ijima's sea snake, Emydocephalus ijimae, in the coastal shallow water of Zamamijima Island, central Ryukyus, Japan. The relatively high recapture (47% of 167 marked snakes) suggests that E. ijimae is a particularly philopatric, sedentary species among the sea snakes. The sex ratio (male: female), approximately 1.6:1, significantly skewed from 1:1. The growth rate in SVL declined with growth, with females thoroughly growing better than males. Males and females were estimated to begin reproductive activity in the second or third summer and the third spring after birth, respectively. Frequency of female reproduction is guessed to vary from annual to biennial, or even less frequent.
Descriptors: reptiles, sea snake, Emydocephalus ijimae, growth, reproduction, recapture study, Japan.

Maxwell, L.K. and E.R. Jacobson (2004). Allometric scaling of kidney function in green iguanas Iguana iguana. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A, Molecular and Integrative Physiology 138(3): 383-390. ISSN: 1095-6433.
Descriptors: reptiles, green iguanas, Iguana iguana, kidney function, allometric scaling, renal scintigraphy, diagnostic tool, glomerular filtration rate.

Mehta, V. and E. Sernagor (2006). Early neural activity and dendritic growth in turtle retinal ganglion cells. European Journal of Neuroscience. 24(3): 773-786. ISSN: print: 0953-816X; online: 1460-9568.
Abstract: Early neural activity, both prenatal spontaneous bursts and early visual experience, is believed to be important for dendritic proliferation and for the maturation of neural circuitry in the developing retina. In this study, we have investigated the possible role of early neural activity in shaping developing turtle retinal ganglion cell (RGC) dendritic arbors. RGCs were back-labelled from the optic nerve with horseradish peroxidase (HRP). Changes in dendritic growth patterns were examined across development and following chronic blockade or modification of spontaneous activity and/or visual experience. Dendrites reach peak proliferation at embryonic stage 25 (S25, one week before hatching), followed by pruning in large field RGCs around the time of hatching. When spontaneous activity is chronically blocked in vivo from early embryonic stages (S22) with curare, a cholinergic nicotinic antagonist, RGC dendritic growth is inhibited. On the other hand, enhancement of spontaneous activity by dark-rearing (Sernagor & Grzywacz (1996)Curr. Biol., 6, 1503-1508) promotes dendritic proliferation in large-field RGCs, an effect that is counteracted by exposure to curare from hatching. We also recorded spontaneous activity from individual RGCs labelled with lucifer yellow (LY). We found a tendency of RGCs with large dendritic fields to be spontaneously more active than small-field cells. From all these observations, we conclude that immature spontaneous activity promotes dendritic growth in developing RGCs.
Descriptors: turtles, action potentials physiology, cell differentiation physiology, dendrites physiology, retina embryology, retina growth and development, retinal ganglion cells physiology, action potentials drug effects, aging physiology, cell differentiation drug effects, cell shape physiology, darkness, dendrites drug effects, dendrites ultrastructure, horseradish peroxidase, isoquinolines, nicotinic antagonists pharmacology, patch clamp techniques, retina cytology, retinal ganglion cells cytology, retinal ganglion cells drug effects, sensory deprivation physiology, synaptic transmission physiology, visual pathways cytology, visual pathways embryology, visual pathways growth and development.

Mehta, V. and E. Sernagor (2006). Receptive field structure-function correlates in developing turtle retinal ganglion cells. European Journal of Neuroscience. 24(3): 787-794. ISSN: print:0953-816X; online: 1460-9568.
Abstract: Mature retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) have distinct morphologies that often reflect specialized functional properties such as On and Off responses. But the structural correlates of many complex receptive field (RF) properties (e.g. responses to motion) remain to be deciphered. In this study, we have investigated whether motion anisotropies (non-homogeneities) characteristic of embryonic turtle RGCs arise from immature dendritic arborization in these cells. To test this hypothesis, we have looked at structure-function correlates of developing turtle RGCs from Stage 23 (S23) when light responses emerge, until 15 weeks post-hatching (PH). Using whole cell patch clamp recordings, RGCs were labelled with Lucifer Yellow (LY) while recording their responses to moving edges of light. Comparison of RF and dendritic arbor layouts revealed a weak correlation. To obtain a larger structural sample of developing RGCs, we have looked at dendritic morphology in RGCs retrogradely filled with the tracer horseradish peroxidase (HRP) from S22 (when RGCs become spontaneously active, shortly before they become sensitive to light) until two weeks PH. We found that there was intense dendritic growth from S22 onwards, reaching peak proliferation at S25 (a week before hatching), while RGCs are still exhibiting significant motion anisotropies. Based on these observations, we suggest that immature anisotropic RGC RFs must originate from sparse synaptic inputs onto RGCs rather than from the immaturity of their growing dendritic trees.
Descriptors: turtles, retina embryology, growth, development, retinal ganglion cells, physiology, vision physiology, visual fields, aging physiology, cell differentiation, cell shape, dendrites ultrastructure, motion perception, neural pathways, cytology, embryology, growth, development, photic stimulation, retina cytology, retinal ganglion cells, cytology, synapses physiology.

Melo, M.B., S. Bordin, A.S.S. Duarte, S.H. Ogo, M.A. Torsoni, S.T.O. Saad, and F.F. Costa (2003). Molecular characterization of hemoglobin alpha-D chains from Geochelone carbonaria and Geochelone denticulata land turtles. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 134(2): 389-395. ISSN: 1096-4959.
Abstract: In order to help elucidate the evolution of alpha-globins, the complete cDNA and amino acid sequences of Geochelone carbonaria and Geochelone denticulata land turtles alpha-D chains have been described. In G. carbonaria, the cDNA is 539 bp with ATG start codon located at position 46, TGA stop codon at position 469 and AATAAA polyadenylation signal at position 520. In G. denticulata, the cDNA is 536 bp with ATG start codon located at position 46, TGA stop codon at position 469 and AATAAA polyadenylation signal at position 517. Both cDNAs codify 141 amino acid residues, differing from each other in only four amino acid residues. When comparing with human Hb alpha-chain, alterations in important regions can be noted: alpha110 Ala-Gly, alpha114 Pro-Gly, alpha117 Phe-Tyr and alpha122 His-Gln. There is a high homology between the amino acids of these turtles when compared with chicken alpha-D chains, progressively decreasing when compared with human, crocodile, snake, frog and fish alpha-chains. Phylogenetic analysis of alpha-D chains shows that those of turtles are closer to those of birds than to snakes and lizards.
Descriptors: reptiles, land turtles, Geochelone carbonatia, Geochelone denticulata, cDNA, amino acid sequences, birds, snakes, lizards, crocodiles.

Merchant, M. and A. Britton (2006). Characterization of serum complement activity of saltwater (Crocodylus porosus) and freshwater (Crocodylus johnstoni) crocodiles. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular and Integrative Physiology 143(4): 488-493. ISSN: 1095-6433.
Abstract: We employed a spectroscopic assay, based on the hemolysis of sheep red blood cells (SRBCs), to assess the innate immune function of saltwater and freshwater crocodiles in vitro. Incubation of serum from freshwater and saltwater crocodiles with SRBCs resulted in concentration-dependent increases in SRBC hemolysis. The hemolytic activity occurred rapidly, with detectable activity within 2 min and maximum activity at 20 min. These activities, in both crocodilian species, were heat sensitive, unaffected by 20 mM methylamine, and completely inhibited by low concentrations of EDTA, suggesting that the alternative serum complement cascade is responsible for the observed effects. The hemolytic activities of the sera were inhibited by other chelators of divalent metal ions, such as phosphate and citrate. The inhibition of SRBC hemolysis by EDTA could be completely restored by the addition of 10 mM Ca2+ or Mg2+, but not Ba2+, Cu2+ or Fe2+, indicating specificity for these metal ions. The serum complement activities of both crocodilians were temperature-dependent, with peak activities occurring at 25-30 degrees C and reduced activities below 25 degrees C and above 35 degrees C.
Descriptors: reptiles, saltwater (Crocodylus porosus) and freshwater (Crocodylus johnstoni) crocodiles, crocodiles blood, complement system proteins metabolism, barium pharmacology, calcium pharmacology, copper pharmacology, edetic acid pharmacology, erythrocytes metabolism, fresh water, hemolysis drug effects, iron pharmacology, kinetics, magnesium pharmacology, temperature.

Merchant, M.E., C. Roche, R.M. Elsey, and J. Prudhomme (2003). Antibacterial properties of serum from the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 136(3): 505-513. ISSN: 1096-4959.
Descriptors: reptiles, American alligator, Alligator mississippiensis, antibacterial properties, blood, serum, E. coli, serum complement system.

Merchant, M.E., C.M. Roche, D. Thibodeaux, and R.M. Elsey (2005). Identification of alternative pathway serum complement activity in the blood of the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 141(3): 281-288. ISSN: 1096-4959.
Descriptors: reptiles, American alligator, Alligator mississippiensis, serum complement activity, blood, identification of alternative pathway.

Metz, M., A.M. Piliponsky, C.C. Chen, V. Lammel, M. eAbrink, G. Pejler, M. Tsai, and S.J. Galli (2006). Mast cells can enhance resistance to snake and honeybee venoms. Science 313(5786): 526-530. ISSN: 0036-8075.
Abstract: Snake or honeybee envenomation can cause substantial morbidity and mortality, and it has been proposed that the activation of mast cells by snake or insect venoms can contribute to these effects. We show, in contrast, that mast cells can significantly reduce snake-venom-induced pathology in mice, at least in part by releasing carboxypeptidase A and possibly other proteases, which can degrade venom components. Mast cells also significantly reduced the morbidity and mortality induced by honeybee venom. These findings identify a new biological function for mast cells in enhancing resistance to the morbidity and mortality induced by animal venoms.
Descriptors: reptiles, snake, venoms, honeybee, resistance, mast cells, enhance, reduce snake venom pathology, bee morbidity, mortality.

Miller, H.C. (2006). Cloacal and buccal swabs are a reliable source of DNA for microsatellite genotyping of reptiles. Conservation Genetics 7(6): 1001-1003. ISSN: 1566-0621.
Descriptors: reptiles, DNA, microsatellite genotyping, cloacal, buccal, swabs, DNA sampling, blood sampling.

Milton, S.L., G. Nayak, P.L. Lutz, and H.M. Prentice (2006). Gene transcription of neuroglobin is upregulated by hypoxia and anoxia in the brain of the anoxia-tolerant turtle Trachemys scripta. Journal of Biomedical Science 13(4): 509-514. ISSN: print: 1021-7770; online: 1423-0127.
NAL Call Number: R850.A1
Abstract: Neuroglobin is a heme protein expressed in the vertebrate brain in mammals, fishes, and birds. The physiological role of neuroglobin is not completely understood but possibilities include serving as an intracellular oxygen-carrier or oxygen-sensor, as a terminal oxidase to regenerate NAD(+) under anaerobic conditions, or involvement in NO or ROS metabolism. As the vertebrate nervous system is particularly sensitive to hypoxia, an intracellular protein that helps sustain cellular respiration would aid hypoxic survival. However, the regulation of Neuroglobin (Ngb) under conditions of varying oxygen is controversial. This study examines the regulation of Ngb in an anoxia-tolerant vertebrate under conditions of hypoxia and anoxia. The freshwater turtle Trachemys scripta can withstand complete anoxia for days, and adaptations that permit neuronal survival have been extensively examined. Turtle neuroglobin specific primers were employed in RT-PCR for determining the regulation of neuroglobin mRNA expression in turtles placed in normoxia, hypoxia (4 h), anoxia (1 and 4 h), and anoxia-reoxygenation. Whole brain expression of neuroglobin is strongly upregulated by hypoxia and post-anoxic-reoxygenation in T. scripta, with a lesser degree of upregulation at 1 and 4 h anoxia. Our data implicate neuroglobin in mediating brain anoxic survival.
Descriptors: anorexia tolerant turtle, Trachemys scripta, gene expression and regulation, hypoxia, nerve tissue proteins, neuroglobin, heme proteins, turtle genetics.

Miranda Anaya, M., P.A. Bartell, and M. Menaker (2002). Circadian rhythm of iguana electroretinogram: the role of dopamine and melatonin. Journal of Biological Rhythms 17(6): 526-538. ISSN: print: 0748-7304; online: 1522-4531.
Abstract: The amplitude of the b-wave of the electroretinogram (ERG) varies with a circadian rhythm in the green iguana; the amplitude is high during the day(or subjective day) and low during the night (or subjective night). Dopamine and melatonin contents in the eye are robustly rhythmic under constant conditions; dopamine levels are high during the subjective day, and melatonin levels are high during the subjective night. Dopamine and melatonin affect the amplitude of the b-wave in an antagonistic and phase-dependent manner: dopamine D2-receptor agonists injected intraocularly during the subjective night produce high-amplitude b-waves characteristic of the subjective day, whereas melatonin injected intraocularly during the subjective day reduces b-wave amplitude. Sectioning the optic nerve abolishes the circadian rhythms of b-wave amplitude and of dopamine content. The results of this study suggest that in iguana, a negative feedback loop involving dopamine and melatonin regulates the circadian rhythm of the ERG b-wave amplitude that is at least in part generated in the brain.
Descriptors: reptiles, green iguana, circadian rhythm, electroretinogram, dopamine, melatonin, role, day, night, eye, B-wave.

Moco, T.C., L.H. O'Dwyer, F.C. Vilela, T.H. Barrella, and R.J. da Silva (2002). Morphologic and morphometric analysis of Hepatozoon spp. (Apicomplexa, Hepatozoidae) of snakes. Memorias Do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 97(8): 1169-1176. ISSN: 1678-8060.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02762002000800019
Abstract: Hepatozoon species are the most abundant hemoparasites of snakes. Its identification has been based mainly on the morphologic characterization of the gamonts in the peripheral blood of the vertebrate host and also of the cysts found in the internal organs of the vertebrate and invertebrate hosts. Using a computerized image analysis system, we studied five species of Hepatozoon from recently captured snakes in Botucatu, State of S o Paulo, Brazil, to evaluate the importance of the morphology and morphometry of the gamonts for the characterization of Hepatozoon species and to analyze the morphologic changes induced in the erythrocytes by the parasite. The studied species were H. terzii of Boa constrictor amarali, Hepatozoon sp. of Crotalus durissusterrificus, H. philodryasi of Philodryas patagoniensis, and H. migonei and H. cyclagrasi of Hydrodynastes gigas. We observed three different groups, one of them including the species H. terzii, H. philodryasi and Hepatozoon sp. of C. durissus terrificus; and the other two consisting of H. migonei and H. cyclagrasi. Degree of alterations in the erythrocytes was variable and it may be useful for characterization of Hepatozoon species.
Descriptors: reptiles, snakes, parasites, Hepatozoon, species peripheral blood, gamonts computerized image analysis, characterization, Brazil.

Mubarak, M. (2006). Ultrastructure of sperm tail differentiation of the lizard Stenodactylus dorie (Squamata, Reptilia). Journal of Biological Sciences 6(1): 187-192. ISSN: 1727-3048.
Online: http://ansijournals.com
NAL Call Number: QH301.J687
Descriptors: reptiles, lizard, Stenodactylus dorie, sperm tail differentiation, ultrastructural study.

Nakata, F., K. Kuroyanagi, N. Kamezaki, and T. Amakawa (2006). An electrophysiological study on the sea turtle vision. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part B Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 145(3-4): 422. ISSN: 1096-4959.
Descriptors: reptiles, sea turtle, vision, electrophysiological study, meeting.
Notes: Meeting Information: 28th Annual Meeting of the Japanese Society for Comparative Physiology and Biochemistry, Hamamatsu, Japan; July 27 -29, 2006.

Nikitina, N.G. and N.B. Ananjeva (2005). The skin sense organs of lizards of Teratoscincus genus (Squamata: Sauria: Gekkonidae). Russian Journal of Herpetology 12(Suppl.): 291-295 . ISSN: 1026-2296.
Descriptors: reptiles, lizards, skin sense organs, genus Teratoscincus.

Nitto, T., C. Lin, K.D. Dyer, R.A. Wagner, and H.F. Rosenberg (2005). Characterization of a ribonuclease gene and encoded protein from the reptile, Iguana iguana. Gene 352: 36-44. ISSN: 0378-1119.
Abstract: In this work we identify an intronless open reading frame encoding an RNase A ribonuclease from genomic DNA from the Iguana iguana IgH2 cell line. The iguana RNase is expressed primarily in pancreas, and represents the majority of the specific enzymatic activity in this tissue. The encoded sequence shares many features with its better-known mammalian counterparts including the crucial His12, Lys40 and His114 catalytic residues and efficient hydrolytic activity against yeast tRNA substrate (k(cat)/K(m)=6 x 10(4) M(-1) s(-1)), albeit at a reduced pH optimum (pH 6.0). Although the catalytic activity of the iguana RNase is not diminished by human placental RI, iguana RNase is not bactericidal nor is it cytotoxic even at micromolar concentrations. Phylogenetic analysis indicates moderate (46%) amino acid sequence similarity to a pancreatic RNase isolated from Chelydra serpentina (snapping turtle) although no specific relationship could be determined between these RNases and the pancreatic ribonucleases characterized among mammalian species. Further analysis of ribonucleases from non-mammalian vertebrate species is needed in order to define relationships and lineages within the larger RNase A gene superfamily.
Descriptors: reptiles, iguana, Iguana iguana, ribonuclease gene, characterization, encoded protein, RNase, DNA, snapping turtle.

Oros, J., P. Calabuig, and S. Deniz (2004). Digestive pathology of sea turtles stranded in the Canary Islands between 1993 and 2001. Veterinary Record 155(6): 169-174. ISSN: 0042-4900.
NAL Call Number: 41.8 V641
Descriptors: reptiles, sea turtles, lesions (animal), digestive system, diseases, pathology, stranded, Canary Islands.

Overgaard, J., H. Gesser, and T. Wang (2007). Tribute to P. L. Lutz: Cardiac performance and cardiovascular regulation during anoxia/hypoxia in freshwater turtles. Journal of Experimental Biology 210(Pt 10): 1687-1699. ISSN: 0022-0949.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.001925
NAL Call Number: 442.8 B77
Abstract: Freshwater turtles overwintering in ice-covered ponds in North America may be exposed to prolonged anoxia, and survive this hostile environment by metabolic depression. Here, we review their cardiovascular function and regulation, with particular emphasis on the factors limiting cardiac performance. The pronounced anoxia tolerance of the turtle heart is based on the ability to match energy consumption with the low anaerobic ATP production during anoxia. Together with a well-developed temporal and spatial energy buffering by creatine kinase, this allows for cellular energy charge to remain high during anoxia. Furthermore, the turtle heart is well adapted to handle the adverse effects of free phosphate arising when phosphocreatine stores are used. Anoxia causes tenfold reductions in heart rate and blood flows that match the metabolic depression, and blood pressure is largely maintained through increased systemic vascular resistance. Depression of the heart rate is not driven by the autonomic nervous system and seems to arise from direct effects of oxygen lack and the associated hyperkalaemia and acidosis on the cardiac pacemaker. These intra- and extracellular changes also affect cardiac contractility, and both acidosis and hyperkalaemia severely depress cardiac contractility. However, increased levels of adrenaline and calcium may, at least partially, salvage cardiac function under prolonged periods of anoxia.
Descriptors: reptiles, freshwater turtles, cardiac performance, cardiovascular regulation, anoxia, hypoxia, heart, blood flow.

Overgaard, J. and T. Wang (2002). Increased blood oxygen affinity during digestion in the snake Python molurus. Journal of Experimental Biology 205(Pt 21): 3327-3334. ISSN: 0022-0949.
NAL Call Number: 442.8 B77
Abstract: Many snakes exhibit large increases in metabolic rate during digestion that place extensive demands on efficient oxygen transport. In the present study, we describe blood oxygen affinity following three weeks of fasting and 48 h after feeding in the Burmese python (Python molurus). We also report simultaneous measurements of arterial blood gases and haematological parameters. Arterial blood was obtained from chronically implanted catheters, and blood oxygen-dissociation curves were constructed from oxygen content measurements at known oxygen partial pressure (P(O(2))) values at 2% and 5% CO(2). Arterial pH remained constant at approximately 7.6 after feeding, but digestion was associated with an approximately 6 mmol l(-1) increase in [HCO(3)(-)], while CO(2) partial pressure (P(CO(2))) increased from 2.21+/-0.13 kPa in fasted animals to 2.89+/-0.17 kPa at 48 h after feeding. Blood oxygen affinity in vivo was predicted on the basis of pH in vivo and the blood oxygen-dissociation curves obtained in vitro. The blood oxygen affinity in vivo increased during digestion, with P(50) values decreasing from 4.58+/-0.11 kPa to 3.53+/-0.24 kPa. This increase was associated with a significant decrease in the red blood cell [NTP]/[Hb(4)] ratio (relationship between the concentrations of organic phosphates and total haemoglobin) and a significant decrease in mean cellular haemoglobin content, which is indicative of swelling of the red blood cells. Our data for blood oxygen affinity and arterial oxygen levels, together with previously published values of oxygen uptake and blood flows, allow for a quantitative evaluation of oxygen transport during digestion. This analysis shows that a large part of the increased metabolism during digestion is supported by an increased venous extraction, while arterial P(O(2)) (Pa(O(2))) and haemoglobin saturation do not vary with digestive status. Thus, we predict that venous P(O(2)) (Pv(O(2))) is reduced from a fasting value of 5.2 kPa to 1.6 kPa during digestion.
Descriptors: reptiles, snakes, Python molurus, digestion, increased blood oxygen, metabolic rate, increase, arterial blood gases, hematological parameters.

Pamenter, M.E., M.D. Richards, and L.T. Buck (2007). Anoxia-induced changes in reactive oxygen species and cyclic nucleotides in the painted turtle. Journal of Comparative Physiology. B, Biochemical, Systemic, and Environmental Physiology 177(4): 473-481. ISSN: print: 0174-1578; online: 1432-136X.
NAL Call Number: QP33.J681
Abstract: The Western painted turtle survives months without oxygen. A key adaptation is a coordinated reduction of cellular ATP production and utilization that may be signaled by changes in the concentrations of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cyclic nucleotides (cAMP and cGMP). Little is known about the involvement of cyclic nucleotides in the turtle's metabolic arrest and ROS have not been previously measured in any facultative anaerobes. The present study was designed to measure changes in these second messengers in the anoxic turtle. ROS were measured in isolated turtle brain sheets during a 40-min normoxic to anoxic transition. Changes in cAMP and cGMP were determined in turtle brain, pectoralis muscle, heart and liver throughout 4 h of forced submergence at 20-22 degrees C. Turtle brain ROS production decreased 25% within 10 min of cyanide or N(2)-induced anoxia and returned to control levels upon reoxygenation. Inhibition of electron transfer from ubiquinol to complex III caused a smaller decrease in [ROS]. Conversely, inhibition of complex I increased [ROS] 15% above controls. In brain [cAMP] decreased 63%. In liver [cAMP] doubled after 2 h of anoxia before returning to control levels with prolonged anoxia. Conversely, skeletal muscle and heart [cAMP] remained unchanged; however, skeletal muscle [cGMP] became elevated sixfold after 4 h of submergence. In liver and heart [cGMP] rose 41 and 127%, respectively, after 2 h of anoxia. Brain [cGMP] did not change significantly during 4 h of submergence. We conclude that turtle brain ROS production occurs primarily between mitochondrial complexes I and III and decreases during anoxia. Also, cyclic nucleotide concentrations change in a manner suggestive of a role in metabolic suppression in the brain and a role in increasing liver glycogenolysis.
Descriptors: reptiles, anoxic induced changes, western painted turtle, cyclic nucleotides, reactive oxygen species, ATP production, brain.

Paolucci, M., S. Buono, R. Sciarrillo, and R. Putti (2006). Effects of leptin administration on the endocrine pancreas and liver in the lizard Podarcis sicula. Journal of Experimental Zoology. Part A, Comparative Experimental Biology 305(5): 383-395. ISSN: print: 1548-8969; online: 1552-499X.
NAL Call Number: QL1.J854
Abstract: In this study, we investigated the presence of leptin receptor in pancreatic islets and the effect of exogenous leptin administration in Podarcis sicula on glucose metabolism. Our data show the presence of leptin receptor immunoreactivity in the endocrine pancreas suggesting that leptin may act at a peripheral level as previously postulated in mammals. The effects of short- and long-term and dose-response treatment with supraphysiological concentrations of leptin on circulating levels of insulin, glucagon and glucose in the blood have been evaluated. Taken together, our results indicate that leptin treatment was followed by an increase in insulin, glucagon and glucose in the blood, depending on the dose of leptin. Moreover, leptin treatment brought about a decrease of glycogen and the appearance of tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins in the liver. This study shows that in the lizard P. sicula leptin is involved in glucose metabolism.
Descriptors: lizard, Podarcis sicula, islets of Langerhans drug effects, leptin pharmacology, liver drug effects, lizards physiology, blood glucose, dose response relationship, drug, electrophoresis, polyacrylamide gel, glucagon blood, immunohistochemistry, insulin blood, islets of langerhans metabolism, liver metabolism, liver extracts analysis, mice, receptors, cell surface metabolism.

Parham, J.F., C.R. Feldman, and J.L. Boore (2006). The complete mitochondrial genome of the enigmatic bigheaded turtle (Platysternon): Description of unusual genomic features and the reconciliation of phylogenetic hypotheses based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA. BMC Evolutionary Biology 6: 11. ISSN: 1471-2149.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-6-11
Abstract: BACKGROUND: The big-headed turtle (Platysternon megacephalum) from east Asia is the sole living representative of a poorly-studied turtle lineage (Platysternidae). It has no close living relatives, and its phylogenetic position within turtles is one of the outstanding controversies in turtle systematics. Platysternon was traditionally considered to be close to snapping turtles (Chelydridae) based on some studies of its morphology and mitochondrial (mt) DNA, however, other studies of morphology and nuclear (nu) DNA do not support that hypothesis. RESULTS: We sequenced the complete mt genome of Platysternon and the nearly complete mt genomes of two other relevant turtles and compared them to turtle mt genomes from the literature to form the largest molecular dataset used to date to address this issue. The resulting phylogeny robustly rejects the placement of Platysternon with Chelydridae, but instead shows that it is a member of the Testudinoidea, a diverse, nearly globally-distributed group that includes pond turtles and tortoises. We also discovered that Platysternon mtDNA has large-scale gene rearrangements and possesses two, nearly identical, control regions, features that distinguish it from all other studied turtles. CONCLUSION: Our study robustly determines the phylogenetic placement of Platysternon and provides a well-resolved outline of major turtle lineages, while demonstrating the significantly greater resolving power of comparing large amounts of mt sequence over that of short fragments. Earlier phylogenies placing Platysternon with chelydrids required a temporal gap in the fossil record that is now unnecessary. The duplicated control regions and gene rearrangements of the Platysternon mtDNA probably resulted from the duplication of part of the genome and then the subsequent loss of redundant genes. Although it is possible that having two control regions may provide some advantage, explaining why the control regions would be maintained while some of the duplicated genes were eroded, examples of this are rare. So far, duplicated control regions have been reported for mt genomes from just 12 clades of metazoans, including Platysternon.
Descriptors: turtle, DNA, mitochondrial chemistry, genes, mitochondrial, mitochondria genetics, phylogeny, turtles classification, cell nucleus genetics, DNA chemistry, gene order, genome, genomics, models, genetic, turtles anatomy and histology, turtles genetics.

Pasqualetti, M., C. Bertolucci, M. Ori, A. Innocenti, M.C. Magnone, W.J. De Grip, I. Nardi, and A. Foa (2003). Identification of circadian brain photoreceptors mediating photic entrainment of behavioural rhythms in lizards. European Journal of Neuroscience 18(2): 364-372. ISSN: print:0953-816X; online: 1460-9568.
Abstract: We have shown previously that in ruin lizards (Podarcis sicula) the ablation of all known photoreceptive structures (lateral eyes, pineal and parietal eye) in the same individual animal does not prevent entrainment of their circadian locomotor rhythms to light. The present study was aimed at identifying the circadian brain photoreceptors mediating entrainment. For this purpose, we looked for opsin expression in the brain by means of immunocytochemistry. Using anti-cone-opsin antiserum CERN 874 we have localized photoreceptors in the periventricular area of hypothalamus, near the third cerebral ventricle. We also cloned a brain opsin cDNA that, on the basis of the deduced amino acid sequence, appears to belong to the RH2 class of cone-opsins. We named the cloned cone-opsin Ps-RH2. To examine whether brain cone-opsins mediate photic entrainment of circadian locomotor rhythms, we performed post-transcriptional inactivation experiments by injecting an expression eukaryotic vector transcribing the antisense cone-opsin Ps-RH2 mRNA in the third cerebral ventricle of pinealectomized-retinectomized lizards previously entrained to a light-dark (LD) cycle. Injections of the antisense construct abolished photic entrainment of circadian locomotor rhythms of pinealectomized-retinectomized lizards to the LD cycle for 6-9 days. CERN 874 completely failed to label cells within the periventricular area of hypothalamus of brains injected with antisense construct. Thus, abolishment of photic entrainment is due to inactivation of endogenous brain cone-opsins mRNA. The present results demonstrate for the first time in a vertebrate that brain cone-opsins are part of a true circadian brain photoreceptor participating in photic entrainment of behavioural rhythms.
Descriptors: reptiles, ruin lizards, Podarcis sicula, circadian brain photoreceptors, photic entrainment, behavioral rhythms.

Peng, Q.L., L.W. Nie, and Y.G. Pu (2006). Complete mitochondrial genome of Chinese big-headed turtle, Platysternon megacephalum, with a novel gene organization in vertebrate mtDNA. Gene 380(1): 14-20. ISSN: 0378-1119.
Abstract: The mitochondrial genome of the Chinese big-headed turtle, Platysternon megacephalum, was obtained using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The entire mtDNA sequence, the longest mitochondrial genome in turtles reported so far, is 19161 bp. This mitochondrial genome exhibits a novel gene order, which greatly differs from that of any other vertebrates. It is characterized by four distinctive features: 1) the translocation of a gene cluster including three tRNA genes (tRNAHis, tRNASer, tRNALeu(CUN)) and ND5 gene, 2) two tRNAThr pseudogenes, 3) a duplication of pseudo tRNAThr/tRNAPro/D-loop region and 4) 3 non-coding spacers. These unique identities represent a new mitogenomic gene order in vertebrates. The TDRL model was proposed to account for the generation of the gene order in P. megacephalum.
Descriptors: Chinese big-headed turtle, Platysternon megacephalum, mitochondrial genetics, genes, mitochondrial, turtles genetics, base sequence, DNA primers genetics, DNA, intergenic genetics, gene duplication, gene rearrangement, genome, models, genetic, molecular sequence data, multigene family, nucleic acid conformation, polymerase chain reaction, pseudogenes, transfer, pro genetics, transfer, thr chemistry, RNA, transfer, thr genetics, sequence homology, nucleic acid, translocation genetic, vertebrates genetics.

Perry, G. and R.N. Fisher (2006). Night lights and reptiles: Observed and potential effects. In: C. Rich and T. Longcore (Editors), Ecological Consequences of Artificial Night Lighting, Island Press: Washington, DC, p. 169-191. ISBN: 1559631287.
NAL Call Number: QH545.E98 E26 2006
Descriptors: reptiles, artificial night lighting, ecological consequences.

Pook, C.E. and R. McEwing (2005). Mitochondrial DNA sequences from dried snake venom: a DNA barcoding approach to the identification of venom samples. Toxicon 46(7): 711-715. ISSN: 0041-0101.
NAL Call Number: 391.8 T66
Descriptors: reptiles, dried snake venom, mitochondrial DNA, barcoding, identification, venom samples, Crotalus, venomous pitvipers.

Poschadel, J.R. and D. Moeller (2004). A versatile field method for tissue sampling on small reptiles and amphibians, applied to pond turtles, newts, frogs and toads. Conservation Genetics 5(6): 865-867. ISSN: 1566-0621.
NAL Call Number: QH75.A1 C56
Descriptors: reptiles, tissue sampling, versatile field method, small reptiles, amphibians, pond turtles, newts, frogs, toads.

Price, E.R., F.V. Paladino, K.P. Strohl, Santidrian T P, K. Klann, and J.R. Spotila (2007). Respiration in neonate sea turtles. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular and Integrative Physiology 146(3): 422-428. ISSN: 1095-6433.
Abstract: The pattern and control of respiration is virtually unknown in hatchling sea turtles. Using incubator-raised turtles, we measured oxygen consumption, frequency, tidal volume, and minute volume for leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) and olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) turtle hatchlings for the first six days after pipping. In addition, we tested the hatchlings' response to hypercapnic, hyperoxic, and hypoxic challenges over this time period. Hatchling sea turtles generally showed resting ventilation characteristics that are similar to those of adults: a single breath followed by a long respiratory pause, slow frequency, and high metabolic rate. With hypercapnic challenge, both species responded primarily by elevating respiratory frequency via a decrease in the non-ventilatory period. Leatherback resting tidal volume increased with age but otherwise, neither species' resting respiratory pattern nor response to gas challenge changed significantly over the first few days after hatching. At the time of nest emergence, sea turtles have achieved a respiratory pattern that is similar to that of actively diving adults.
Descriptors: reptiles, neonate sea turtles, leatherback, Dermochelys coriacea, olive ridley, Lepidochelys olivacea, respiration, pattern, control, hatchling, oxygen consumption, tidal volume.

Radder, R.S., B.A. Shanbhag, and S.K. Saidapur (2004). Yolk partitioning in embryos of the lizard, Calotes versicolor: maximize body size or save energy for later use? Journal of Experimental Zoology. Part A, Comparative Experimental Biology 301(9): 783-785. ISSN: print: 1548-8969; online: 1552-499X.
NAL Call Number: QL1.J854
Abstract: The hatchlings of Calotes versicolor and other congeners retain residual yolk for immediate post-hatching needs. Excision of 8% yolk (approximately equal residual yolk) from the eggs resulted in smaller hatchlings when compared to those emerging from sham operated eggs. However, hatchlings in both groups retained the same amount of residual yolk. The findings suggest that residual yolk in hatchlings of C. versicolor is an important part of the energy budget set aside by developing embryos and that the advantages of large hatchling size are counter balanced by selection for residual yolk.
Descriptors: reptiles, lizard, Calotes versicolor, partitioning in embryos, maximize body size, energy use, hatchlings, yolk partitioning, residual yolk.

Radmilovich, M., A. Fernandez, and O. Trujillo Cenoz (2003). Environment temperature affects cell proliferation in the spinal cord and brain of juvenile turtles. Journal of Experimental Biology. 206(Pt 17): 3085-3093. ISSN: 0022-0949.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.00515
NAL Call Number: 442.8 B77
Abstract: The spinal cords and brains--comprising dorsal cortex (DC), medial cortex (MC) and diencephalon (Dien)--of juvenile turtles acclimated to warm temperature [27-30 degrees C; warm-acclimated turtles (WATs)] revealed higher density values of bromodeoxyuridine-labeled cells (BrdU-LCs) than those acclimated to a cooler environment [5-14 degrees C; cold-acclimated turtles (CATs)]. Both populations were under the influence of the seasonal daily light-dark rhythms. Pronounced differences between WATs and CATs (independent t-test; confidence level, P<0.01) were found in the central area of the spinal gray matter and in the ependymal epithelium lining the brain ventricles. Forebrain regions (DC, MC and Dien) also revealed significant differences between WATs and CATs (independent t-test; confidence level, P<0.01-0.05). Unexplored biological clocks that may be affecting cell proliferation were equalized by performing paired experiments involving one WAT and one CAT. Both animals were injected on the same day at the same time and both were sacrificed 24 h later. These experiments confirmed that a warm environment increased cell proliferation in the CNS of turtles. Double- and triple-labeling experiments involving anti-BrdU antibody together with anti-glial protein antibodies revealed that temperature modulates not only cell populations expressing glial markers but also other cells that do not express them. As expected, in the case of short post-injection (BrdU) surviving time points, no cells were found colabeling for BrdU and NeuN (neuronal marker). The probable direct effect of temperature on the cell division rate should be analyzed together with potential indirect effects involving increased motor activity and increased food intake. The fate of the increased BrdU-LCs (death, permanence as progenitor cells or differentiation following neuronal or glial lines) remains a matter for further investigation. Results are discussed in the light of current opinions concerned with post-natal neurogenesis in vertebrates.
Descriptors: reptiles, juvenile turtles, environmental temperature, affects, cell proliferation, spinal cord, brain.

Ramadan, A.R., M.M.E.w. Aziza, and M.H.Y. Olfat (2006). Comparative histological and ultrastructural studies of the gastric mucosa of lacertilian lizards in correlation with their feeding habits. Journal of the Egyptian German Society of Zoology 49(C): 17-41. ISSN: 1110-5356.
NAL Call Number: QL1.E49
Descriptors: reptiles, lacertilian lizards, feeding habits, gastric mucosa, studies, histological, ultrastructural, comparative, mucosal layers.
Language of Text: Arabic; English.

Reina, R.D., T.T. Jones, and J.R. Spotila (2002). Salt and water regulation by the leatherback sea turtle Dermochelys coriacea. Journal of Experimental Biology 205(Pt 13): 1853-1860. ISSN: 0022-0949.
NAL Call Number: 442.8 B77
Abstract: We measured the salt and water balance of hatchling leatherback sea turtles, Dermochelys coriacea, during their first few days of life to investigate how they maintain homeostasis under the osmoregulatory challenge of a highly desiccating terrestrial environment and then a hyperosmotic marine environment. Hatchlings desiccated rapidly when denied access to sea water, with their hematocrit increasing significantly from 30.32+/-0.54 % to 38.51+/-1.35 % and plasma Na(+) concentration increasing significantly from 138.2+/-3.3 to 166.2+/-11.2 mmol l(-1) in 12 h. When hatchlings were subsequently put into sea water, hematocrit decreased and plasma Na(+) concentration was unchanged but both were significantly elevated above pretreatment values. In other hatchlings kept in sea water for 48 h, body mass and plasma Na(+) concentration increased significantly, but hematocrit did not increase. These data show that hatchlings were able to osmoregulate effectively and gain mass by drinking sea water. We stimulated hatchlings to secrete salt from the salt glands by injecting a salt load of 27 mmol kg(-1). The time taken for secretion to begin in newly hatched turtles was longer than that in 4-day-old hatchlings, but the secretory response was identical at 4.15+/-0.40 and 4.13+/-0.59 mmol Na(+) kg(-1) h(-1) respectively. Adrenaline and methacholine were both potent inhibitors of salt gland secretion in a dose-dependent manner, although methacholine administered simultaneously with a subthreshold salt load elicited a transient secretory response. The results showed that hatchling leatherbacks are able to tolerate significant changes in internal composition and efficiently use their salt glands to establish internal ionic and water balance when in sea water.
Descriptors: reptiles, leatherback sea turtle, Dermochelys coriacea, salt regulation, water regulation, balance, osmoregulatory challenge, hatchlings.

Reisen, W.K., A.C. Brault, V.M. Martinez, Y. Fang, K. Simmons, S. Garcia, E. Omi Olsen, and R.S. Lane (2007). Ability of transstadially infected Ixodes pacificus (Acari: Ixodidae) to transmit West Nile virus to song sparrows or western fence lizards. Journal of Medical Entomology 44(2): 320-327. ISSN: 0022-2585.
NAL Call Number: 421 J828
Abstract: The hypothesis that Ixodes pacificus Cooley & Kohls (Acari: Ixodidae) may serve as a reservoir and vector of West Nile virus (family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus, WNV) in California was tested by determining the ability of this tick species to become infected with the NY99 strain of WNV while feeding on viremic song sparrows, to maintain the infection transstadially, and then to transmit WNV to recipient naive song sparrows and western fence lizards during the nymphal stage. The percentage of ticks testing positive by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) decreased from 77% of 35 larvae at day 6 after ticks were transferred to donor song sparrows (day of detachment) to 23% of 35 nymphs at 59 d postinfestation (approximately 19 d after molting to the nymphal stage). However, the percentage of ticks positive by RT-PCR from which infectious virus was recovered by Vero cell assay decreased from 59% on day 6 to 12% on day 59, even though there was no statistically significant decrease in the quantity of RNA within positive ticks. Attempts to improve the sensitivity of plaque assays by blind passage through C6/36 cell cultures were unsuccessful. These data indicated that ticks maintained viral RNA but not necessarily infectious virus over time. Nymphs from larvae that fed on song sparrows with peak viremias ranging from 7.2 to 8.5 log10 plaque-forming units (PFU) per ml were used in transmission attempts. From one to seven RNA-positive nymphal ticks engorged and detached from each of four recipient song sparrows or western fence lizards. Blood samples from sparrows and lizards remained negative, indicating that transmission did not occur. An additional four lizards inoculated with 1,500 PFU of WNV developed moderate viremias, ranging from 4.2 to 5.6 log10 PFU/ml. Our data and data from previous studies collectively indicated that ixodid ticks were not able to experimentally transmit WNV and therefore most likely would not be important vectors in WNV transmission cycles.
Descriptors: reptiles, ticks, Ixodes pacificus, West Nile virus, sparrows, western fence lizards, disease reservoir, vector, virus transmission.

Rice, A.N., J.P. Ross, A.G. Finger, and R. Owen (2005). Application and evaluation of a stomach flushing technique for alligators. Herpetological Review 36(4): 400-401. ISSN: 0018-084X.
NAL Call Number: QL640.H47
Descriptors: reptiles, Alligator mississippiensis, stomach flushing, safety, technique, application, evaluation.

Richardson, S.J., J.A. Monk, C.A. Shepherdley, L.O. Ebbesson, F. Sin, D.M. Power, P.B. Frappell, J. Kohrle, and M.B. Renfree (2005). Developmentally regulated thyroid hormone distributor proteins in marsupials, a reptile, and fish. American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 288(5): R1264-R1272. ISSN: print: 0363-6119; online: 1522-1490.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00793.2004
Abstract: Thyroid hormones are essential for vertebrate development. There is a characteristic rise in thyroid hormone levels in blood during critical periods of thyroid hormone-regulated development. Thyroid hormones are lipophilic compounds, which readily partition from an aqueous environment into a lipid environment. Thyroid hormone distributor proteins are required to ensure adequate distribution of thyroid hormones, throughout the aqueous environment of the blood, and to counteract the avid partitioning of thyroid hormones into the lipid environment of cell membranes. In human blood, these proteins are albumin, transthyretin and thyroxine-binding globulin. We analyzed the developmental profile of thyroid hormone distributor proteins in serum from a representative of each order of marsupials (M. eugenii; S.crassicaudata), a reptile (C. porosus), in two species of salmonoid fishes (S. salar; O. tshawytsch), and throughout a calendar year for sea bream (S. aurata). We demonstrated that during development, these animals have a thyroid hormone distributor protein present in their blood which is not present in the adult blood. At least in mammals, this additional protein has higher affinity for thyroid hormones than the thyroid hormone distributor proteins in the blood of the adult. In fish, reptile and polyprotodont marsupial, this protein was transthyretin. In a diprotodont marsupial, it was thyroxine-binding globulin. We propose an hypothesis that an augmented thyroid hormone distributor protein network contributes to the rise in total thyroid hormone levels in the blood during development.
Descriptors: reptiles, alligators, crocodiles, metabolism, fish, thyroid hormone, developmentally regulated, distributor proteins, vertebrate development, blood, marsupials.

Rittenhouse, C.D., J.J. Millspaugh, B.E. Washburn, and M.W. Hubbard (2005). Effects of radiotransmitters on fecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels of three-toed box turtles in captivity. Wildlife Society Bulletin 33(2): 706-713. ISSN: 0091-7648.
NAL Call Number: SK357.A1W5
Descriptors: reptiles, three-toed box turtles, Terrapene carolina triunguis, radiotransmitters, effects, fecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels, captivity.

Rogovin, K.A. and D.V. Semenov (2003). On methods of age determination in desert lizards: Natural longevity in toad-headed lizards (Phrynocephalus) (Reptilia, Agamidae). Zoologicheskii Zhurnal 82(7): 862-864. ISSN: 0044-5134.
Descriptors: reptiles, toad headed lizards, Phrynocephalus, age determination, methods, desert lizards.
Language of Text: Russian; Summary in English.

Romero, L.M. and M. Wikelski (2006). Diurnal and nocturnal differences in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function in Galapagos marine iguanas. General and Comparative Endocrinology 145(2): 177-181. ISSN: 0016-6480.
NAL Call Number: 444.8 G28
Descriptors: reptiles, Galapagos marine iguana, Amblyrhynchus cristatus, hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis function, diurnal, nocturnal differences.

Rose, R.J., J. Ng, and J. Melville (2006). A technique for restraining lizards for field and laboratory measurements. Herpetological Review 37(2): 194-195. ISSN: 0018-084X.
NAL Call Number: QL640.H47
Descriptors: reptiles, lizards, restraining, field, laboratory, measurements, technique.

Rowe, C.L. and S.M. Kelly (2005). Marking hatchling turtles via intraperitoneal placement of PIT tags: Implications for long-term studies. Herpetological Review 36(4): 408-410. ISSN: 0018-084X.
NAL Call Number: QL640.H47
Descriptors: reptiles, hatchling turtles, Chrysemys picta, marking, PIT tags, intraperitoneal placement, long term studies.

Rubenstein, D.R. and M. Wikelski (2005). Steroid hormones and aggression in female Galapagos marine iguanas. Hormones and Behavior 48(3): 329-341. ISSN: 0018-506X.
NAL Call Number: QP801.H7H64
Descriptors: reptiles, Galapagos marine iguanas, steroid hormones, aggression, female.

Sakata, J.T., S.C. Woolley, A. Gupta, and D. Crews (2003). Differential effects of testosterone and progesterone on the activation and retention of courtship behavior in sexual and parthenogenetic whiptail lizards. Hormones and Behavior 43(5): 523-530. ISSN: 0018-506X.
NAL Call Number: QP801.H7H64
Abstract: Both testosterone (T) and progesterone (P) facilitate the expression of male-typical sexual behavior in a variety of animals, including rodents and lizards. In two species of whiptail lizards, Cnemidophorus inornatus and C. uniparens, both hormones elicit the full repertoire of courtship behavior. However, the relative efficacy of the two hormones is unknown. In Experiments 1 and 2 we assessed differences in capacity of exogenous T and P to induce male-typical courtship behavior in gonadectomized whiptail lizards. In both species, individuals implanted with T showed more frequent courtship behavior relative to those implanted with P or cholesterol. In Experiments 3 and 4 we examined whether T and P differentially affected the retention of courtship behavior following implant removal. In both species, individuals implanted with T showed more courtship behavior following implant removal than those previously given P. In these experiments, implants were removed at a time when individuals in both groups were behaviorally similar; therefore, the differences in behavior following implant removal were not due to differences in the amount of courtship experience. Taken together, the hormone that was more effective at activating courtship behavior was also more effective at maintaining courtship behavior following implant removal. In summary, though both T and P can elicit identical sexual behaviors in both whiptail species, T has a greater and more lasting effect on courtship behavior and possibly on the neural circuits underlying courtship behavior.
Descriptors: reptiles, whiptail lizards, Cnemidophorus inornatus and C. uniparens, courtship, behavior, testosterone, progesterone, differential effects, activation, retention.

Secor, S.M. and T.R. Nagy (2003). Non-invasive measure of body composition of snakes using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular and Integrative Physiology 136(2): 379-389. ISSN: 1095-6433.
Abstract: Non-invasive techniques to measure body composition are critical for longitudinal studies of energetics and life histories and for investigating the link between body condition and physiology. Previous attempts to determine, non-invasively, the body composition of snakes have proven problematic. Therefore, we explored whether dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) could be used to determine the body composition of snakes. We analyzed 20 adult diamondback water snakes (Nerodia rhombifer) with a DXA instrument and subsequently quantified their body composition by gravimetric and chemical extraction methods. Body composition components scaled with body mass with mass exponents between 0.88 and 1.53. DXA values for lean tissue mass, fat mass and total-body bone mineral mass were significantly correlated with observed masses of lean tissue, fat and ash from chemical analysis. Using regression models incorporating DXA values we predicted the fat-free tissue mass, lean tissue mass, fat mass, ash mass and total body water content for this sample of water snakes. A cross-validation procedure demonstrated that these models estimated fat-free tissue mass, lean tissue mass, fat mass, ash mass and total-body water content with respective errors of 2.2%, 2.3%, 16.0%, 6.6% and 3.5%. Compared to other non-invasive techniques, include body condition indices, total body electrical conductivity (TOBEC) and cyclopropane absorption, DXA can more easily and accurately be used to determine the body composition of snakes.
Descriptors: reptiles, snakes, body composition, Colubridae metabolism, densitometry, duel-energy X ray absorptiometry.

Selcer, K.W., L.M. Nespoli, T.R. Rainwater, A.G. Finger, D.A. Ray, S.G. Platt, P.N. Smith, L.D. Densmore, and S.T. McMurry (2006). Development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for vitellogenin of Morelet's crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part C Toxicology and Pharmacology 143(1): 50-58. ISSN: 1532-0456.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to develop an immunoassay for vitellogenin in Morelet's crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii). Blood was collected from wild-caught crocodiles in Belize. Plasma samples from adult females taken during the breeding season were used for vitellogenin purification and samples from adult males were used for comparison. No differences were detected between males and females for plasma total protein concentration, as measured by Coomassie assay. However, denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) revealed that female plasma contained a 210-kDa protein, presumably the vitellogenin monomer, that was absent in adult male plasma. The identity of the putative vitellogenin was confirmed by its cross-reactivity in Western blots with a vitellogenin antiserum that was generated against a conserved vitellogenin peptide sequence. Crocodile vitellogenin was purified by two successive rounds of DEAE chromatography. The purified protein had an apparent molecular mass of 450 kDa, as determined by gel filtration chromatography, and 210 kDa on SDS-PAGE. An indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was then developed for C. moreletii vitellogenin. The detection limit of the assay was 20.0 ng/mL. The intra- and inter-assay coefficients of variation were 5.3% and 9.8%, respectively. The recovery of vitellogenin diluted into male plasma was 94.7%. The ELISA assay revealed that vitellogenin levels of adult female plasma during the breeding season ranged from 1.8 to 3.1 mg/mL with a mean of 2.5+/-0.25 mg/mL. No vitellogenin was detected in adult male plasma. Induction of vitellogenin in Morelet's crocodile may be a useful model system for field studies of crocodile reproduction and for investigations of endocrine disruption in this species.
Descriptors: alligators and crocodiles, enzyme linked immunosorbent assay, vitellogenins analysis, vitellogenins isolation and purification, molecular weight, vitellogenins chemistry, vitellogenins immunology.

Sells, P.G. (2003). Animal experimentation in snake venom research and in vitro alternatives. Toxicon 42(2): 115-133. ISSN: 0041-0101.
NAL Call Number: 391.8 T66
Descriptors: reptiles, snakes, animal models, envenomation, laboratory animals, rodents, reviews, snake bites, venoms, reduction, alternatives.

Sever, D.M. (2004). Ultrastructure of the reproductive system of the black swamp snake (Seminatrix pygaea). IV. Occurrence of an ampulla ductus deferentis. Journal of Morphology 262(3): 714-730. ISSN: 0362-2525.
NAL Call Number: 444.8 J826
Abstract: The distal end of the ductus deferens of Seminatrix pygaea (Cope) differs from more proximal portions of the tube by possessing a highly fluctuated epithelium. Similar morphology has been reported in this area in one lizard and some mammals and the region has been designated in these taxa as the ampulla ductus deferentis. In this study, light and transmission electron microscopy were used to study the posterior ductus deferens in S. pygaea and compare the histology in this region to more proximal regions of the duct and to descriptions of the ampulla of other species. Seminatrix pygaea stores sperm throughout the ductus deferens during the entire year. The epithelium of the ductus deferens is not secretory, but the presence of numerous small apical vesicles indicates a role in fluid absorption. In addition to the highly folded epithelium, clusters of sperm nuclei are more intimately associated with the apical ampullary epithelium than elsewhere in the ductus deferens. No evidence of phagocytosis of sperm was found. In contrast, the ampulla of mammals and presumably the lizard Calotes versicolor is glandular and phagocytic. The common character shared by the squamates and mammals with specializations in this area is the folded epithelium, and whether this is due to shared ancestry with amniotes or is homoplastic is unresolved.
Descriptors: reptiles, black swamp snake, Seminatrix pygaea, lizard, Calotes versicolor, reproductive system, ultrastructure, ampulla ductus deferentis.

Sever, D.M., R.A. Stevens, T.J. Ryan, and W.C. Hamlett (2002). Ultrastructure of the reproductive system of the black swamp snake (Seminatrix pygaea). III. Sexual segment of the male kidney. Journal of Morphology 252(3): 238-254. ISSN: 0362-2525.
NAL Call Number: 444.8 J826
Descriptors: reptiles, black swamp snake, Seminatrix pygaea, reproductive system, ultrastructure, male kidney, sexual segment.

Skovgaard, N., D.E. Warren, D.C. Jackson, and T. Wang (2005). Endothelin-1 causes systemic vasodilatation in anaesthetised turtles (Trachemys scripta) through activation of ETB-receptors. Journal of Experimental Biology. 208(Pt 19): 3739-3746. ISSN: 0022-0949.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.01834
NAL Call Number: 442.8 B77
Abstract: The effects of endothelin-1 (ET-1) on systemic and pulmonary circulation were investigated in anaesthetised freshwater turtles (Trachemys scripta) instrumented with arterial catheters and blood flow probes. Bolus intra-arterial injections of ET-1 (0.4-400 pmol kg(-1)) caused a dose-dependent systemic vasodilatation that was associated with a decrease in systemic pressure (P(sys)) and a rise in systemic blood flow (Q(sys)), causing systemic conductance (G(sys)) to increase. ET-1 had no significant effects on the pulmonary vasculature, heart rate (fh) or total stroke volume (Vs(tot)). This response differs markedly from mammals, where ET-1 causes an initial vasodilatation that is followed by a pronounced pressor response. In mammals, the initial dilatation is caused by stimulation of ET(B)-receptors, while the subsequent constriction is mediated by ET(A)-receptors. In the turtles, infusion of the ET(B)-receptor agonist BQ-3020 (150 pmol kg(-1)) elicited haemodynamic changes that were similar to those of ET-1, and the effects of ET-1 were not affected by the ET(A)-antagonist BQ-610 (0.15 micromol kg(-1)). Conversely, all effects of ET-1 were virtually abolished after specific ET(B)-receptor blockade with the ET(B)-antagonist BQ-788 (0.15 micromol kg(-1)). The subsequent treatment with the general ET-receptor antagonist tezosentan (15.4 micromol kg(-1)) did not produce effects that differed from the treatment with ET(B)-antagonist, and the blockade of ET-1 responses persisted. This present study indicates, therefore, that ET(B)-receptors are responsible for the majority of the cardiovascular responses to ET-1 in Trachemys.
Descriptors: turtles, Trachemys scripta, anesthetised, systemic vasodilatation, blood flow, endothelin-1, pulmonary circulation, ETB recptors.

Sneary, M.G. and E.R. Lewis (2007). Tuning properties of turtle auditory nerve fibers: Evidence for suppression and adaptation. Hearing Research 228(1-2): 22-30. ISSN: 0378-5955.
Abstract: Second-order reverse correlation (second-order Wiener-kernel analysis) was carried out between spike responses in single afferent units from the basilar papilla of the red-eared turtle and band limited white noise auditory stimuli. For units with best excitatory frequencies (BEFs) below approximately 500Hz, the analysis revealed suppression similar to that observed previously in anuran amphibians. For units with higher BEFs, the analysis revealed dc response with narrow-band tuning centered about the BEF, combined with broad-band ac response at lower frequencies. For all units, the analysis revealed the relative timing and tuning of excitation and various forms of inhibitory or suppressive effects.
Descriptors: reptiles, turtle auditory nerve fibers, tuning properties, suppression, adaptation, auditory stimuli, basal papilla, frequencies.

Stamper, M.A., M.G. Papich, G.A. Lewbart, S.B. May, D.D. Plummer, and M.K. Stoskopf (2003). Pharmacokinetics of florfenicol in loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) after single intravenous and intramuscular injections. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 34(1): 3-8. ISSN: 1042-7260.
NAL Call Number: SF601.J6
Abstract: The pharmocodynamics of single injections of florfenicol in yearling loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) were determined. Eight juvenile loggerhead sea turtles weighing 1.25 (+/- 0.18) kg were divided into two groups. Four animals received 30 mg/kg of florfenicol i.v., and four received the same dose i.m. Plasma florfenicol concentrations were analyzed by reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography. After the i.v. dose, there was a biphasic decline in plasma florfenicol concentration. The initial steep phase from 3 min to 1 hr had a half-life of 3 min, and there was a longer slow phase of elimination, with a half-life that ranged from 2 to 7.8 hr among turtles. The volume of distribution varied greatly and ranged from 10.46 to -60 L/kg. Clearance after the i.v. dose was 3.6-6.3 L/kg/hr. After the i.m. injection, there was a peak within 30 min of 1.4-5.6 microg/ml, and florfenicol was thereafter eliminated with a half-life of 3.2-4.3 hr. With either route, florfenicol plasma concentrations were below the minimum inhibitory concentrations for sensitive bacteria within 1 hr. Florfenicol does not appear to be a practical antibiotic in sea turtles when administered at these doses.
Descriptors: reptiles, loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, florfenicol, pharmacokinetics, single injection, intravenous, intramuscular, plasma concentrations.

Stawski, C.Y., G.C. Grigg, D.T. Booth, and L.A. Beard (2006). Temperature and the respiratory properties of whole blood in two reptiles, Pogona barbata and Emydura signata. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular and Integrative Physiology 143(2): 173-183. ISSN: 1095-6433.
Abstract: We investigated the capacity of two reptiles, an agamid lizard Pogona barbata and a chelid turtle Emydura signata, to compensate for the effects of temperature by making changes in their whole blood respiratory properties. This was accomplished by measuring the P50 (at 10, 20 and 30 degrees C), hematocrit (Hct), haemoglobin concentration ([Hb]) and mean cell haemoglobin concentration (MCHC) in field acclimatised and laboratory acclimated individuals. The acute effect of temperature on P50 in P. barbata, expressed as heat of oxygenation (deltaH), ranged from -16.8+/-1.84 to -28.5+/-2.73 kJ/mole. P50 of field acclimatised P. barbata increased significantly from early spring to summer at the test temperatures of 20 degrees C (43.1+/-1.2 to 48.8+/-2.1 mmHg) and 30 degrees C (54.7+/-1.2 to 65.2+/-2.3 mmHg), but showed no acclimation under laboratory conditions. For E. signata, deltaH ranged from -31.1+/-6.32 to -48.2+/-3.59 kJ/mole. Field acclimatisation and laboratory acclimation of P50 did not occur. However, in E. signata, there was a significant increase in [Hb] and MCHC from early spring to summer in turtles collected from the wild (1.0+/-0.1 to 1.7+/-0.2 mmol/L and 4.0+/-0.3 to 6.7+/-0.7 mmol/L, respectively).
Descriptors: reptiles, turtle, Emydura signata, lizard, Pogona barbata, temperature, respiratory properties, whole blood, acclimation.

Stein, P.S. (2005). Neuronal control of turtle hindlimb motor rhythms. Journal of Comparative Physiology. A, Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology 191(3): 213-229. ISSN: 0340-7594.
NAL Call Number: QP33.J68
Abstract: The turtle, Trachemys scripta elegans, uses its hindlimb during the rhythmic motor behaviors of walking, swimming, and scratching. For some tasks, one or more motor strategies or forms may be produced, e.g., forward swimming or backpaddling. This review discusses experiments that reveal characteristics of the spinal neuronal networks producing these motor behaviors. Limb-movement studies show shared properties such as rhythmic alternation between hip flexion and hip extension, as well as variable properties such as the timing of knee extension in the cycle of hip movements. Motor-pattern studies show shared properties such as rhythmic alternation between hip flexor and hip extensor motor activities, as well as variable properties such as modifiable timing of knee extensor motor activity in the cycle of hip motor activity. Motor patterns also display variations such as the hip-extensor deletion of rostral scratching. Neuronal-network studies reveal mechanisms responsible for movement and motor-pattern properties. Some interneurons in the spinal cord have shared activities, e.g., each unit is active during more than one behavior, and have distinct characteristics, e.g., each unit is most excited during a specific behavior. Interneuronal recordings during variations support the concept of modular organization of central pattern generators in the spinal cord.
Descriptors: reptiles, turtle, Trachemys scripta elegans, neuronal control, hindlimb motor rhythms, walking, swimming, scratching, review.

Steinman, A., C. Banet Noach, L. Simanov, N. Grinfeld, Z. Aizenberg, O. Levi, D. Lahav, M. Malkinson, S. Perk, and N.Y. Shpigel (2006). Experimental infection of common garter snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis) with west nile virus. Vector Borne and Zoontic Diseases 6(4): 361-368. ISSN: 1530-3667.
NAL Call Number: RA639.5.V43
Descriptors: reptiles, common garter snakes, Thamnophis sirtalis, experimental infection, West Nile virus, subcutaneously, orally, viremic, titers, viral RNA.

Stewart, J.R. and K.R. Brasch (2003). Ultrastructure of the placentae of the natricine snake, Virginia striatula (Reptilia: Squamata). Journal of Morphology 255(2): 177-201. ISSN: 0362-2525.
NAL Call Number: 444.8 J826
Descriptors: reptiles, natricine snake, Virginia striatula, placenta, ultrastructure.

Sun, W., P. Neuzil, T.S. Kustandi, S. Oh, and V.D. Samper (2005). The nature of the gecko lizard adhesive force. Biophysical Journal 89(2): L14-L17. ISSN: print: 0006-3495; online: 1542-0086.
Abstract: The extraordinary climbing skills of gecko lizards have been under investigation for a long time. Here we report results of direct measurement of single spatula forces in air with varying relative humidities and in water, by the force-distance method using an atomic force microscope. We have found that the presence of water strongly affects the adhesion force and from analysis of our results, we have demonstrated that the dominant force involved is the capillary force.
Descriptors: reptiles, gecko, epidermis physiology, ultrastructure, foot anatomy, histology, lizards anatomy, adhesive force, nature, locomotion stress, capillary force.

Tessier, N. and F.J. Lapointe (2003). Comparative efficiency of different sampling techniques to obtain DNA from freshwater turtles. Chelonian Conservation and Biology 4(3): 710-712. ISSN: 1071-8443.
Descriptors: reptiles, freshwater turtles, obtain DNA, different samplng techniques, comparative efficiency.

Thammasirirak, S., P. Ponkham, S. Preecharram, R. Khanchanuan, P. Phonyothee, S. Daduang, C. Srisomsap, T. Araki, and J. Svasti (2006). Purification, characterization and comparison of reptile lysozymes. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C Toxicology and Pharmacology 143(2): 209-217. ISSN: 1532-0456.
Descriptors: reptiles, turtles, lysozymes, purification, characterization, gel filtration chromatography, comparison.

Thomson, M., J.F. Herbert, and M.B. Thompson (2006). Tyrosine phosphorylated proteins in the reproductive tract of the viviparous lizard Eulamprus tympanum and the oviparous lizard Lampropholis guichenoti. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part B, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 144(3): 382-386. ISSN: 1096-4959.
Abstract: Plastic changes occur in the morphology of the uterus at various stages of the reproductive cycle in both oviparous and viviparous lizards and these may be influenced by estrogen. Estrogen driven phosphorylation of effector proteins on tyrosine residues plays a major role in the plastic modulation of uterine anatomy and physiology in vertebrates. We used electrophoresis and Western blotting to characterize the phosphotyrosine protein profiles at various stages of the reproductive pathway in an oviparous lizard Lampropholis guichenoti and a viviparous lizard Eulamprus tympanum. L. guichenoti displayed major bands in the 200-35 kDa range and a triplet of bands of molecular masses 61 kDa, 52 kDa and 48 kDa in 50% of specimens and a 38 kDa band in all specimens. In contrast, E. tympanum samples all displayed a single major band at 40 kDa, which was significantly elevated at the early pregnancy stage. Somewhat paradoxically, the viviparous species, which has the more complex uterine epithelial changes during pregnancy, has the fewest phosphotyrosine bands, so how tyrosine phosphorylation is affected during the evolution of viviparity is not clear.
Descriptors: reptiles, viviparous lizard, Eulamprus tympanum, oviparous lizard, Lampropholis guichenoti, reproductive tract, tyrosine phosphorylated proteins, reproductive cycle.

Tourmente, M., G.A. Cardozo, H.A. Guidobaldi, L.C. Giojalas, M. Bertona, and M. Chiaraviglio (2007). Sperm motility parameters to evaluate the seminal quality of Boa constrictor occidentalis, a threatened snake species. Research in Veterinary Science 82(1): 93-98. ISSN: 0034-5288.
Abstract: Semen quality analysis constitutes a powerful tool to evaluate the fertility potential of males in threatened species. The Argentine boa constrictor or lampalagua (Boa constrictor occidentalis) is a threatened snake species and has been included in Appendix I of CITES. The objective of this work is to characterize the sperm of B. c. occidentalis on the bases of dynamic parameters to improve this species conservation. Dynamic parameters were measured in sperm samples using videomicroscopy and image analysis software. The sperm population showed a high degree of heterogeneity in velocity parameter values and 95% of the cells showed a linear pattern of movement. Studies in other species indicate that the number of motile spermatozoa and their movement speed is directly correlated with fertilization success. This work will help to establish basic parameter values for the evaluation of the reproductive potential of populations of B. c. occidentalis and to resolve questions referred to its reproductive strategies.
Descriptors: reptiles, snake, Boa constictor occidentalis, sperm motility parameters, seminal quality, motile spermatazoa.

Tu, Z.C., W. Eisner, B.N. Kreiswirth, and M.J. Blaser (2005). Genetic divergence of Campylobacter fetus strains of mammal and reptile origins. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 43(7): 3334-3340. ISSN: 0095-1137.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.43.7.3334-3340.2005
NAL Call Number: QR46.J6
Abstract: Campylobacter fetus is a gram-negative bacterial pathogen of both humans and animals. Two subspecies have been identified, Campylobacter fetus subsp. fetus and Campylobacter fetus subsp. venerealis, and there are two serotypes, A and B. To further investigate the genetic diversity among C. fetus strains of different origins, subspecies, and serotypes, we performed multiple genetic analyses by utilizing random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD), pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), and DNA-DNA hybridization. All 10 primers used for the RAPD analyses can distinguish C. fetus strains of reptile and mammal origin, five can differentiate between C. fetus subsp. fetus and C. fetus subsp. venerealis strains, and four showed differences between type A and type B isolates from mammals. PFGE with SmaI and SalI digestion showed varied genome patterns among different C. fetus strains, but for mammalian C. fetus isolates, genome size was well conserved (mean, 1.52 +/- 0.06 Mb for SmaI and 1.52 +/- 0.05 Mb for SalI). DNA-DNA hybridization demonstrated substantial genomic-homology differences between strains of mammal and reptile origin. In total, these data suggest that C. fetus subsp fetus strains of reptile and mammal origin have genetic divergence more extensive than that between the two subspecies and that between the type A and type B strains. Combining these studies with sequence data, we conclude that there has been substantial genetic divergence between Campylobacter fetus of reptile and mammal origin. Diagnostic tools have been developed to differentiate among C. fetus isolates for taxonomic and epidemiologic uses.
Descriptors: reptiles, campylobacter infections, microbiology, Campylobacter fetus, cattle, turtles, bacterial analysis.

Turgut, M., S. Kaplan, K. Metin, Y.B. Koca, E. Soylu, B. Sahin, Z.B. Ateslier, and H.K. Basaloglu (2006). Effects of constant lightness, darkness and parachlorophenylalanine treatment on tail regeneration in the lizard Ophisops elegans macrodactylus: macroscopic, biochemical and histological changes. Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia 35(3): 155-161. ISSN: 0340-2096.
Abstract: A better understanding of regenerative growth is very important for the development of new potential strategies. Recently, the pineal secretory product melatonin was shown to stimulate the regeneration process. In this study, we carried out an experimental investigation of tail regeneration in young adult lizards, Ophisops elegans macrodactylus Berthold, 1842, addressing the role of melatonin on the regeneration process. Lizards were divided into three groups: constant light-exposed control group (n = 13), constant dark-exposed group (n = 15) and parachlorophenylalanine (p-CPA) treatment group exposed to constant light (n = 15). Using a tail autotomy procedure, the effects of p-CPA treatment on connective tissue together with neural tissue and vascular tissue in regenerating tail in lizards were investigated. p-CPA (400 microg/kg body mass) was injected from day 0 to 30 days after autotomy. p-CPA treatment produced a significant increase in the length of the regenerated tail compared with light-exposed control and dark-exposed lizards. Total collagen content was found to be higher in p-CPA-treated animals in comparison with other groups. Histologically, a higher percentage of connective tissue and vascular tissue and a lower percentage of neural tissue were found in the regenerated tails of the p-CPA-treated lizards. Importantly, the percentage of neural tissue in lizards in the dark-exposed animals was higher than that in animals of both light-exposed and p-CPA treatment groups. Thus, it is clear that p-CPA has a stimulatory influence on fibroblast collagen production and vascularization of the regenerated tail in the lizards. Furthermore, it seems that the neural regeneration process was markedly enhanced in lizards exposed to continuous darkness. Based on the results of our study, it is suggested that melatonin may be an active factor that speeds up the rate of tail regeneration in lacertilians.
Descriptors: reptiles, Ophisops elegans macrodactylus, lizards physiology, melatonin physiology, pineal gland physiology, regeneration physiology, tail physiology, fenclonine pharmacology, light, random allocation, regeneration drug effects.

Turgut, M., Y.B. Koca, S. Kaplan, K. Metin, N. Uzum, E. Soylu, A. Avc, M.C. Ragbetli, E.P. Beytas, and K. Olgun (2007). Effects of Ca2+channel blocker verapamil on tissue regeneration in a lizard tail autotomy model: a biochemical and histological study. Amphibia Reptilia 28(1): 7-15. ISSN: 0173-5373.
Descriptors: reptiles, lizard, tail, autotomy model, tissue regeneration, Ca2+ channel blocker verapamil, effects.

Uller, T. and M. Olsson (2003). Prenatal exposure to testosterone increases ectoparasite susceptibility in the common lizard (Lacerta vivipara). Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 270(1526): 1867-1870. ISSN: 0080-4649.
Abstract: High levels of testosterone can benefit individual fitness, for example by increasing growth rate or ornament size, which may result in increased reproductive success. However, testosterone induces costs, such as a suppressed immune system, thereby generating trade-offs between growth or mate acquisition, and immunity. In birds and reptiles, females allocate steroids to their eggs, which may be a mechanism whereby females can influence the phenotype of their offspring. To our knowledge, only the benefits of early androgen exposure have been experimentally investigated to date. However, to understand this phenomenon, the costs also need to be evaluated. We manipulated testosterone levels in eggs of the viviparous common lizard and monitored growth, endurance and post-parturient responses to ectoparasites of the offspring. Testosterone-treated individuals had significantly higher growth rates than controls, but suffered a significant decrease in growth rate when exposed to ticks, whereas the corresponding difference for controls was non-significant. There was no difference in observed parasite load or leucocyte count between manipulated and control offspring. Thus, our results suggest that high testosterone levels during embryonic development have detrimental effects on immune function resulting in reduced growth rate, and that this must be taken into consideration when evaluating the potential adaptive value of maternal androgen allocation to eggs.
Descriptors: reptiles, lizard, Lacerta vivipara, testosterone, prenatal exposure, ectoparasite, increased suceptibility, suppressed immune system.

Varriale, A. and G. Bernardi (2006). Dna methylation in reptiles. Gene 385: 122-127. ISSN: 0378-1119.
Descriptors: reptiles, DNA methylation, fishes, warm-blooded vertebrates, evolutionary changes, body temperature, birds, amphibians.

Vieira, G.H., G.R. Colli, and S.N. Bao (2004). The ultrastructure of the spermatozoon of the lizard Iguana iguana (Reptilia, Squamata, Iguanidae) and the variability of sperm morphology among iguanian lizards. Journal of Anatomy 204(6): 451-464. ISSN: 0021-8782.
Abstract: The spermatozoon of Iguana iguana is filiform and resembles that of other iguanian lizards, being most similar to Tropidurus. All sperm synapomorphies of Tetrapoda, Amniota and Squamata are present in the sperm of Iguana iguana. By reconstructing the evolution of 30 sperm characters we identified a novel synapomorphy of Iguania: the presence of a well-developed acrosomal ridge at the level of the epinuclear lucent zone. Because of the poor topological resolution among iguanian clades we could not discount the possibility of convergence or neutral selection as determinant of the variability in characteristics of the sperm cell. In agreement with previous studies, we identified heterogeneous rates of evolution among the three main regions of the sperm cell, namely the head, midpiece and tail.
Descriptors: reptiles, lizard, Iguana iguana, spermatozoon, ultrastructure, sperm morphology, variability.

Voituron, Y., J.M. Storey, C. Grenot, and K.B. Storey (2002). Freezing survival, body ice content and blood composition of the freeze-tolerant European common lizard, Lacerta vivipara. Journal of Comparative Physiology. B, Biochemical, Systemic, and Environmental Physiology 172(1): 71-76. ISSN: print: 0174-1578; online: 1432-136X.
NAL Call Number: QP33.J681
Abstract: To investigate the freeze tolerance of the European common lizard, Lacerta vivipara, we froze 17 individuals to body temperatures as low as -4 degrees C under controlled laboratory conditions. The data show that this species tolerates the freezing of 50% of total body water and can survive freezing exposures of at least 24-h duration. Currently, this represents the best known development of freeze tolerance among squamate reptiles. Freezing stimulated a significant increase in blood glucose levels (16.15+/- 1.73 micromol x ml(-1) for controls versus 25.06 +/- 2.92 micromol x ml(-1) after thawing) but this increase had no significant effect on serum osmolality which was unchanged between control and freeze-exposed lizards (506.0 +/- 23.8 mosmol x l(-1) versus 501.0 +/- 25.3 mosmol x l(-1), respectively). Tests that assessed the possible presence of antifreeze proteins in lizard blood were negative. Recovery at 5 degrees C after freezing was assessed by measurements of the mean time for the return of breathing (5.9 +/- 0.5 h) and of the righting reflex (44.8 +/- 4.5 h). Because this species hibernates in wet substrates inoculative freezing may frequently occur in nature and the substantial freeze tolerance of this lizard should play a key role in its winter survival.
Descriptors: reptiles, European common lizard, Lacerta vivipara, freezing survival, body ice, blood composition, freeze tolerant, serum osmolality, breathing.

Voituron, Y., B. Verdier, and C. Grenot (2002). The respiratory metabolism of a lizard (Lacerta vivipara) in supercooled and frozen states. American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 283(1): R181-R186. ISSN: print: 0363-6119; online: 1522-1490.
Online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00378.2001
Abstract: We investigated the respiratory metabolism of the overwintering lizard Lacerta vivipara while in either supercooled or frozen states. With a variable pressure and volume microrespirometer and a chromatograph, we show that the oxygen consumption of the supercooled animals showed a nonlinear relationship with temperature and an aerobic metabolism demand between 0.5 and -1.5 degrees C. A significant increase in the respiratory quotient (RQ) values indicated an increasing contribution by the anaerobic pathways with decreasing temperature. In the frozen state, two phases are easily detectable and are probably linked to the ice formation within the body. During the first 5-6 h, the animals showed an oxygen consumption of 3.52 +/- 0.28 microl. g(-1). h(-1) and a RQ value of 0.52 +/- 0.09. In contrast, after ice equilibrium, oxygen consumption decreased sharply (0.55 +/- 0.09 microl. g(-1). h(-1)) and the RQ values increased (2.49 +/- 0.65). The present study confirms the fact that supercooled invertebrates and vertebrates respond differently to subzero temperatures, in terms of aerobic metabolism, and it shows that aerobic metabolism persists under freezing conditions.
Descriptors: reptiles, lizard, Lacerta vivipara, cold, freezing, lizards metabolism, respiratory system metabolism, anaerobiosis, oxygen consumption, pulmonary gas exchange.

Voronov, A., G. Voronova, N. Kupriyanova, and A. Ryskov (2005). Molecular-genetic characteristics of lizard ribosomal DNA. Russian Journal of Herpetology 12(Suppl.): 105-108. ISSN: 1026-2296.
Descriptors: reptiles, lizard, molecular genetic characteristics, ribosomal DNA.

Wade, J. (2005). Current research on the behavioral neuroendocrinology of reptiles. Hormones and Behavior 48(4): 451-460. ISSN: 0018-506X.
NAL Call Number: QP801.H7H64
Abstract: Selected reptilian species have been the targets of investigations in behavioral neuroendocrinology for many years. Reptiles offer a particularly powerful set of traits that facilitate comparisons at multiple levels, including those within and between individuals of a particular species, between different environmental and social contexts, as well as across species. These types of studies, particularly as they are considered within the framework of results from other vertebrates, will enhance our understanding of the genetic and hormonal influences regulating changes in the structure and function of the nervous system. Work on the hormonal and environmental factors influencing courtship and copulatory behaviors in green anoles, including the development and maintenance of the neuromuscular structures critical for their display, is highlighted. Some very recent work on other model systems is also discussed to provide a context for suggested future research directions.
Descriptors: reptiles, behavior, physiology, neurosecretory systems, physiology, reproduction physiology, sexual behavior, gonadal steroid hormones.

Wang, W., S. Luo, B.K. Ghosh, and P.S. Ulinski (2006). Generation of the receptive fields of subpial cells in turtle visual cortex. Journal of Integrative Neuroscience 5(4): 561-593. ISSN: 0219-6352.
Descriptors: reptiles, turtle visual cortex, receptive fields, generation, subpial cells, model, simulation, visual stimuli.

Warren, D.E., S.A. Reese, and D.C. Jackson (2006). Tissue glycogen and extracellular buffering limit the survival of red-eared slider turtles during anoxic submergence at 3 degrees C. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 79(4): 736-744. ISSN: 1522-2152.
NAL Call Number: QL1.P52
Abstract: The goal of this study was to identify the factors that limit the survival of the red-eared slider turtle Trachemys scripta during long-term anoxic submergence at 3 degrees C. We measured blood acid-base status and tissue lactate and glycogen contents after 13, 29, and 44 d of submergence from ventricle, liver, carapace (lactate only), and four skeletal muscles. We also measured plasma Ca(2+), Mg(2+), Na(+), K(+), Cl(-), inorganic phosphate (P(i)), lactate, and glucose. After 44 d, one of the six remaining turtles died, while the other turtles were in poor condition and suffered from a severe acidemia (blood pH = 7.09 from 7.77) caused by lactic acidosis (plasma lactate 91.5 mmol L(-1)). An initial respiratory acidosis attenuated after 28 d. Lactate rose to similar concentrations in ventricle and skeletal muscle (39.3-46.1 micromol g(-1)). Liver accumulated the least lactate (21.8 micromol g(-1)), and carapace accumulated the most lactate (68.9 micromol g(-1)). Plasma Ca(2+) and Mg(2+) increased significantly throughout submergence to levels comparable to painted turtles at a similar estimated lactate load. Glycogen depletion was extensive in all tissues tested: by 83% in liver, by 90% in ventricle, and by 62%-88% in muscle. We estimate that the shell buffered 69.1% of the total lactate load, which is comparable to painted turtles. Compared with painted turtles, predive tissue glycogen contents and plasma HCO(-)(3) concentrations were low. We believe these differences contribute to the poorer tolerance to long-term anoxic submergence in red-eared slider turtles compared with painted turtles.
Descriptors: reptiles, painted turtles, red-eared slider turtle, Trachemys scripta, anoxic submergence, 3 degrees centigrade, tissue glycogen, extracellular buffering, survival.

Wassersug, R.J., L. Roberts, J. Gimian, E. Hughes, R. Saunders, D. Devison, J. Woodbury, and J.C. O'Reilly (2005). The behavioral responses of amphibians and reptiles to microgravity on parabolic flights. Zoology [Jena] 108(2): 107-120. ISSN: 0944-2006.
NAL Call Number: QL1.Z769
Abstract: In the present study, we exposed 53 animals from 23 different species of amphibians and reptiles to microgravity (mug). This nearly doubles the number of amphibians and reptiles observed so far in mug. The animals were flown on a parabolic flight, which provided 20-25s of mug, to better characterize behavioral reactions to abrupt exposure to mug. Highly fossorial limbless caecilians and amphisbaenians showed relatively limited movement in mug. Limbed quadrupedal reptiles that were non-arboreal in the genera Leiocephalus, Anolis, and Scincella showed the typical righting response and enormous amounts of body motion and tail rotation, which we interpreted as both righting responses and futile actions to grasp the substrate. Both arboreal and non-arboreal geckos in the genera Uroplatus, Palmatogecko, Stenodactylus, Tarentola, and Eublepharis instead showed a skydiving posture previously reported for highly arboreal anurans. Some snakes, in the genera Thamnophis and Elaphe, which typically thrashed and rolled in mug, managed to knot their own bodies with their tails and immediately became quiescent. This suggests that these reptiles gave stable physical contact, which would indicate that they were not falling, primacy over vestibular input that indicated that they were in freefall. The fact that they became quiet upon self-embrace further suggests a failure to distinguish self from non-self. The patterns of behavior seen in amphibians and reptiles in mug can be explained in light of their normal ecology and taxonomic relations.
Descriptors: various species of reptiles and amphibians, gravity perception, physiology, hypogravity, motor activity, microgravity (mug), behavioral reactions.

Wassif, E.T. (2002). Ultrastructure of the lingual epithelium of adult scincine lizard Chalcides ocellatus. Egyptian Journal of Biology 4: 76-86. ISSN: 1110-6859.
Online: http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/%7Eplzfg/EBBSoc/ejb4/Wassif_2002.pdf
Descriptors: adult scincine reptiles, lizard, Chalcides ocellatus, lingual epithelium, adult, ultrastructure.

Weber, A.E., J. Martin, and M. Ariel (2003). Connectivity of the turtle accessory optic system. Brain Research 989(1): 76-90. ISSN: 0006-8993.
Descriptors: reptiles, turtle, accessory optic system, connectivity, synaptic inputs, pond turtle, neurons, afferent, efferent, connections.

Weiss, S.L. and M.C. Moore (2004). Activation of aggressive behavior by progesterone and testosterone in male tree lizards, Urosaurus ornatus. General and Comparative Endocrinology 136(2): 282-288. ISSN: 0016-6480.
NAL Call Number: 444.8 G28
Abstract: Testosterone is usually thought to be the major sex steroid regulating adult male territorial aggression in vertebrates. However, recent evidence has suggested a role for progesterone, as well as testosterone, in the organization of the two male reproductive phenotypes of tree lizards (Urosaurus ornatus), which differ in adult levels of territorial behavior. In the present experiment we tested whether progesterone and testosterone could also play an activational role in the expression of adult aggressive behavior. We subjected post-reproductive male tree lizards to the following treatments: sham surgery, castration, castration with progesterone supplementation, and castration with testosterone supplementation. We measured several different dimensions of aggressive behavior. Overall in these post-reproductive animals, the level of aggression from lowest to highest was: castrates, shams, progesterone-treated, and testosterone-treated. Although testosterone appears to be the more potent regulator of aggressive behavior, progesterone enhanced several measures of aggression suggesting that it could play a role in natural regulation of aggressive behavior. This initial study used very high levels of progesterone (similar to or above those experienced by hatchlings) to maximize the probability of detecting an effect. Further studies are needed to determine if natural adult progesterone levels are sufficiently high to influence aggressive behavior.
Descriptors: reptiles, male tree lizards, Urosaurus ornatus, aggressive behavior, activation, testosterone, progesterone.

Westhoff, G., B.G. Fry, and H. Bleckmann (2005). Sea snakes (Lapemis curtus) are sensitive to low-amplitude water motions. Zoology [Jena] 108(3): 195-200. ISSN: 0944-2006.
NAL Call Number: QL1.Z769
Abstract: The sea snake Lapemis curtus is a piscivorous predator that hunts at dusk. Like land snakes, sea snakes have scale sensillae that may be mechanoreceptive, i.e. that may be useful for the detection of water motions produced by prey fish. In addition, inner ear hair cells of sea snakes may also be involved in the detection of hydrodynamic stimuli. We generated water motions and pressure fluctuations with a vibrating sphere. In the test range 50-200 Hz evoked potentials were recorded from the midbrain of L. curtus in response to vibrating sphere stimuli. In terms of water displacement the lowest threshold amplitudes were in the frequency range 100-150 Hz. In this range peak-to-peak water displacement amplitudes of 1.8 microm (at 100 Hz) and 2.0 microm (150 Hz) generated a neural response in the most sensitive animal. Although this low sensitivity may be sufficient for the detection of fish-generated water motions, it makes it unlikely that L. curtus has a special hydrodynamic sense.
Descriptors: sea snakes, Lapemis curtus, sensitive, low amplitude warer motuion, somatosensory physiology, motion perception, physiology, water movements, electric stimulation, pressure.

Wilson, K.A., P.M. Cavanagh, and J. Willepique (2003). Radiotransmitter attachment technique for box turtles (Terrapene spp.). Chelonian Conservation and Biology 4(3): 688-691. ISSN: 1071-8443.
Descriptors: reptiles, box turtles, radiotransmitter attachment, technique, Terrapene spp.

Winne, C.T., J.D. Willson, K.M. Andrews, and R.N. Reed (2006). Efficacy of marking snakes with disposable medical cautery units. Herpetological Review 37(1): 52-54. ISSN: 0018-084X.
NAL Call Number: QL640.H47
Descriptors: reptiles, snakes, marking, disposable medical cautery units, efficacy.

Woolley, S.C., J.T. Sakata, and D. Crews (2004). Tracing the evolution of brain and behavior using two related species of whiptail lizards: Cnemidophorus uniparens and Cnemidophorus inornatus. ILAR Journal 45(1): 46-53. ISSN: 1084-2020.
Online: http://dels.nas.edu/ilar_n/ilarjournal/45_1/html/v4501woolley.shtml
NAL Call Number: QL55.A1I43
Descriptors: reptiles, whiptail lizards, Cnemidophorus uniparens, Cnemidophorus inornatus, laboratory animals, animal models, females, parthenogenesis, triploidy, diploidy, dopamine, hormone receptors, literature reviews.

Wu, G.Y., J.F. Liao, and Z.X. Tang (2006). Cellularity and fiber linking of cortical layer of reptile. Sichuan Journal of Zoology 25(2): 416-419. ISSN: 1000-7083.
Descriptors: reptiles, cortical layer, cellularity, fiber linking, research.
Language of Text: Chinese; Summary in Chinese.

Wu, H.X. (2004). Identification and inhibitory effects of drugs against pathogenic bacteria of soft-shelled turtle (Trionyx sinensis) in vitro. Fisheries Science Liaoning 23(6): 5-9. ISSN: 1003-1111.
Descriptors: reptiles, soft shelled turtle, Trionyx sinensis, pathogenic bacteria, drugs against, inhibitory effects, identification.
Language of Text: Chinese; Summary in Chinese and English.

Yeh, C.I. and A.S. Powers (2005). Effects of blocking nitric oxide on learning in turtles (Chrysemys picta). Behavioral Neuroscience 119(6): 1656-1661. ISSN: 0735-7044.
NAL Call Number: QP351.B45
Descriptors: turtles, Chrysemys picta, learning, nitric oxide, blocking, effects.

Zhang, S.Z., X.B. Wu, and B.H. Chen (2003). General situation of study on histology and cytology of digestive system of Alligator sinensis. Sichuan Journal of Zoology 22(2): 76-79. ISSN: 1000-7083.
Descriptors: reptiles, alligator, Alligator sinensis, digestive system, cytology, histology, study, general situation.
Language of Text: Chinese; Summary in Chinese and English.

Zheng, J.F. and M.Y. Zhu (2005). Construction and characterization of a cDNA library from kidney/ urogenital complex tissues of one-week-old embryos of the softshelled turtle Trionyx sinensis. Acta Zoologica Sinica 51(6): 1156-1161. ISSN: 0001-7302.
Descriptors: reptiles, softshelled turtle, Trionyx sinensis, construction, cDNA library, kidney, urogenital tissue complex.
Language of Text: Chinese.

Zhou, L., C. Yang, and L. Xiao (2003). PCR-mediated recombination between Cryptosporidium spp. of lizards and snakes. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 50(Suppl.): 563-565. ISSN: 1066-5234.
Abstract: The presence or absence of genetic recombination has often been used as one of the criteria for Cryptosporidium species designation and population structure delineation. During a recent study of cryptosporidiosis in reptiles that were housed in the same room, 4 lizards were found to have concurrent infections of C. serpentis (a gastric parasite) and C. saurophilum (an intestinal parasite), and 6 snakes were concurrently infected with C. serpentis, C. saurophilum and a new Cryptosporidium as indicated by PCR-RFLP analysis of the SSU rRNA gene. DNA sequence analysis of cloned PCR products confirmed the diagnosis of mixed infections. Surprisingly, it appeared that 11 of the 22 clones (8 and 14 clones from a lizard and a snake, respectively) had chimeric sequences of two Cryptosporidium spp. BootScan analysis indicated the existence of recombinants among the cloned sequences and detection of the informative sites confirmed the BootScan results. Because the probability for genetic recombination between gastric and intestinal parasites is small, these hybrid sequences were likely results of PCR artifacts due to the presence of multiple templates. This was confirmed by PCR-sequencing analysis of single-copy templates using diluted DNA samples. Direct sequencing of 69 PCR products from 100- to 1,000-fold diluted DNAs from the same snake and lizard produced only sequences of C. serpentis, C. saurophilum and the unnamed Cryptosporidium sp. Thus, care should be taken to eliminate PCR artifacts when determining the presence of genetic recombination or interpreting results of population genetic studies.
Descriptors: reptiles, lizards, snakes, Cryptosporidium, PCR, mediated recombination, genetic rcombination, boot scans, PCR sequencing, captive animals.

Zhu, D. and J. Keifer (2005). Distribution of facial motor neurons in the pond turtle Pseudemys scripta elegans. Neuroscience Letters 373(2): 134-137. ISSN: 0304-3940.
Abstract: A tract tracing study was performed to examine the localization of the facial nucleus in the brain stem of the pond turtle, Pseudemys scripta elegans. Neurobiotin and the fluorescent tracers alexa fluor 488 and 594 were used to retrogradely label neurons of the abducens or facial nerves. The results showed that the facial nucleus has two subnuclei, a medial group and a lateral group. Measurements of cell size revealed no significant differences between these populations. Double labeling studies showed that the medial cell group of the facial nucleus lies between the principal and accessory abducens nuclei in the pons, whereas the lateral group lies adjacent to the accessory abducens nucleus. The facial nucleus of pond turtles largely overlaps the rostrocaudal extent of the accessory abducens nucleus, but extends well beyond it into the medulla. These data elucidate the position and distribution of the facial nucleus in the brain stem of pond turtles and contribute to the body of comparative neuroanatomical literature on the distribution of the cranial nerve nuclei of reptiles.
Descriptors: pond turtle, Pseudemys scripta elegans, facial nerve, cytology, motor neurons, neural pathways, turtles anatomy, histology.

Zotti, A., P. Selleri, P. Carnier, M. Morgante, and D. Bernardini (2004). Relationship between metabolic bone disease and bone mineral density measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry in the green iguana (Iguana iguana). Veterinary Radiology and Ultrasound 45(1): 10-16. ISSN: 1058-8183.
NAL Call Number: SF757.8.A4
Abstract: The aim of our work was to study the feasibility of using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry to obtain reference bone density values in relation to body weight, gender, and metabolic bone disease in the green iguana. The study was performed on 28 animals. The weight, age, and gender of each iguana were recorded. Each lizard was carefully examined and radiographed to detect signs of metabolic bone disease. Blood samples were collected from each animal to evaluate Ca/P and total protein. All animals, both affected (group B; n = 11) and unaffected (group A; n = 17) by metabolic bone disease, were individually scanned using an X-ray densitometer. The regions of interest were the head, lumbar spine, right, and left femur. Statistical analysis was performed separately for each region of interest. Body weight had the strongest relationship with bone density (P < 0.01). Within regions of interest, for iguanas of average weight (710 g), statistically significant differences between healthy and sick animals were found: head (0.140 vs. 0.090 g/cm2; P < 0.01); lumbar spine (0.164 vs. 0.107 g/cm2; P < 0.01); right femur (0.103 vs. 0.076 g/cm2; P < 0.01); left femur (0.103 vs. 0.078 g/cm2; P < 0.01). Regression equations to obtain reference values of bone density as a function of body weight for animals affected and not affected by metabolic bone disease are provided. Our data indicate that X-ray bone densitometry is an additional tool for studying bone pathophysiology in reptiles.
Descriptors: reptiles, iguana, metabolic bone disease, bone mineral density, relationship, duel-energy X-ray absorptiometry, body weight.