Transportation and the Environment: An Annotated
Bibliography
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INTRODUCTION
This annotated bibliography is the result of an effort by the
Office of Policy, Federal Railroad Administration, to determine the
extent to which models had been developed that permit comparisons
among transportation options as to environmental impacts.
The bibliography covers recent publications that describe or offer
insights into environmental effects of transportation systems and
how public policies are addressing transportation related
environmental issues.
The citations are organized by specific environmental media.
However, a single transportation system or event may result in
multiple environmental considerations. Therefore, the media
boundaries are not exclusive, and the reader should consult
citations under related categories as well. All articles and
reports have been published in English unless otherwise noted.
The bibliography was compiled by an Environmental Task Force within
the Office of Policy, Office of Economic Analysis, Federal Railroad
Administration. The Task Force was directed by Marilyn (Mickey)
Klein. Key contributing staff members were Stephen Grimm,
Alexandra Newcomer, and John Paolella. Questions or comments may
be directed to Ms. Klein at (202) 366-0358.
Table of Contents
Category Page
1. Air Quality Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. Noise Pollution Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3. Oil Pollution Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
4. Hazardous Materials Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
5. Land Use Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
6. Water Pollution and Wetlands Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
7. Related Environmental Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
8. Energy Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
9. International Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
1. Air Quality Issues
Transportation is a major contributor to air pollution, with motor
vehicles accounting for a large share of nearly all the major
pollutants found in the atmosphere. The Clean Air Act Amendments
of 1990 (CAAA) tighten emission standards for motor vehicles and
require increased use of alternative fuels and transportation
control measures to reduce or limit highway vehicle use in the more
serious non-attainment areas, which do not meet national air
quality standards. The CAAA also require the Environmental
Protection Agency to set emission standards for new locomotives and
new locomotive engines by 1995.
Although the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of
1991 strongly reinforced the CAAA requirements through its planning
requirements and flexible funding provisions, technical
uncertainties, conflicting goals, cost-effectiveness
considerations, and long established behavioral patterns make
achievement of air quality standards a tremendous challenge.
1. Searching for Solutions. A Policy Discussion Series,
Transportation and Air Quality, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), Office
of Policy Development, No. 5, Washington, DC, August 1992.
This report summarizes a 1991 FHWA seminar on key issues
in air quality and transportation planning, supplemented
by a paper by Greg Harvey and Elizabeth Deakin, adding
the perspective introduced by the 1991 Intermodal Surface
Transportation Efficiency Act, which was in legislative
proposal at conference time. The paper concludes that
significant reductions in mobile source emissions through
reductions in travel would be hard to achieve without a
fundamental change in U.S. policy towards transportation
pricing and land use.
2. Air Quality Programs and Provisions of the Internodal Surface
Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 ASTEA), a brochure
prepared by the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal
Highway Administration, Washington, DC, August 1992.
The ISTEA complements the CAAA by providing funding and
the flexibility to use it in ways that will help improve
air quality through the development of a balanced,
environmentally sound, intermodal transportation program.
The introduction, by Federal Highway Administrator T.D.
Larson, states that ISTEA funding and changes in
transportation patterns alone cannot solve the problem.
Greater mobile source emission reductions, particularly
in the more serious nonattainment areas, will have to
come from reducing the use of the automobile for all
trips, including non-work trips.
3. The Challenges of Transportation and Clean Air Goals, Dr.
Arnold M. Howitt and Dr. Alan Altshuler, Associate Director
and Director, respectively, of the Taubman Center for State
and Local Government, John F. Kennedy School of Government,
Harvard University, for the U.S. Department of Transportation,
June 1992.
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 and the Intermodal
Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 are likely
to bring about significant changes in urban
transportation planning, spending, and regulatory
practice over the next few years. Together, these laws
require the states to achieve the nation's clean air
goals according to strict deadlines and to make air
quality the top priority of transportation policy. In
addition, they give states and localities unprecedented
opportunity to use federal transportation funds flexibly.
The paper elaborates on key issues DOT faces under the
new legislation.
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4. Southern California Accelerated Rail Electrification Program
Report, Executive Summary and Five Volumes, prepared for the
Southern California Regional Rail Authority, Los Angeles, CA,
May 1992.
This report was prepared to respond to the South Coast
Air Quality Management Plan, which dictates a 17%
reduction in rail-related emissions by the year 2000, and
a 90% reduction by the year 2010. The report provides
cost estimates, a projected schedule, and a financial
plan for reducing rail-related emissions in Southern
California through electrification. It also addresses
technical, policy, and institutional issues that require
resolution.
5. Report to Congress on Railroad Emissions: A Study Based On
Existing Data,
Environmental Protection Agency, Standards Development and
Support Branch, Ann Arbor, MI, (prepared in 1990 prior to
passage of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, released in
1991) 1991.
The report addresses the environmental impact of railroad
emissions, potential emission reduction techniques and
their costs and cost-effectiveness, and existing state
and local regulations.
6. New Approaches to Urban-Scale Transportation Emissions
Modeling Under a New Clean Air Act, C.L. Saricks; A.D. Vyas,
Argonne National Lab., IL, funded by the U.S. Department of
Energy, Washington, DC, 1991.
Techniques of estimating (and forecasting) emissions from
transportation sources in specific urban areas have not
progressed significantly in ten years. This paper
identifies possible ways for state and regional planners
to improve estimation of mobile source emissions without
the need for substantially more resources than those
needed to comply with requirements of the 1990 Clean Air
Act Amendments, and by using tools and data sources that
are already "on the shelf."
7. Energy and Environmental Issues 1991, Transportation Research
Record, No. 1312, Transportation Research Board, National
Research Council, Washington, DC, 1991.
The papers in this Record deal with a variety of
environmental issues associated with the building and
operation of transportation facilities. Papers
discussing transportation and air quality include:
Preparation of Highway Vehicle Emissions Inventories;
Managing Trucks for Air Quality: Current Works in
Progress; Sensitivity Analysis for Land Use,
Transportation, and Air Quality; Pricing of Air Pollution
in the Swedish Transport Policy; Transportation and Urban
Air Pollution Policies for Developed and Developing
Countries; and other papers. Two of these are described
below:
"Preparation of Highway Vehicle Emission Inventories,"
John H. Suhrbier, Samuel T. Lawton, and Joseph Moriarty,
Cambridge Systematics, Inc., pp. 42-49.
In this paper, existing highway vehicle emission
inventory practices are assessed in 15 urban areas
throughout the country, and these existing capabilities
are compared with recommended EPA guidance. Existing
approaches are often deficient in their estimation of
highway vehicle speeds, and measurements use
methodological approaches used for national-level
emissions inventories. Institutional problems, such as
funding limitations, institutional fragmentation, lack of
available technical expertise, and a high level of staff
turnover, present greater obstacles to satisfactory
mobile source emission inventories than any technical
limitations.
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"Managing Trucks for Air Quality: Current Work in
Progress," Chris Nelson and Sarah Siwek (South Coast Air
Quality Management District), Randall Guenster
(California Air Resources Board), and Kelly Michelson
(Lockheed Information Management Services Co.), pp. 50-
58.
Although truck traffic constitutes a relatively small
portion of the total traffic volume, truck operations are
a significant contributor to mobile source emissions in
urban areas, particularly nitrogen oxides. This paper
reviews the history of truck-related transportation
control measures and current transportation control
measures under consideration in California. The paper
also reviews the uncertain effects of proposed measures,
suggesting that emission reduction effects from truck
traffic control measures are difficult to estimate, given
the current state of modeling. The impact that truck
traffic control measures will have on air quality and the
economics of goods distribution require @er study.
8. Transportation Planning Requirements of the Federal Clean Air
Act Amendments (CAAA) of 1990: A Highway Perspective, James M.
Shrouds, Chief, Noise and Air Quality Branch, U.S. Department
of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Washington,
DC, 1991.
This paper provides a highway perspective on, and an
overview of, the key transportation planning requirements
of the CAAA of 1990 that transportation planners must
address.
9. Steering a New Course, Transportation, Energy, and the
Environment, Deborah Gordon, Union of Concerned Scientists,
Washington, DC, 1991.
Worsening congestion will soon make transportation an
even more tedious, aggravating exercise than it already
often is; dependence on foreign oil will make supplies
increasingly unreliable and expensive. Without
innovative strategies to reduce the number of miles
driven, cars and trucks will continue to pollute air,
water, and land. The book surveys policy options and
provides a master list of policy recommendations for each
level of government.
10. Energy and Environmental Factors in Freight Transportation,
Dr. A. M. Khan, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada, prepared
for Transport Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, July 1991.
This study produces energy efficiency and environmental
impact estimates for the freight transportation system in
Canada. The effects of likely future traffic growth and
the implications of selected scenarios for energy and
environmental impacts are also assessed. The study found
that in the year 2010, if 10% of ton-kilometers were to
be shifted to rail, a total of 864 million liters of
diesel fuel would be saved (6.0% of petroleum-based fuels
required for 2010 in freight transportation). Reduction
in emissions would parallel fuel savings.
11. Energy and Environment 1990: Transportation-Induced Noise and
Air Pollution, Transportation Research Record, No. 1255,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council,
Washington, DC, 1990.
Includes essays on Transportation Noise (see Noise
section), as well as papers on Comparisons of Emissions
of Transit Buses Using Methanol and Diesel Fuel; Energy-
Related, Environmental, and Economic Benefits of
Florida's High-Speed Rail and Maglev Systems Proposals;
as well as several other papers.
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12. Alternatives to the Automobile, Transport for Livable Cities,
Marcia D. Lowe, Worldwatch Paper 90, Worldwatch Institute,
Washington, DC, 1990.
Traffic congestion and air pollution plague all major
cities, and oil dependence makes economies vulnerable. A
new, more rational approach to transportation is needed,
one that puts the automobile in its rightful place as one
among many options for travel.
13. Traffic Congestion, Trends, Measures, and Effects, Report to
the Chairman, Subcommittee on Transportation and Related
Agencies, Committee on Appropriations, U.S. Senate, U.S.
General Accounting Office, Washington, DC, 1989.
In this overview of the traffic congestion problem, GAO
found that there has been little empirical investigation
of the effects of traffic congestion, although some
relationships between congestion and higher business
costs, poorer air quality, and behavior change are
generally thought to hold. GAO suggests that while FHWA
is taking aggressive steps to assess the present and
future magnitude of traffic congestion, additional
attention to this area is warranted.
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2. Noise Pollution Issues
The Noise Control Act of 1972 established the Environmental
Protection Agency's noise program, of which transportation was a
major focus. The Act's goal was to promote an environment free
from noise pollution and its adverse effects on public health and
welfare.
The Noise Control Act required EPA to identify, and prescribe noise
sources in commerce; to submit to the Federal Aviation
Administration regulatory proposals for controlling airport and
aircraft noise; and to issue regulations limiting noise from
interstate rail and motor carriers for Department of Transportation
enforcement. The Act also required EPA to finance research and to
provide technical assistance to state and local governments on
noise abatement methods.
The EPA's noise control program has been unfunded since 1982,
leaving the statute and regulations intact, but signifying a
decreased level of enforcement, technical assistance, and noise
research. However, noise pollution continues to be an issue in
airport expansion and highway construction, and will be a
consideration as the technology for high speed rail is developed.
1. Recommendations for Acoustical Test Facility for Maglev
Research, Carl Hanson, Harris Miller Miller Miller Miller &
Hanson Inc., prepared for U.S. Department of Transportation,
Federal Railroad Administration, Washington, DC, (Final report
pending), Task 4, Draft Report, September 1992.
Concludes that a comprehensive acoustical test program
should be an integral part of any full scale testing
program undertaken as part of U.S. Maglev development.
Benefits of an acoustical testing program would be a
quieter Maglev system and an enhanced understanding of
aeroacoustic sources and aerodynamic drag associated with
high speed surface transportation systems. Examines gaps
in research to be filled by acoustical testing, as well
as testing approaches to define Maglev noise and
vibration sources and to investigate mitigation methods.
2. Noise Criteria for High Speed Maglev Trains, Carl Hanson,
Harris Miller Miller & Hanson Inc., prepared for U.S.
Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration,
Washington, DC, Final Report: Task 2, September 1992.
Presents information on the criteria recommended for use
in evaluating the noise impact from high-speed Maglev
systems. These criteria describe the noise environment
considered acceptable for specific land uses, depending
on the ambient noise. These recommendations are based on
the best available data related to transportation systems
with noise characteristics similar to high speed Maglev.
The conclusions are considered based on circumstantial
evidence until more definitive methods can be verified.
3. Federal Agency Review of Selected Noise Analysis, Federal
Interagency Committee on Noise (FICON), Washington, DC, August
27, 1992.
This report is the product of the 1990 Federal
Interagency Committee on Noise (FICON), formed to review
Federal policies governing the assessment of airport
noise impacts. The FICON review examined the manner in
which noise impacts are determined and described; the
range of Federal Aviation Administration mitigation.
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options, and the relationship of the FAA regulatory
process to the National Environmental Policy Act. The
report makes technical conclusions on the DNL (Day Night
Average A-Weighted Sound Level) noise exposure metric,
and the impact of airport noise on health and welfare,
environmental degradation/impact, land use planning and
public education. FICON policy recommendations are
outlined.
4. Preliminary Design Guidelines for Noise Control on High-Speed
Maglev Trains, Carl Hanson, Harris Miller Miller & Hanson
Inc., prepared for U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal
Railroad Administration, Washington, DC, (Final Report
pending), Task 3, Draft Report, June 1992.
This report provides noise and vibration guidelines for
assessment and design for the new Maglev technology.
Because mature or unused existing transportation
corridors are being considered for alignments of Maglev
systems and these corridors pass through suburban and
urban areas in close proximity to residential buildings
and other noise sensitive sites, noise mitigation
measures should be designed into the new systems.
5. "Noise Levels for U.S. Certificated and Foreign Aircraft,"
Advisory Circular No. 36IF, U.S. Department of Transportation,
Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, DC, June 5, 1992.
The Federal Aviation Administration's regulatory program
for airplane noise requires the quantifying of airplane
noise levels. This circular provides noise level data
for certificated aircraft, and offers a common noise
level reference for potential future reductions.
6. Noise Sources of High Speed Maglev Trains, Carl Hanson, Harris
Miller Miller & Hanson Inc., prepared for U.S. Department of
Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, Washington,
DC, Final Report: Task 1, May 1992.
Reviews basic acoustical terminology, describes the noise
sources of Maglev, including propulsion noise,
mechanical/structural noise, and aeroacoustic noise, and
quantifies the environmental noise issue.
7. "Noise Ransom," Railway Gazette International, May 1992.
A tribunal in France ruled the French National Railways
must pay Fr2OO,OOO in compensation to a land owner
adjacent to the line over which the TGV operates.
8. Environmental Research Needs in Transportation, Transportation
Research Circular, Transportation Research Board, National
Research Council, pp. 26-35, Washington, DC, Number 389, March
1992.
A compilation of research problem statements representing
a consensus of twenty nine Transportation Research Board
committees concerned with the identification and
development of operational solutions to environmental
issues in transportation, including highway/air/rail
noise.
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9. "Highway Traffic Noise," Barry Benioff, Fundamentals of
Traffic Engineering , W. S. Homburger, editor, Institute of
Transportation Studies, University of California at Berkeley,
January 1992.
Technical definition of noise, its measurements, effects,
sources, with recommendations for estimating road traffic
noise, setting noise limits and for controlling traffic noise.
10. Noise Emission of the Swedish X2 High Speed Train, T. Stroem,
Statens Provningsanstalt, Boras, Sweden, (Text in Swedish,
summary in English), 1991.
Analysis of noise emissions of the Swedish X2 high speed
train which started operations in 1990 between Stockholm
and Gothenburg. Measurements were taken at 7.5 and 25
meters at speeds between 130 and 200 km/hr. Results
indicated that the noise emissions of the X2 train at 200
km/hr is less than that of older trains operating at 160
km/hr.
11. Fighting Noise in the 1990s, A. Alexandre and J. Barde,
editors, Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development, Paris, France, 1991.
Discussion of economic aspects, law and legislation for
noise control and noise pollution.
12. Comprehensive System-Level Noise Reduction Strategies, W.
Bowlby, Vanderbilt University, Vanderbilt Engineering Center
for Transportation Operations and Research, Report for U.S.
Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration
and Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT),
September 1991.
A comprehensive review of state-of-the-art in traffic
noise abatement including surveys and a literature
search. Discussion of abatement strategies, effective
vehicle noise control, land use compatibility programs,
and programmatic and administrative issues. Findings
include: the demand for noise abatement is increasing;
state DOTs need better sources of funds for retrofit
noise barrier programs; state and local noise control
programs have declined significantly since the end of the
U.S. EPA noise program in 1982; truck manufacturers in
the U.S. and Europe are successfully meeting their
respective noise standards for newly manufactured
vehicles. Current Washington State initiatives were also
examined. WSDOT has included noise abatement as a
priority area in its 1991 Transportation Policy Plan and
the legislature developed a Growth Management Act and
Growth Strategies Act that call for comprehensive land
use plan development by cities and counties.
Recommendations to WSDOT include the need for expanded
staff, a dedicated source of funds for a phased retrofit
abatement program and active involvement in
implementation of the two growth acts.
13. Federal Register, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal
Aviation Administration, Washington, DC, "Transition to an All
Stage 3 Fleet Operating in the 48 Contiguous United States and
the District of Columbia" and "Notice and Approval of Airport
Noise and Access Restrictions," September 25, 1991.
The first of these final rules places a cap on the number
of Stage 2 airplanes allowed to operate in the United
States and provides for a continuing reduction in the
population exposed to noise from Stage 2 airplanes. The
second rule establishes a program for reviewing airport
noise and access restrictions on the operations of Stage
2 and Stage 3 aircraft.
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14. Method for Analyzing, Evaluating and Developing (Variational
Aircraft Noise Abatement Measures in Civil Air Traffic, U.
Pottmann, Technisclie Univ., Berlin, Germany, (Text in
German), 1990.
Author indicates there is a lack of knowledge on noise
emission side sound pressure levels, and offers a method
of predicting the sound emission of departing and landing
passenger aircraft based on third-octave noise level
histograms while considering aircraft operating
procedures, noise characteristics and flight performance,
and meteorological and topographic noise propagation
conditions.
15. Transit and the Environment, TransVision Consultants Ltd.,
Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, 1990.
The report situates transit in the environment, evaluates
its contribution to reducing air and noise pollution,
indicates the constraints to which it is subject, and
reviews the contribution which the various forms of
transit make to preserving and improving the environment
and the quality of life of urban dwellers.
16. En Route Noise Annoyance Laboratory Test: Preliminary Results,
D. McCurdy, National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia, 1990.
Relatively little research has been conducted for en
route aircraft noise. To address this need, the author
conducted a laboratory experiment to quantify the
annoyance of people on the ground to en route noise
generated by aircraft at cruise conditions. The
objectives were to determine the annoyance prediction
ability of noise measurement procedures and corrections
when applied to en route noise; to determine differences
in annoyance response to en route noise and
takeoff/landing noise; and to determine differences in
annoyance response to advanced turboprop en route noise
and conventional jet en route noise.
17. Energy and Environment 1990: Transportation-Induced Noise and
Air Pollution, Transportation Research Record No. 1255,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council,
Washington, DC, 1990.
Includes papers on public reaction to low levels of
aircraft noise; airport noise insulation of homes
surrounding Stapleton International Airport; case study
for three dwellings near BWI Airport; control of wheel
squeal noise in rail transit cars; atmospheric effects on
traffic noise propagation; predicting stop-and-go traffic
noise with STAMINA 2.0; feasibility of transparent noise
barriers; field testing of the effectiveness of open-
graded asphalt pavement in reducing tire noise from
highway vehicles; cost of noise barrier construction in
the United States; high-speed rail system noise
assessment.
18. En Route Noise: NASA Propfan Test Aircraft (Calculated Source
Noise), E. Rickley, U.S. Department of Transportation,
Transportation Systems Center, Cambridge, MA, April 1990.
This reports on a two-phased joint National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA) and Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) program to study the high-altitude,
low-frequency acoustic noise propagation characteristics
of the Advanced Turboprop (propfan) aircraft. FAA/NASA
designed a program to obtain noise level data from the
propfan test bed aircraft, both in the near field and at
ground level to test low frequency atmospheric absorption
algorithms and prediction technology to provide insight
into the necessity for regulatory measures. The curves
of calculated source noise versus emission angle are
based on a second order best-fit curve of the peak
envelope of the adjusted ground data. Centerline and
sideline derived source noise levels are shown to be in
good agreement.
19. Highway Traffic Noise in the United States - Problem and
Response, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration, Office of Environmental Policy, Noise and Air
Analysis Division, Washington, DC, August 1990.
Describes the federal-aid highway system and the three-
part approach to highway noise abatement, including land
use planning and control; source control; and highway
project noise mitigation. Describes noise barriers and
FHWA noise abatement procedures.
20. Environmentally Sound, M. Smith, Report No. PNR-90776,
presented at the Third Annual Conference in Techno-Economic
Issues, London, England, August 31, 1990.
Reviews developments made in Stage 2 aircraft since 1989.
Discusses: reengined stage 2 aircraft and orders for
stage 3 Tay engines to replace Boeing 727 Pratt and
Whitney engines; airports' stranglehold on stage 2
operations; hushkits as marginal stop-gap methods; and
concern about atmospheric pollution by old engines
powering stage 2 aircraft.
21. Inter-Noise 89 - Engineering for Environmental Noise Control;
Proceedings of the International Conference on Noise Control
Engineering, Poughkeepsie, N.Y., Noise Control Foundation,
1989.
Examines various methods of engineering for noise control
"Airport Noise Impact Analysis Problems," S. Lane, pp.
909-912.
Discussion of CNEL (Community Noise Equivalent Level) as
the sole scale for noise evaluation, subsequent
erroneously low values of aircraft noise levels,
inaccurate data from malfunctioning noise monitor
systems, and discrepancies between published noise
contours and the airport noise monitor data. Discussion
of current noise impact criteria and existing scales,
including aircraft event average noise level, LEQ (Long-
Term A-Weighted Equivalent Sound Level); SENEL (Sound
Exposure Level, or SEL); the speech interference
fractional impact; the sleep interference fractional
impact, and comparisons between these criteria and the
DNEL and LDN (Day-Night Average A-Weighted Sound Level,
or DNL) scales.
"Aircraft Noise Annoyance," T. Gjestland, pp. 903-908.
Presentation of recent studies of annoyance due to
aircraft noise, assessed in different residential
communities and different countries, indicating there may
be a difference in community reaction depending on the
type of noise source. For any given noise level, twice
as many people will be annoyed by aircraft noise as by
road traffic noise. Description of an extensive study to
assess community reaction to aircraft noise around the
Fornebu Airport in Oslo. The results are being used to
establish a new model for aircraft noise annoyance and to
establish guidelines for the interpretation of Norwegian
zoning laws around major airports.
"Airport Noise Control - New Zealand's Radical New
Approach to the 'Aimoise Boundary' Principle," P.
Dickinson, pp. 685-690.
Discussion of air noise boundary and proposed compatible
land use zoning. Airlines are required to balance
aircraft type and noise generation with time and
direction of flights.
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"Fifteen Years of Noise Control at Logan International
Airport," L. Coleman, pp. 665-670.
Discussion of noise control at Logan Airport, including
establishment of a noise office in the Department of
Aviation at Logan, promulgation of strict noise
regulations, expansion of noise monitoring and complaint
processing systems, and initiation of studies leading to
improved flight tracks, runway preference rules, and
sound proofing programs. The program has caused a 60
percent reduction in the population exposed to a day-
night sound level exceeding 65 dB.
22. "Use of FAA's Nationwide Airport Noise Impact Model," S.
Albersheim, paper delivered for Proceedings of the
International Conference on Noise Control Engineering, Newport
Beach, CA., 1989.
Describes the Nationwide Airport Noise Impact Model
(NANIM), which makes it possible to assess nationwide the
number of people affected by aircraft noise. The model,
based on the Integrated Noise Model for determining the
day-night average sound level (DNL) noise contours for
aircraft operations, enables analysis of various policy
alternatives to control and mitigate aircraft noise.
23. Transportation Noise: Federal Control and Abatement
Responsibilities May Need to be Revised, Report to Congress,
U.S. General Accounting Office, Washington, DC, October 1989.
Report examines the phaseout of the Environmental
Protection Agency Noise Program and its current
activities and role. Describes efforts to control and
abate aircraft, railroad, and traffic noise, and the
federal role in transportation noise control and
abatement. Recommends alternatives Congress may consider
if it wishes to change the federal transportation noise
role.
24. Reduction of Aircraft Noise in Civil Air Transport by
Optimization of Flight Tracks and Takeoff and Approach
Procedures, U. Rottmann, Technische Univ., Fachgebeit
Flugfuehrung und Luftverkehr, Berlin, Germany, (Text in
German, summary in English), August 1989.
Analysis of optimal design of operational flight
procedures for effective noise pollution reduction.
Designs include power cutback during approach and
takeoff, extension of distance between sound source and
sound receiver, and diminution of sound impact time.
Five takeoff and three landing procedures are examined
for acoustic effects. Sound emission is computed by
NOISIMSIS (NOISE Impact Simulation System), a simulation
system created to consider aircraft type sound emission
characteristics and performance data and differing
meteorological conditions. Data from the Frankfurt
Airport were used to develop a plan for operational noise
abatement.
25. Research on Noise and Environmental Issues, Transportation
Research Record, No. 1176, Transportation Research Board,
National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1988.
Includes nine papers on highway noise and noise abatement
measures.
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26. The Williamsburg Conference on Noise Research; A Technical
Conference to Develop a Plan of Needed Noise Research, Society
of Automotive Engineers, July 1985.
Discussion of the need for standardized measurement and
test procedures for all types of vehicles; the problem of
site variability; and the inadequate data on real-world
equipment application.
27. Analysis of Highway Construction Noise, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Federal Highway Administration Technical
Advisory, March 13, 1984.
Provides information on the analysis of highway
construction noise to ensure that potential construction
noise impacts are given adequate consideration during
highway project development.
28. Federal Register, Railroad Noise Emission Compliance
Regulations, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal
Railroad Administration, Washington, DC, December 23, 1983.
Revises the Federal Railroad Administration's noise
enforcement procedures to encompass the railyard noise
source standards published by the Environmental
Protection Agency in 1980.
29. Federally Coordinated Program of Research and Development in
Highway Transportation, Annual Progress Report Fiscal Year
1982, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, DC, 1982.
Discussion of pollution reduction and environmental
enhancement and social and economic concerns in highway
development and improvement. Discussion of noise
abatement.
30."Assessment of Traffic Noise - Investigations on the Annoyance
Effect, on Road and Railway, " International Railway Congress
Association, pp. 13-22, January 1982.
Investigates the subjective feelings of persons affected
by transportation noise as well as the objective
intensity of the sound. Study found that people assess
rail traffic noise more favorably than traffic noise at
similar noise intensities. This finding was incorporated
into the setting of emission levels for transportation in
Germany.
31. Handbook for the Measurement, Analysis, and Abatement of
Railroad Noise, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal
Railroad Administration, Office of Research and Development,
Washington, DC, January 1982.
This handbook provides an introduction to acoustics, and
describes the required measurement and analysis
procedures and available abatement techniques to meet
railroad noise regulations.
32. Foreign Noise Research in Surface Transportation, 1978-1981,
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, May 1981.
Identification of foreign research projects in surface
transportation noise abatement.
33. Report to Congress on the Evaluation of the EPA Revised
Railroad Noise Regulation Source Standards, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Washington, DC, June 1980.
This analysis of EPA's proposed regulations describes
their economic and financial impact on the railroad
industry and recommends modifications to EPA's adoption
of a final rule.
34. Federal Register, Environmental Protection Agency, Noise
Emission Standards for Transportation Equipment; Interstate
Rail Carriers, January 4, 1980.
Final rulemaking which established noise emission
standards for four railyard noise sources pursuant to
Section 17 of the Noise Control Act of 1972, 42 U.S.C.
4916.
35."Noise - The Quiet Revolution," J. Fleming, Journal of
Institution of Municipal Engineers, January 1980.
Discussion of noise insulation legislation in Scotland,
pertaining to insulation of properties adjacent to
highways.
36.The Impact of Noise Pollution, A Socio-Technological
Introduction., George Bugliarello and Ariel Alexandre, Pergamon
Press, 1978.
An overview of the socio-technological aspects of noise,
the effects of noise on health, surface transportation
noise, aircraft noise, and the political economy of
noise.
37. Noise Control: Handbook of Principles and Practices, edited by
David M. Lipscomb and Arthur C. Taylor, Jr., Van Nostrand
Reinhold Co., 1978.
Handbook on noise assessment, definition, measurements,
noise control, environmental assessment of noise, and
noise control legislation. Includes the following
articles:
"Aircraft and Airport Noise," William C. Sperry, pp. 206-
247.
Discussion of noise sources and control and the
consideration of noise control as a system concept
utilizing source control as applied to the engine and
airframe; path control as applied to flight procedures;
receiver control; and land-use control, consisting of the
development or modification of airport surroundings for
maximum noise compatible usage. Discusses population
impact and the history of legislative and regulatory
activities.
"Highway and Rail Traffic Noise," Edwin G. Ratering, pp.
248-278.
Examines the scope of traffic noise, the contribution of
trucks to traffic noise, vehicular component hardware
development for control of engine-related truck noise,
noise test standards for trucks, and noise control of
existing truck fleet. Also examines the contributors to
low-speed and high-speed automobile noise and railroad
noise and its components - locomotive noise and
wheel/rail noise. Locomotive noise is generated by the
engine exhaust system, the cooling fans, engine structure
vibration, and car body vibration. Wheel/rail noise can
be attenuated by continuous welding of rail joints,
grinding wheels, grinding rails, and car modifications,
such as vibration damping devices.
12
"Preparation of Noise Control Legislation, " Janet F.
Pawlak, pp. 279-324.
Discussion of components of community noise control
legislation, including such issues as property line or
receiving land use sound levels and preemption of local
communities' authority to regulate certain noise sources.
38. Laboratory and Community Studies of Aircraft Noise Effects, D.
Stephens, Langley Research Center, National Aeronautics and
Space Administration, Virginia, September 1978.
Program to determine the effects of noise as a public
health problem examines community and passenger
acceptability. The community acceptance research
includes subjective response studies of single and
multiple aircraft overflights as well as longer term
community noise exposure. Emphasis is on the development
of indices which quantify annoyance. The passenger
acceptance research determines acceptable levels of
interior noise and vibration for passenger and crew
comfort.
39. Noise-Con 77 Proceedings, 1977 National Conference on Noise
Control Engineering, edited by George C. Maling, Jr., Noise
Control Foundation, New York, N.Y., 1977.
Examines government programs of transportation noise
control, and the environmental impact of noise created by
air and surface transportation systems. Papers consider
cost effectiveness analysis and safety and economic
considerations in tire noise control and the noise
environments created by rail transit systems and
aircraft. Includes the following articles:
"Noise From High Speed Trains in the Northeast Corridor,"
Carl E. Hanson, pp. 129-135.
Analysis of the site specific Environmental Impact
Statement for the Northeast Corridor Improvement Project
may show that certain specific locations will require
noise control measures, but the Preliminary EIS concludes
the noise environment from high speed trains in the
Northeast Corridor will show an improvement in future
years because of the use of quiet electric locomotives,
tie elimination of diesel locomotives, the elimination of
jointed rail, and the elimination of grade-crossings and
associated whistle-blowing.
"Wheel/Rail Noise: The State-of-The-Art," Paul J.
Remington, pp. 257-280.
Reviews the present state of knowledge of the
characteristics of at-grade wheel/rail noise, the
mechanisms that produce it, experimental confirmation of
those mechanisms, and techniques for its control.
"Internal Combustion Engine Exhaust Muffling," Malcolm J.
Crocker, pp. 331-358.
Exhaust noise is the predominant noise source of the
internal combustion engine. Reviews the existing
theories in muffler design, recent advances, and problems
to be resolved.
"The FHWA Highway Traffic Noise Prediction Model - Manual
Method," Jerry A. Reagan, pp. 181-185.
This noise prediction model is based upon a concept of
adjustments, including adjustments for real traffic
flows, finite length roadways, and shielding.
"Aircraft Flyover Noise Prediction," William E. Zorumski,
pp. 205-222.
Examines the prediction techniques for turbofan-powered
aircraft and the sources of noise, including jet noise,
fan noise, combustion noise, and airframe noise.
Describes propagation prediction methods, source
shieldings, and atmospheric and ground attenuation.
"Some Advances in Design Techniques for Low Noise
Operation of Propellers and Fans," Richard E. Hayden, pp.
381-396.
Reviews advances in the reduction of noise from fans and
propeller installations through a combination of proper
installation, control of the aerodynamic environment, and
use of advanced braking concepts.
"Locomotive In-Cab Noise - Towards a Standardized
Measurement Methodology," Robert M. Clarke, pp. 431-442.
Describes program in which the Federal Railroad
Administration, the Association of American Railroads,
and the National Bureau of Standards collected locomotive
in-cab noise level data in order to develop a simplified
stationary test procedure to yield data that correlated
with crew exposure and noise level data for typical
operational duty cycles. Program also provided data for
development of Occupation Safety and Health
Administration hearing conservation regulations.
40. In-Service Performance and Costs of Methods to Control Urban
Rail System Noise, Test and Evaluation Plan, U.S. Department
of Transportation, Transportation Systems Center, April 1977.
Report details the methods and equipment used to collect
data on both acoustic performance and costs of four noise
control methods to reduce wheel/rail noise in rail rapid-
transit systems (resilient wheels, damped wheels, wheel
truing, and rail grinding).
41. Highway Noise: A Guide to Visual Quality in Noise Barrier
Design, Randolph Blum, prepared by The Organization for
Environmental Growth, Inc. for the U.S. Department of
Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Washington,
DC, 1976.
An extensive review of aesthetics in the design process,
visual design principles, design concepts, and the
application of principles to highway noise abatement.
42. Aviation Noise Abatement Policy, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Office of General Counsel, Washington, DC,
November 1976.
DOT recommendations to reduce aircraft noise, considering
the constraints of technology, productivity and
financing. Clarifies federal government responsibility
to reduce aircraft noise at the source, to promote safe
operational procedures that lessen the impact of noise on
populated areas and to promote positive efforts to attain
compatible land use in areas adjacent to airports.
43. Reassessment of Noise Concerns of Other Nations, C. Modig,
editor, Informatics, Inc., Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC, August 1976.
Overview of noise abatement programs of other countries,
including laws, regulations, guidelines, criteria,
research, and governmental organization.
14
44. Background Document for Proposed Medium and Heavy Truck Noise
Regulations
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, National
Technical Information Service, October 1974.
45. Environmental Explanation for Proposed Interstate Rail Noise
Emission Regulations, Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC, June 1974.
This report describes in detail the railroad industry,
railroad noise sources, procedures to measure railroad
noise, and the environmental and economic effects of the
EPA's proposed regulations.
46. Background Document/Environmental Explanation for Proposed
Interstate Rail Carrier Noise Emission Regulations,
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, March 1974.
Document includes data base for the regulation; railroad
noise sources; summary of what proposed regulations will
require; enforcement considerations; economic effects of
a retrofit program; environmental effects of proposed
regulations; selection of the proposed regulations.
47. Report on Aircraft - Airport Noise, Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, DC, July 1973.
Discussion of adequacy of Federal Aviation Administration
flight and operational noise controls; adequacy of noise
emission standards on new and existing aircraft,
recommendations on the retrofitting and phaseout of
existing aircraft; implications of identifying and
achieving levels of cumulative noise exposure around
airports.
48. Consideration of Environmental Noise Effects in Transportation
Planning by Governmental Entities, L. Mayo, George Washington
University, National Technical Information Service,
Washington, DC, December 1972.
Paper explores environmental effects of the development
of the Interstate Highway System and the increase in
automotive vehicles, and the evolution of the regulatory
45. Background Document: Environmental Explanation for Proposed
interstate Rail Carrier Noise Emission Regulations,
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., June 1974.
This report describes in detail the railroad industry,
railroad noise sources, procedures to measure railroad
noise, and the environmental and economic effects of the
EPA's proposed regulations.
49. Transportation Noise and Noise from Equipment Powered by
Combustion Engines,Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C., December 31, 1971.
Comprehensive handbook on noise sources in both
commercial and recreational transportation with extensive
discussion of the internal combustion engine.
50. Public Hearings on Noise Abatement and Control Held at New
York, New York October 21-22, 1971, Transportation Noise (Rail
and Other); Volume VI, Environmental Protection Agency.
Report on hearing concerning metropolitan noise, and
control measures related to subways, airports, and
highways, with attention to the noise effects on humans.
51. Noise Pollution and the Law - The Noise Crisis, D. Anthrop,
Hein Company, June 1970.
Discussion of motor vehicle and aircraft noise sources
and abatement principles.
15
3. Oil Pollution Issues
The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90), amended the Water Pollution
Control Act and created a comprehensive prevention response
liability, and compensation regime for dealing with oil pollution
from vessels and facilities. OPA 90 substantially increased
Federal oversight of oil transportation by setting new requirements
for vessel construction and operation, crew licensing, and manning;
by mandating contingency planning; enhancing Federal response
capability; broadening enforcement authority; increasing penalties;
and creating a new research and development program. A one billion
dollar trust fund, financed by a five cent per barrel fee on
imported oil, is available to cover cleanup costs and damages not
compensated by the spiller, whose financial responsibility
requirements were significantly increased under OPA 90.
Federal responsibilities directed toward prevention of oil spills
rest primarily with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; the
Minerals Management Service, U.S. Department of the Interior; and
the Maritime Administration, the U.S. Coast Guard, and the Research
and Special Programs Administration of the U.S. Department of
Transportation. Potential oil pollution from landside railroad
facilities is regulated by the Coast Guard if navigable waters are
involved or by the EPA. The Research and Special Programs
Administration is developing regulations on facility response plans
applicable to the transportation of oil and hazardous substances
for pipelines, motor carriers, and railroad tank cars. These
regulations will be issued under sections of the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act (33 U.S.C. 1321) and the Hazardous Materials
Transportation Act (49 U.S.C. 1804) to satisfy the statutory
directives of OPA 90 for oil spill emergency response plans.
1. International Oil Pollution R & D Abstract Database, U.S.
Interagency Coordinating Committee on Oil Pollution Research,
preliminary issue, printed for distribution at the
International Oil Spill Research & Development Forum, Tysons
Corner, Virginia, June 1992.
Narrative database of abstracts provided by research
managers prepared under Title VII of the Oil Pollution
Act of 1990 which established the Interagency Committee
to develop a comprehensive program of oil pollution
research, technology development, and demonstration.
Project research categories include bioremediation,
burning, chemical countermeasures, decision support,
disposal/storage, effects, fate, mechanical recovery,
prevention, and surveillance/remote sensing.
2. Oil Pollution Research and Technolology Plan, United States
Interagency Coordinating Committee on Oil Pollution Research,
Report to Congress, April 24, 1992.
OPA 90 established an Interagency Coordinating Committee
on Oil Pollution Research to develop a comprehensive
program of research, technology development, and
demonstration among Federal agencies, in cooperation with
industry, universities, research institutions, state
governments, and other countries. This report identifies
the following priority areas to be addressed by the
Interagency Committee: prevention; spill response
planning and management; spill response, fate and
effects; and restoration. The proposed project
descriptions range from vessel structural design to
advanced electronic systems, to protection of migratory
birds. The major focus of the project plan is on oil
spill prevention, response and mitigation.
16
3. Lessons of the EXXON VALDEZ, R. Steiner and K. Byers, National
Sea Grant Coll. Program, Silver Spring, MD, 1991.
An essay on prevention and control of oil spills, with a
summary of environmental and biological effects of the
spill accompanied by information on state and federal
research, an overview of oil spill containment and
cleanup technology, and a summary of significant state
and federal legislative action.
4. Safety in Petroleum Movement: Is Enough Being Done to Protect
the Environment, B. Bialas, Naval Postgraduate School,
Monterey, California, December 1991.
The thesis investigates whether sufficient efforts are
being taken to provide safety in petroleum movement.
Current practices in spill prevention and cleanup are
identified and recommendations made.
5. Performance of Oil Industry Cross-Country Pipelines in Western
Europe: Statistical Summary of Reported Spillages, 1990, Y.
Barriol, CONCAWE, The Hague, Netherlands, November 1991.
This report reviews the performance of oil industry
cross-country pipelines in Western Europe. It covers an
oil pipeline network of 19,350 km, and analyzes reported
spillage incidents by cause and effectiveness of clean-
up. In 1990, there were three reportable spillage
incidents, resulting in gross spillage of 592 cubic
meters, or 0.00009 percent of the total volume
transported. Third party damage continues to be the
largest cause of oil loss from pipelines in Western
Europe.
6 Coast Guard: Oil Spills Continue Despite Waterfront Facility
Inspection Program, K. Mead, U.S. General Accounting Office,
Washington, DC, October 1991.
Statement of Kenneth Mead before the Subcommittee on
Oversight and Investigations and the Subcommittee on
Coast Guard and Navigation, Committee on Merchant Marine
and Fisheries, U.S. House of Representatives.
7. Update on Implementation of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990,
Volume 1, Numbers I through 4, February - September 1991.
This series of bulletins provides updated information on
the Environmental Protection Agency's implementation of
the various provisions of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990,
including development and enforcement of regulations and
policies.
17
8. Coast Guard: Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund Not Being Used to
Pay All Allowable Costs, U.S. General Accounting Office,
Washington, DC, August 1991.
9. Tanker Spills: Prevention by Design, National Research
Council, Washington, DC, February 199 1.
The study, prompted by the March 1999 grounding of the
EXXON VALDEZ in Prince William Sound, Alaska, focused on
how alternative tank vessel (tanker and barge) designs
might influence the safety of personnel, property, and
the environment, and at what cost. In selecting designs
to be considered, the committee included certain
operational options that might minimize the oil spilled
in an accident. The study did not consider means of
averting accidents, altering the form of cargo, or
responding to oil spills.
10. Pollution From Pipelines: DOT Lacks Prevention Program and
information for Timely Response, U.S. General Accounting
Office, Washington, D.C, January 1991.
11. Oil Spill Contingency Planning: National Status. A report to
the Presidet, Department of Transportation, Office of the
Secretary, Washington, DC, October, 1990
The report examines the Nation's oil spill preparedness
and response system, including the Federal government's
National Response System and state, local and industry
contingency planning, and addresses key environmental and
health concerns, including the potential for
contamination of the food chain.
12. Grounding of the U.S. Tankship EXXON VALDEZ on Bligh Reef,
Prince William Sound, Near Valdez, Alaska, March 24, 1989,
National Transportation Safety Board, Bureau of Accident
Investigation, Washington, DC, July 1990.
The report explains the grounding of the tanker and
examines safety issues, including the vessel's navigation
watch, the role of human factors, manning standards, the
company's drug/alcohol testing and rehabilitation
program, vessel traffic service, and oil spill response.
13. Unregulated Potential Sources of Groundwater Contamination
involving the Transport and Storage of Liquid Fuels: Technical
and Policy issues, J. Davis, Argonne National Laboratory,
Argonne, Illinois, National Technical information Services,
Springfield, Virginia, August 1989.
Discussion of environmental aspects, such as effect on
groundwater through oil pollution of water by oil storage
tanks.
14. The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill: A Report to the President,
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C, National
Technical information Service, May 1989.
Report by Samuel Skinner, Secretary, U.S. Department of
Transportation and William Reilly, Administrator,
Environmental Protection Agency, prepared by the National
Response Team.
15. "Spilled Petroleum in the Subsoil: Problems, Remediation, and
Costs," F. Pita, Proceedings of the American Railway
Engineering Association, Vol. 88, pp. 134-158, 1987.
16. Guidance and Procedures for Administering and Enforcing the
Oily. Waste Reception and Facility Program, U.S. Coast Guard,
Washington, DC, 1985.
Discussion of law and legislation relating to oil
pollution of the seas.
18
4. Hazardous Materials Issues
Our society benefits from the chemical, nuclear, electrical and
petroleum industries, which require hazardous materials in their
production and also produce hazardous wastes. Although the
probability of an accidental release while transporting hazardous
materials is very low, there is justifiable concern that hazardous
materials be transported in the safest manner possible, since a
release can be catastrophic for a community and the environment.
Accidental releases with catastrophic results do in fact occur, as
is evidenced by the July 14, 1991 spill of a herbicide into the,
Sacramento River, when a tank car ruptured during a derailment in
Dunsmuir CA. Issues currently being addressed are equipment
reliability, alternative routings, modal choice, and the adequacy
of emergency response.
1. Code of Federal Regulations 49, Parts 100 to 177, Subchapter
C - Hazardous Materials Regulations.
2. "Environmental Impacts of a Modal Shift," M. William
Newstrand, Marine and Intermodal Transportation: Freight
Movement and Environmental Issues, Transportation Research
Record, No. 1333, Transportation Research Board, National
Research Council, pp. 9-12, Washington, DC, 1992.
This paper compares water transportation with rail and
trucks. The author theoretically transfers cargo from
four regularly scheduled vessel movements to rail and
trucks, then calculates the effects upon fuel
consumption, exhaust emissions, accidents, and other
effects of the modal shift. This analysis attempts to
demonstrate some of the potential environmental costs of
a modal shift from water. Modal impact factors used for
the analysis are somewhat dated and the emission factor
was an aggregate. The modal impact factors used indicate
that water transportation is the most fuel efficient and
produces the least amount of emissions on a ton-mile
basis. Modal impact factors also indicate trucks
obtained 60 ton-miles per gallon compared with 204 ton-
miles per gallon for rail. While emissions measured by
pounds per gallon are about twice as high for rail as for
trucks, when measured on a ton-mile basis, rail produces
.0034 pounds per ton-mile and trucks produce .0052 pounds
per ton-mile.
3. Cargo Tank Rollover Protection, National Transportation Safety
Board, Special Investigation Report Hazardous Materials
Accident Report, Washington, DC, 1992.
As a result of several cargo tanker accidents on the
highways, NTSB conducted this investigation on cargo tank
rollover protection. The safety issues discussed are:
the adequacy of DOT regulations concerning the design and
performance of rollover protection devices, the
effectiveness of cargo tanker design and construction
oversight, and the adequacy of accident reporting and
data collected by DOT.
4. Proposals For the Road Traffic, Training of Drivers of
Vehicles Carrying Dangerous Goods: Regulations 1991, Health
and Safety Commission, London, England, 1991.
This document contains proposals for regulations for the
training of drivers of road vehicles carrying dangerous
goods, including explosives and radioactive materials.
The regulations are necessary to implement in England the
provisions of a European Directive imposing requirements
for training, examinations, and certification.
19
5. Assessing the Risk of Transporting Hazardous Materials by
Aircraft: A Case Study, M.J.Davis and L.A. Haroun, Argonne
National Lab., IL, 1991.
This risk assessment involves the transport of PCBs by
aircraft.
6. Freight Transportation: Truck, Rail Water, and Hazardous
Materials, Transportation Research Record, No. 1313,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council,
Washington, DC, 1991.
Includes several articles. The most informative are:
"State and Local Issues in Transportation of Hazardous
Materials: Toward a National Strategy," M. Abkowitz, P.
Alford, A. Boghani, J. Cashwell, E. Radwan and P. Rothberg,
pp. 49-54.
This paper presents findings of a recent conference whose
objective was to identify effective methods for managing
hazardous materials transportation within the evolving
national system. The conference was organized into five
major themes: community preparedness and response;
evaluating and communicating risk; routing and citing
considerations; data collection and information
management; and inspection and enforcement.
"Benefit-Cost Evaluation of Using Different Specification Tank
Cars to Reduce the Risk of Transporting Environmentally
Sensitive Chemicals," C.P.L. Barkan, T.S. Glickman and A.E.
Harvey. pp. 33-43.
This paper presents an analytical approach to quantifying
the benefits and costs of transporting specific chemicals
in tank cars. The results indicate that reduced
liability would result from using a specific type of tank
car, which more than offsets the increased capital and
operating costs required.
7. "A Probability Model To Assess the Risk of Railroad Accidents
Involving Radioactive Material," H.B. Spraggins, J. Ozment,
and P. Fanchon, Transportation Research Forum, Journal of the
Transportation Research Forum, Vol. 32, No. 1, 1991.
This paper identifies issues relevant to rail route risk
analysis and presents a probability model of a train
accident involving nuclear materials via movement by
mixed train or dedicated train.
8. Hazardous Materials on Board, C. Hild, Alaska Sea Grant Coll.
Program, Fairbanks, 1991.
This book contains sections on the introduction to
hazardous materials, common hazardous materials, confined
spaces, personal protective equipment, hazardous spills
on board, label and law, and references.
9. Motor Carriers of Hazardous Materials: Who Are They? How Safe
Are They?, L.N. Moses and I. Savage, Northwestern University
Department of Economics, 1991.
Using a database of 13,000 government audits of motor
carriers, this paper investigates whether trucking firms
that haul hazmat differ from firms that do not haul
hazmat. The investigation found that the haulers of
hazmat were larger and less safe than non-hazmat
carriers.
20
10. Overturn of a Tractor-Semitrailer (Cargo Tank) With the
Release of Automotive Gasoline and Fire, Carmichael,
California February 13, 1991, National Transportation Safety
Board, Hazardous Materials Accident Report, Washington, DC,
1991.
This report reviews the overturn of a cargo tanker and
the subsequent fire. It discusses the following safety
issues: the lack of DOT standards concerning manhole
covers on motor vehicle tanks, the adequacy of California
highway standards, the effectiveness of the carrier's
evaluation of driver training and performance, and the
lack of post-accident toxicological testing.
11. "Purchasing Hazardous Waste Transportation Service: Federal
Legal Considerations," J.M. Sharp, R.A. Novack, M.A. Anderson,
American Society of Transportation and Logistics
Transportation Journal, Vol. 31 No. 2, pp. 4-14, December
1991.
This paper attempts to acquaint the purchaser of hazmat
transportation with environmental statutes and gives a
framework for compliance with these laws.
12. "Highway Transportation of Hazardous Materials," TranSafety,
Incorporated, Road Work Safety Report, Vol. 1, No. 6, December
1991.
This study attempts to analyze the existing exposure and
accident data pertaining to highway transportation of
hazmat and summarizes the present knowledge and practices
related to highway safety, design, traffic operations,
and incident management.
13. "Some Hazmat Facts," TranSafety, Incorporated, Transafety
Reporter, Vol. 9, No. I 1, November 199 1.
The paper discusses a Federal Highway Administration
report, "Present Practices of Highway Transportation of
Hazardous Materials".
14. "Factors of Risk Assessment For Transporting High-Level
Radioactive Waste and Spent Fuel by Dedicated Train vs Regular
Train," in Proceedings of the Thirty-third Annual Meeting,
Transportation Research Forum, New Orleans, Louisiana, October
31, November 2, 1991.
This paper identifies some of the risk concerns of the
directive involving dedicated and regular train movement
of nuclear materials and presents a model of risk which
could be used to assess those risks.
15. Hazardous Materials: 1990 Transportation Uniform Safety Act-
Status of DOT Implementing Actions, U.S. General Accounting
Office, Washington, DC, November 1991.
This report discusses the status of DOT's implementation
of The Hazardous Materials Transportation Uniform Safety
Act of 1990 (HMTUSA).
16. lnspection Programs Improvements Are Under Way to Help Detect
Unsafe Tankers, U.S. General Accounting Office, Washington,
DC, October 1991.
This report was prepared in response to Congressional
inquiry concerning the Coast Guard's inspection program
for tankers carrying oil and other hazardous cargo. This
report indicates that the Coast Guard has begun to
improve its inspection program.
21
17. "Technical Committee on Road Tunnels," XIX World Road
Congress, Marrakesh. Permanent International Association of
Road Congress, Paris, France, September 2228, 1991.
This is a committee report which treats several topics
including an analysis of risk resulting from the transit
of hazardous materials.
18. Transportation Safety: Information Strategy Needed For
Hazardous Materials, U.S. General Accounting Office,
Washington, DC, September 1991.
This report was conducted to determine whether key
initiatives to improve longstanding hazardous materials
information shortcomings were successful, and whether any
strategy guides DOT in directing the information
management and technology resources devoted to its hazmat
mission. Findings: DOT is unable to use information
effectively to evaluate activities or support safety
accruing from its inspections and enforcement activities;
and DOT has no directives outlining Department-wide
Hazmat information management responsibilities.
19. "Second Toxic Spill in Two Weeks Brings SP, Railroads Under
Scrutiny," Traffic World, No. 6, Vol. 227, August 5, 1991.
This article discusses the two recent accidents on the SP
involving hazardous materials and the transportation of
hazmat by rail.
20. Proceeding of Hazmat Transport '91, A National Conference on
the Transportation of Hazardous Materials and Wastes,
Northwestern University, Evanston Transportation Center,
Evanston, Illinois, June 17-19, 1991.
This volume documents the proceedings of a national
conference on the transportation of hazardous materials
and waste, held at Northwestern University. The
conference was a neutral forum at which many viewpoints
were aired and original research findings presented. The
following papers were given at the conference:
"The Hazardous Materials Transportation Uniform Safety
Act of 1990: The U.S. Department of Transportation
Perspective," Travis P. Dungan, Administrator, Research
and Special Programs Administration, U.S. Department of
Transportation.
This is a summary of the requirements of the statute as
it relates to DOT and an overview of hazmat
transportation.
"The Rail Perspective on Hazardous Materials
Transportation," James A. Hagen, Chairman of Conrail.
This paper addresses the key issues of hazmat
transportation by rail, in particular, Conrail.
"Behind Human Error Accidents," John K. Lauber, National
Transportation Safety Board.
This paper describes several accidents from the viewpoint
of operator performance and professional standards,
management commitment to safety, and operator training
and human factors outside the vehicle.
22
"Data Requirements for the Development of a Quantitative
Risk Assessment Model for Rail Transportation of
Hazardous Materials," Christopher P.L. Barkan, Manager,
Environmental and Hazardous Materials Research Division,
Association of American Railroads.
This paper states that while rail has a relatively good
safety record, it is in the interest of the public and
industry that improvements in hazmat transportation
safety be as effective and efficient as possible. To
that end, Barkan discusses the efforts of the rail, tank
car and chemical industries, which are working to develop
a quantitative risk assessment model for rail
transportation of hazmat.
"The Law and Economics of Hazardous Materials
Transportation: Regulating Harm by Administrative Agency
and by Tort Liability," Thomas S. Ulen and Charles
Kolstad.
This paper discusses the authors' views on how best to
achieve the socially optimal amount of precaution, while
regulating the transportation of hazmat.
"U.S. Department of Transportation Report on Mandated
Studies and Regulatory Procedures to Date," Alan I.
Roberts, Associate Administrator for Hazardous Materials
Safety, U.S. Department of Transportation, Research and
Special Programs Administration.
This paper discusses the status of DOT legislatively
mandated studies and regulatory procedures.
21. Flows of Selected Hazardous Materials By Rail, F. Beier, et
al. U.S. Department of Transportation, Research and Special
Programs Administration, Volpe National Transportation Systems
Center, Final Report for September 1987-April 1991,
Washington, DC, May 1991.
This study looks at rail traffic in 1986 and is designed
to characterize the flow of selected hazardous materials
and show their geographical distribution.
22. Transportation of Hazardous Materials by Rail, National
Transportation Safety Board, Washington, DC, Adopted May 16,
1991.
For this study, the Safety Board conducted a study of 45
selected railroads.
23. "New Hazmat Regulation," Railway Age, pp. 44-45, April 1991.
This article questions the cost-benefit from new hazmat
regulations in light of a record which is characterized
as good.
24. "Revitalizing the Circuitry," Hazardous Cargo Bulletin, Vol.
12, No. 1, January 1991.
This article presents highlights of papers presented on a
conference on tank containers entitled Tank Frans 90 in
Berlin on October 17-19, 1990. Papers were presented on
the topic and other issues, such as quality control, tank
cleaning, transport of dangerous substances through the
Channel Tunnel, road vs rail, liability, and safety.
23
25. "Critics say federal hazmat data bank is useful, but falls
short of filling need," Traffic World, p. 64, March 11, 1991.
This article finds that the Hazardous Materials
Information Exchange does provide useful information.
However, this data bank is just a good beginning, and it
should include additional information, i.e., information
on worst-case accident scenarios.
26. Transportation Research.Record No. 1245, Transportation
Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, DC,
1990.
Includes several articles. The most informative are:
Comparison of Risk Measures for the Transport of
Dangerous Commodities by Truck and Rail," by F.F.
Saccomanno, J.H. Shortreed, M. Van Aerde, and J. Higgs,
pp.1-13.
In this paper, the risks of transporting dangerous
commodities by trick and by rail are expressed by four
constituent elements: accident rates; spill probabilities
in an accident situation; hazard areas for different
classes of damage; and expected impacts on population and
environment along a specified road or rail corridor. The
findings indicate that regardless of the material being
shipped or the underlying transportation conditions,
trucks reflect higher accident rates than rail; for most
tanker systems, the probability of release in an accident
situation is higher on rail than truck; the expected
impacts for damage to population and property associated
with rail transport of dangerous goods are lower than for
trucks.
"Characteristics of Accidents and Incidents in Highway
Transportation of Hazardous Materials," by D.W. Harwood,
E.R. Russell and J.G. Viner, pp. 23-33.
This paper focuses on the role of traffic accidents as a
cause of severe hazardous materials incidents.
Conclusions: about 99% of fatalities and 96% of injuries
involving trucks carrying hazardous materials are not
related to the hazmat release. Approximately II % of
hazmat incidents that occur on public highways are caused
by traffic accidents, and about 99% of the fatalities and
injuries in accidents involving hazmat-carrying trucks
result from the physical collision.
"Minimizing Derailments of Railcars Carrying Dangerous
Commodities Through Effective Marshaling Strategies," by
F.F. Saccomanno and S. El-Hage, pp.34-51.
This paper presents a procedure for establishing and
evaluating the effectiveness of alternative marshaling
and buffering strategies for positioning special
dangerous commodity cars.
"Bicriterion Routing Scheme for Nuclear Spent Fuel
Transportation," by Shin-Miao Chun and Paul Der-Ming
Cheng, pp. 60-64.
The objective of this paper is to develop an automated
system to evaluate the trade-off between transportation
cost and potential population at risk under different
nuclear spent fuel transportation strategies. The
authors believe that by combining sophisticated
algorithms with graphical representation of the network,
the methodology allows the trade-offs among non-inferior
paths to be understood more quickly and more fully.
24
27. Transportation of Hazardous Material 1990, Transportation
Research Record, No. 1264, Transportation Research Board,
National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1990.
Includes several articles, the most informative are:
"Evaluating Routing Alternatives for Transporting Hazardous
Materials Using Simplified Risk Indicators and Complete
Probabilistic Risk Analyses," by William R. Rhyne; "Truck
Accident Rate Model for Hazardous Materials Routing," by D.W.
Harwood, J.6. Viner and E.R. Russell; "Fatality Risk Curves
for Transporting Chlorine and Liquefied Petroleum Gas by Truck
and Rail," by F.F. Saccomanno, J.H. Shortreed, and R. Mehta;
"Restricting Hazardous Materials Routes on the Nation's
Railroads: Some Considerations for Regulatory Analysis," by
T.S. Glickman.
28. Planning for Future Waste Storage and Transport Requirements,
G.M. Holter, M.R. Shay and D.L. Stiles, Battelle Pacific
Northwest Labs., Richland, WA, 1990.
This paper discusses that any planning should take into
account the storage and transport capabilities that will
be required to properly manage the wastes, from the point
of generation through to their ultimate disposal.
29. Radioactive and Hazardous Materials Transportation: What Local
Officials Are Telling Us, J.A. Walker, G.E. Ruberg, and S.H.
Denny, Virginia Polytechnic Inst. and State Univ., Blacksburg,
VA, 1990.
This paper summarizes the results of a 1989 meeting of US
Department of Energy representatives with over twenty
local officials from cities and counties around the
country.
30. "Modeling Equity of Risk in the Transportation of Hazardous
Materials," R. Gopalan, K.S. Kolluri, R. Batta and M.H.
Karwan, Operations Research, Vol. 38. No. 6. November-
December 1990.
This paper develops and analyzes a model to generate an
equitable set of routes for hazardous material shipments.
Its objective is to determine a set of routes that will
minimize the total risk of travel and spread the risk
equitably among the zones of the geographical region in
which the transportation network is embedded.
31. Present Practices of Highway Transportation of Hazardous
Materials, D.W. Harwood and E.R. Russell, Midwest Research
Inst., Kansas City, MO, May 1990.
This report summarizes the art of safe management of
hazardous materials transportation by highway.
32. Proceedings of the National Conference on Hazardous Materials
Transportation, St. Louis, Missouri, concerned with "State and
Local Issues in Transportation of Hazardous Waste Materials:
Towards a National Strategy," May 14-16, 1990.
This volume documents the proceedings of a national
conference on the transportation of hazardous materials
held in St. Louis, Missouri, May 14-16, 1990. The
following papers were given at the conference:
25
"Evaluation of Hazardous Material Transportation By Rail,"
W.H. Oderwaid, M.A. Sontag.
This paper describes the application of the data bases
utilized in the model, along with an explanation of the
function and philosophy of the Princeton Transportation
Network Model. This model is used by shippers, receivers, and
manufacturers to evaluate current and proposed rail routings.
"Flows of Hazardous Materials Through States By Rail," R.C.
Hannon and P. Zebe.
This paper presents information on the tonnages of hazardous
materials passing through each of the contiguous 48 states and
DC by rail.
"Computer-Assisted Risk Assessment of Dangerous Goods
Transportation for Haute-Normandie," S. Lassarre, K. Fedra,
and E. Weigkricht.
This is software based on a geographical information system to
manage, treat and represent statistical and geographical data
related to the evaluation of risk of transport on a road
network in a 600 sq. km. area in France.
"StatGen/StateNet and DOT Guidelines: Tools for Highway
Routing of Hazardous Materials," J.W. Cashwell, J.D. Brogan,
and C.M. Erickson.
This presentation discusses the latest update of the
StateGen/StateNet model, its structure and routing algorithm,
which contains the codified USDOT Guidelines for Highway Route
Controlled Quantity Shipments of Radioactive Materials.
"Societal-Individual Risks for Hazmat Transport," F.F
Saccomanno, J.H. Shortreed.
This paper considers the risks associated with the transport
of hazmat by truck and rail from two perspectives: society in
general and the individuals residing adjacent to the route.
"A Risk and Vulnerability Assessment Approach for Selected
Routes: A Case Study of Hazardous Waste Transportation in
Arizona," K.D. Pijawka, A.E. Radwan, and J. A. Soesilo.
This study's objective was to provide an approach to selecting
routes to a proposed hazardous waste treatment and storage
facility, based on a risk and vulnerability assessment.
"A Community-Focused Routing and Citing Model for Hazardous
Materials and Wastes," G. List and P. Mirchandani.
This is a model that shippers, carriers, and policy-makers can
use to analyze routing problems for hazmat or routing and
siting problems for wastes.
"Assessing Community Safety for Hazardous Materials
Transport," C-K. Chiang, E.J. Cantifli, and S.T. Ying.
This paper describes a computer model developed to assess the
safety of a community through which hazmat will be
transported. The model is predictive and can be used even in
the absence of a past history of incidents.
26
"Canadian Database Development as a Support Tool To Transport
Risk Assessment," D. A. Learning.
This paper provides details on the databases the Risk
Management Branch has available to assess accident trends and
exposure to dangerous goods, and introduces a costing model
under development to further enhance risk management.
"Hazardous Materials Data: A Federal Perspective," R.C.
Hannon.
This paper discusses the evolution and current status of the
Hazardous Materials Incident Report System maintained by RSPA.
"Risk Management in the Transportation of Dangerous Goods--the
Influence of Public Perception--a Discussion," M.K. Matthews.
This paper discusses an example of how public perception of
risk can unduly influence the proper response to effective
risk management in the transportation of dangerous goods.
"Dangerous Goods Emergency Response: The Western Australian
Experience," K. Price.
This paper is a general overview of the experience of the
State of Western Australia in the management of hazmat
transportation.
"State Legislative Concerns Relative to Federal Hazardous
Materials Transportation Regulations," J.B. Reed.
This paper indicates that states have asserted their authority
in regard to regulations of hazmat transport where they
believe there are inadequate or declining Federal efforts.
States' interests include, inspection, enforcement, emergency
response and routing.
33. Hazardous Materials Flow By Rail, U.S.Department of
Transportation, Research and Special Programs Administration,
Final Report, Washington, DC, March 1990.
This report is a quantitative overview of the movement of
hazardous materials by rail in the U.S. The data used is
a hazardous materials rail waybill sample developed at
TSC from the 1983 Waybill Sample.
34. Collision and Derailment of Montana Rail Link Freight Train
with Locomotive Units and Hazardous Materials Release, Helena,
Montana February 2, 1989, National Transportation Safety
Board, Railroad Accident Report, Washington, DC, December 6,
1989.
This report reviews the accident on Montana Rail Link and
discusses various related safety issues, i.e., train
operations, maintenance of airbrake system in extreme
cold weather, oversight of employee preparedness, tank
car performance, and documentation of hazmat shipments.
35. Guideline for Applying Criteria to Designate Routes for
Transporting Hazardous Materials, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Research and Special Programs Administration,
Final Report, Washington, DC, July 1989.
These guidelines were prepared to assist state and local
officials in analysis of alternate routes to be used by
highway vehicles transporting hazmat.
27
36. Transport of Radioactive Material by Air, Proposal for a
Revision of the Regulation, C Devillers, and C. Ringot, CEA
Centre d'Etudes Nucleaires de Fontenary-aux-Roses (France),
January 1989.
This paper states that the regulations should be modified
in such a way that the packages used for the air
transport of radioactive material presenting a high level
of potential danger be designed to fulfill their safety
function for a large fraction of the conditions likely to
be encountered in an aircraft accident.
37. In-Flight Fire, McDonnell Douglas DC-9-83, N56 Nashville,
Tennessee, February 3, 1988, National Transportation Safety
Board, Hazardous Materials Incident Report, Washington, DC,
September 13, 1988.
This report reviews an in-flight fire involving
undeclared and improperly packaged hazmat and the
procedures followed by the crew and airline.
38. Basic Facts About the Transport of Packaged Radioactive
Products, Amersham International Ltd. (England), 1987.
This pamphlet details the regulations that apply to
transport of radioactive materials and outlines the
precautions to be taken, along with what should be done
if a package of radioactive materials is damaged and how
packages of radioactive materials can be recognized.
39. Truck Transportation of Hazardous Materials - A National
Overview, Dominic J. Maio, U.S. Department of Transportation,
Research and Special Programs Administration, Transportation
Systems Center, Final Report, Washington, D.C., December 1987
This report's objective was to provide regulators and
policy-makers with: an estimate of the national volume of
hazardous chemicals and petroleum products transported in
trucks, a profile of the truck fleet that carries hazmat,
and a geographical distribution of this transport
activity.
40. Handling and Management of Hazardous Materials and Waste, by
Theodore H. Allegri, Sr., Chapman and Hall, New York, 1986.
Discusses the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act which
authorized the EPA to perform specific functions to assess and
manage hazardous wastes, including the setting of standards
for the transportation of hazardous wastes. Enumerates
federal regulations concerning the loading and unloading of
hazardous materials.
41. "Institutional issues affecting the transport of hazardous
materials in the United States: Anticipating strategic
management needs," S.A. Cames, Oak Ridge, TN, Hazardous
Materials, No. 13, 1986.
This article attempts to discuss the complex and dynamic
institutional environment in which hazardous materials
are transported. The article summarizes the
institutional environment in which hazardous materials
are transported and identifies related institutional
issues.
42. Transportation of Hazardous Materials, U.S. Congress, Office
of Technology Assessment, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC, July 1986.
This study was requested by the Senate Committee on
Science, Commerce, and Transportation to determine
whether major safety problems exist in the transportation
of hazardous materials that should be addressed through
legislation, and whether appropriate technology exists
that could improve this essential portion of our nation's
commerce. OTA's study is a comprehensive assessment of
the regulations, information systems, container safety,
and training for emergency response and enforcement.
43. Transportation of Hazardous Materials: State and Local
Activities, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment,
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, March 1986.
This report is in response to a Senate request that OTA
undertake a study of the transportation of hazardous
materials. This study summarizes Federal programs and
identifies three major areas of state and local
government concern: prevention and enforcement
activities; emergency response and training; and planning
and data gathering. It outlines related issues,
describes methods by which jurisdictions are responding
to these issues, and documents the concerns that the
Federal government could address.
44. Barge Collisions, Rammings and Groundings: An Engineering
Assessment of the Potential for Damage to Radioactive Material
Transport Casks, B.L. Hutchison, Glosten Associates, Inc.
Seattle, WA, January 1986.
This study was performed to gain insight into each of
these types of accidents, with particular attention to
those processes that possess potential for causing
structural damage to the casks.
45. "What's New in Hazardous Material Transportation?", Traffic
Management, pp. 78-83, Volume 24, No. 11, November 1985.
This article discusses current issues in hazmat
transportation, i.e. uniformity of regulations and
federal pre-emption, DOT's role in the hazmat program,
and international regulations. This article suggests
that uniformity of regulations and federal pre-emption is
necessary, in addition to more leadership at DOT, to
protect the interests of US shippers from foreign
regulators.
46. Transportation of Radioactive and Hazardous Materials: A
Summary of State and Local Legislative Requirements for the
Period Ending December 31, 1984 N.P. Knox, L. F. Goins and
P.T. Owen, John Ludwigson (ed.), U.S. Department of Energy,
Information Research and Analysis Information Resources
Organization, Oak Ridge, TN, September 1985.
This report summarizes 513 adopted US state and local laws
that affect the transportation of radioactive materials.
47. Transportation of Hazardous Material: Planning and Accident
Analysis, Transportation Research Record No. 977,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council,
Washington, DC, 1984.
Includes several articles, the most informative is:
"A Survey of Foreign Hazardous Materials Transportation Safety
Research Since 1978," by M.E. Wright and T.S. Glickman, pp.
39-43.
This is a survey of truck, rail, and air transportation
concerning vehicle and container technology, emergency
response technology, traffic flow and accident information,
risk assessment, and policy analysis regarding operations,
emergency planning, and regulations.
48. Assessing the Release and Costs Associated With Truck
Transport of Hazardous Wastes, Office of Solid Waste,
Environmental Protection Agency, l984.
This study estimates the release from and the costs of
the truck transport of hazardous waste. This report
contains these estimates for bulk and container
shipments. Perhaps the most important result of this
study is that the release rates associated with
transporting hazardous wastes by truck appear to be as
large as the potential releases at treatment and disposal
sites.
49. "Derailments and Release of Hazardous Materials," by Theodore
S. Glickman and Donald B. Rosenfield, Management Science,
Volume 30, Number 4, pp. 257-277, April 1984.
Models were used to assess the risks of hazardous
materials releases in train derailments. The results of
a model indicated that: the chances are high (95%) that
no one will be killed when a derailment release accident
takes place.
50. Community Teamwork: Working Together to Promote Hazardous
Materials Transportation Safety. A Guide for Local Officials,
Cambridge Systematics, Inc., Cambridge, MA, May 1983
This Guide is designed to provide ideas on how to develop
a hazardous materials transportation safety program at
the most economical cost.
51. "The Ten Most Critical Issues in Hazardous Materials
Transportation," Transportation Research Circular,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council,
Number 219, Washington, DC, July 1980.
While somewhat dated, this paper identifies ten major
issues associated with the transportation of hazardous
materials. Most of the issues presented in this 1980
paper are still major issues today.
52 Regulation of the Movement of Hazardous Cargoes, David M.
Baldwin, National Cooperative Highway Research Program,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council,
Washington, DC, May 1980.
These guidelines were prepared to assist State and local
officials in analysis of alternate routes to be used by
highway vehicles transporting hazmat.
30
5. Land Use Issues
Land use and transportation systems are inextricably linked
together. Historically, transportation facilities have been
constructed to foster land development, often without any
consideration for adverse environmental impacts. However, new or
expanded transportation facilities, which require a substantial
amount of land, are increasingly difficult to build because of
their direct and indirect environmental effects on communities and
the landscape. Moreover, public recognition of declining
environmental quality (particularly air quality), increasing
congestion, and the role of transportation in shaping development
patterns, has begun to focus attention on the need to integrate
transportation and land use planning.
Rail freight and passenger service, including commuter service,
operating over existing tracks or within existing transportation
corridors, can complement or substitute for more environmentally
intrusive modes in some corridors. Unfortunately, the role of rail
service in an integrated approach to transportation and land use
planning does not appear to be widely recognized. However, the
Internodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 contained
provisions strengthening the urban planning process. The process
must now include additional considerations such as land use,
internodal connectivity, and transit service enhancement.
1."Automobiles Subsidies and Land Use: Estimates and Policy
Responses". Mark E. Hanson, Journal of the American Planning
Association, Vol. 58, No. 1, pp. 60-71, 1992.
The article estimates the magnitude of long-term
automobile subsidies and discusses how they encouraged a
pattern of urban/suburban sprawl.
2. Land Use In Commuter Rail Station Areas: Analysis and Final
Report, METRA and the Northeastern Illinois Planning
Commission, 1992.
The report focuses on enhancing the land use at Chicago
area commuter rail stations and includes descriptions of
nine prototypical rail stations (including the current
rail service, access characteristics, and land use
patterns) and concludes by suggesting land use and
developmental guidelines, goals and objectives for six
station prototypes. The report is accompanied by a
companion color brochure of the six prototype stations.
3. "Transit-Sensitive Suburban land Use Design: Results of a
Competition," Edward Beimborn; Harvey Rabinowitz; Charles
Mrotek; and Shuming Yan; Public Transit Research: Management
and Planning, Transportation Research Record, No. 1297,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council,
Washington, DC, pp. 116-124, 1992.
The paper presents an analysis of the extent to which
public transit was included in the over 250 submissions
to the International City Design Competition. The
authors found that the competitors explicitly evaluated
public transit in only 43 percent of the proposals, and
bus, park-and-ride, or commuter rail were seldom
considered as options. The authors concluded that the
state of the art incorporating public transit into land
use design is poor, and that unless this view is changed,
little future change from the current auto dominated
suburbs can be expected.
31
4. "Impacts of Transit Facilities on Land Use," Institute of
Transportation Engineers Technical Committee 6Y-38, ITE
Journal, Vol. 62, No. 1, pp. 37-39, January 1992.
The article reviews the full committee report on an
analysis of the impact that urban transit can have on
land use with the impacts of the Toronto, Washington, DC,
San Francisco, Buffalo and Atlanta systems viewed in
detail.
5. "A PRT Deployment Strategy to Support Regional Land Use and
Rail Transit Objectives" J.B. Schneider, Transportation
Quarterly, V46, pp. 135-53, January 1992.
The article discusses strategic metropolitan scale land
use planning and outlines a strategy that will allow
those interested in conventional rail and personal rapid
transit (PRT) to join forces and work together to
increase transit's share of the urban mobility market.
6. Special Report 231, Transportation, Urban Forum and the
Environment, Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, Washington, DC, 1991.
This report contains the papers and workshop reports from
a December 9-12, 1990 conference that focused on the
complexity of interactions between transportation, land
use and environmental impacts. The conference
participants suggested areas where research is required
to better understand the interactive relationships.
7. Shaping Cities: The Environmental and Human Dimensions Marica
D. Lowe, Worldwatch Institute, Washington, DC, October 1991.
The paper suggests that the way cities physically evolve
and the way their development is planned have profound
impacts on the environment. The paper looks at urban
planning in other countries and discusses the
relationships between land use and efficient transport.
8. The New Suburb: Final Report, Harvey Rabinowitz, Edward
Beimbom, University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, prepared for
U.S. Department of Transportation, Urban Mass Transit
Administration, Washington, DC, July 1991.
The report presents a historical background for transit
use and suburban development and examines two groups of
development projects, the first a group of ten exemplars
that are analyzed for transit potential and the second, a
group of 250 entries submitted in the International City
Design Competition. Based on their analysis the authors
believe that while some progress towards integrating
transit into suburban developments has occurred, most
metropolitan areas not yet affected by suburban air
pollution and congestion will continue to rely on the
automobile.
9. Guidelines for Transit-Sensitive Suburban Land Use Design,
Edward Beimbom, Harvey Rabinowitz, University of Wisconsin,
Milwaukee, WI, prepared for U.S. Department of Transportation,
Urban Mass Transit Administration, July 1991.
The report provides market based guidelines for planning
and designing public transit sensitive land use patterns.
The use of transit corridor districts (TCD) that separate
transit and auto-oriented land uses is advanced and a
prototype TCD with implementation guidelines is
described. Transit-sensitive land use would be enhanced
by increasing densities near transit routes and
emphasizing pedestrian and bicycle access.
32
10. The Renaissance of Rail Transit in America, Regional Planning
Association, New York, New York, June 1991.
The report describes the types and locations of existing
rail transit in the U.S. and abroad, profiles nine North
American transit systems developed in the post WWII
period, and provides data supporting the expanded use of
existing rail transit and development of new systems.
Land use and its link to transportation, particularity
rail transit, is highlighted, and the future potential of
rail transit and station development is emphasized.
11. "Suburban Congestion: Recommendations for Transportation and
Und Use Responses," Thomas F. Humphrey, Transportation, V16,
No.3, pp. 221-40, 1989/90.
The paper highlights congestion problems and solutions
and discusses short and long term approaches, including
transportation actions where there are opportunities for
better utilization of existing systems.
12. "Dealing with Congestion from a Regional Perspective: The Case
of Massachusetts," Michael D. Meyer, Transportation, V16,
No.3, pp. 197-219, 1989/90.
In this paper, the author argues that, in many cases,
congestion is a widespread problem that must be viewed
from a regional and programmatic perspective and
emphasizes four policy areas including managing land use.
13. "Regulating Traffic by Controlling Land Use: The Southern
California Experience," Martin Wachs, Transportation, V16,
No.3, pp. 241-56, 1989/90.
The paper examines four transportation growth management
strategies in Los Angeles, suggests many recent proposals
have been hastily enacted, and recommends devoting more
resources to monitoring and evaluation and to the
development of new analytical tools.
14. A Guide to Land Use and Public Transportation for Snohomish
County, Washington, The Snohomish County Transportation
Authority, December 1989.
The report describes the promotion of public
transportation-compatible land uses such as zoning
ordinances, transportation management plans, and
residential development site designs. The report
presents: criteria to judge compatibility of land use and
transit; community planning goals and policies; and work
sheets to determine whether or not a particular
development is compatible with public transportation.
33
6. Water Pollution and Wetlands Issues
Traditional water quality concerns have focused on bacterial
contaminants, oxygen depleting wastes and sediment loads from human
activities, and priority is now being given to toxic substances as
well. The source of this pollution tends to originate from point
sources, primarily industry and sewage treatment facilities.
Increasing attention is now being paid to non-point sources such as
the run-off of water from urban areas and agriculture. However,
the transportation sector's role in water pollution does not appear
to be well defined or understood.
Concerns over wetlands has primarily focused on the loss of wetland
acreage from the construction of highway projects and the
conversion of wetlands to agricultural use.
1. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency Research Program on the
Environmental Impacts and Control of Highway Deicing Salt
Pollution, Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Risk
Reduction Engineering Lab, Cincinnati, OH, 1992.
Salt-laden runoff from streets, highways, and storage
facilities can result in damage to public water supplies,
ponds, lakes and surface streams, roadside soil,
vegetation and trees, and infrastructure and vehicles.
This paper outlines the results of several 1970s studies
on highway-deicing impacts characterization and control
conducted by the EPA's research program on urban
stormwater and combined sewer overflow pollution control.
2. "Measuring the Economic Value of Water Quality: The Case of
Lakeshore Land," Donald N. Stiennes, The Annals of Regional
Science, V26, pp. 171-76, 1992.
The paper discusses the difficulty economists and others
have had in valuing water quality using hedonic methods.
The author suggests that the economic value may be
attached to a perceived (as opposed to actual) measure of
water quality.
3. "Our Disappearing Wetlands," John G. Mitchell, National
Geographic, pp. 3-45, October, 1992.
This article presents an overview of the importance of
wetlands and highlights the loss of 300,000 acres of
wetlands each year.
4. Maintenance Guidelines for Accumulated Sediments in
Retention/Detention Ponds Receiving Highway Runoff, Final
Research Report, Performed by University of Central Florida,
Department of Civil Engineering and Environmental Sciences for
the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, DC, September 1990.
The report details a two year study investigating
sedimentation rates and heavy metal enrichment and
leaching from accumulated bottom sediments in nine
Florida highway runoff detention/retention ponds.
5. "The Imperatives of Nonpoint Source Pollution Policies," Peter
Rogers and Alan Rosenthal, Journal of Water Pollution Control
Facilities, V60, No. II, pp 1912-192 1, 1988.
The article provides an overview of nonpoint source water
pollution, water policy decision making, and a matrix
evaluation of nonpoint source pollution control policies.
34
7. Related Environmental Issues
While many recent publications may be readily categorized by
environmental topic, some are sufficiently broad in scope as to
apply to a wide range of transportation related environmental
issues. The following list of publications fits this description
and contains information on a wide range of topics including future
options in transportation technology, national overviews of
environmental impacts, and broad, in-depth discussions/descriptions
of transportation and the environment.
1. Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit, Senator Al
Gore, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, New York, London,
1992.
Senator (now Vice President) Gore addresses environmental
issues that involve the earth's ecology, population
trends, appropriate technology, and environmental
education. He believes that the severity of the
environmental crisis requires a bold and visionary
response to bring the earth back into balance.
2. New Technology Options for Transit in California, Institute
for the Future, sponsored by California Department of
Transportation, Division of New Technology, Materials, and
Research, 1992.
The report identifies new transit technology options and
systems and makes recommendations as to transit
initiatives in California including: auto disincentives
(price-by-use systems); education on transit's value; and
the need for coordinated transit and land use planning.
3. New Technology Options for Transit in California: Internal
Appendix, Institute for the Future, sponsored by California
Department of Transportation, Division of New Technology,
Materials, and Research, 1992.
The appendix provides detailed information on the
characteristics and emerging future technologies of
various passenger transit technologies, including: light
rail; rapid rail; commuter rail; personal rapid transit;
etc.
4. Public Transportation, Edited by George E. Gray and Lester A.
Hoel, 2nd Ed, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey,
1992.
This text is a reference work that deals with all transit
modes including commuter rail, bus, rapid rail,
paratransit and ridesharing; it contains 25 chapters by
various experts dealing with all areas of public
transportation including: history; systems and
technologies; alternatives; planning; management and
operations; policy considerations; and the future of
public transport.
5 Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering, Wolfgang S. Homburger,
James H. Kell, David D. Perkins, Institute of Transportation
Studies, University of California at Berkeley, 1992.
This text contains basic information on highways and
traffic engineering, as well as data on other
transportation modes, energy consumption and
environmental impacts.
35
6. Flexible Funding Opportunities for Transit, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Federal Transit Administration, Washington,
DC, 1992.
The Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act
(ISTEA) established flexible funding opportunities for
highway and transit use. This report reaffirms the need
for collaborative multimodal planning and summarizes the
necessary steps, presents a broad overview of the Surface
Transportation Program, including the flexible funding
distribution and eligibility criteria, describes the
flexible funds programs, and presents a state-by-state
breakdown of the FY 1992 flexible funding opportunities.
7. "Commuter Rail Comes to Los Angeles," David Lustig, Trains,
pp. 34-36, November 1992.
The start of Metrolink commuter rail operations in the
Los Angeles area is described, including routes,
equipment and service. The service operates over
existing freight lines and when complete will eventually
consist of 60 stations and 400 miles of track and will
serve six counties in the Los Angeles area.
8. "Commuter Rail Traffic Increases With a Pitch to Keep Air
Clean," Metro Magazine, Vol. 88, No. 5, pp. 47-52,
September/October 1992.
The value of commuter rail service in reducing air
pollution has become a marketing opportunity for the
commuter authorities in the tri-state New York, New
Jersey, Connecticut area. Recent significant service and
facility improvements have increased on-time performance
and have allowed the authorities to offer employers
innovative programs, such as coordinating train schedules
and local bus service (in Westchester County and the
Bronx), and, in Greenwich, CT, a coordinated train-van
shuttle between train stations and the central business
district.
9 High-Speed Passenger Ground Transportation: An Analysis, Marc
D. Latman, Northeast Midwest Congressional Coalition,
September 1992.
This study states that the federal government has
historically contributed only limited resources to the
development of high-speed rail transportation. Growing
concern over traffic congestion and the environment has
prompted new interest in this mode of travel. This study
suggests that the installation of a high-speed ground
transportation system in the U.S. will relieve
congestion, help state economies, and lessen
environmental degradation.
10. Travel Behavior Issues in the 90s, based on data from the 1990
National Personal Transportation Survey (NPTS) and the 1985
and 1989 American Housing Surveys (AHS), Alan Pisarski, for
the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration, Office of Highway Information Management,
Washington, DC, July 1992.
Drawing on data from the NPTS and the AHS, this report.
provides a selective review of changes in the amount,
purpose, and mode of personal travel, as related to
various demographic and geographic factors.
36
11. New Perspectives in Commuting, based on early data from the
1990 Decennial Census and the 1990 National Personal
Transportation Study, Alan Pisarski, for the U.S. Department
of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Office of
Highway Information Management, Washington, DC, July 1992.
The 35 percent increase in persons driving alone to work
from 1980-1990 (an increase of about 22 million persons)
exceeded the number of new workers. All commuting
alternatives to the single-occupant vehicle declined in
share. Transit ridership remained at about 6 million
riders from 1980 to 1990. Rail-related travel gained in
absolute terms, but its gains did not balance declines in
bus ridership. The report reviews state and selected
metropolitan area travel patterns.
12. "Chicago's $5-Billion Plan," Railway Age, Vol. 193, No. 6, pp.
43-44, June 1992.
The article discusses the Regional Transit Authority's
Future Agenda for Suburban Transportation (FAST) plan to
improve commuter rail service (including grade crossing
elimination) and system expansion (including a
circumferential route). The FAST plan responds to a
variety of environmental concerns, most notably
congestion, air pollution and energy consumption, by
targeting infrastructure improvements and expansions to
areas where improved operational flexibility will
increase train speeds and reduce transit times, making
the automobile a non-competitive commuting option.
13. Public Transportation in the United States: Performance and
Condition, Report to Congress, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Federal Transit Administration, Washington,
DC, June 1992.
The report provides an overview of public transportation
in the U.S., data and information on how the cost of mass
transportation has changed over the past two years, and
future capital investment needs seen in terms of
different projected levels of mass transportation
service.
14. The Going Rate: What it Really Costs to Drive, James J.
MacKenzie, Roger C. Dower, and Donald D.T. Chen, World
Resources Institute, Washington, DC, June 1992.
The Institute's study estimates costs of $300 billion per
year to the environment and to society as a whole that
are only partly covered by user fees and taxes. Some of
the costs identified are: road construction and
maintenance; highway patrols, traffic management, parking
enforcement, traffic accident response teams, police work
on auto accidents and thefts; free commuter parking; air
and noise pollution; and the security costs of importing
oil. Suggested measures to redress the balance include
higher fuel taxes, road pricing at heavy use times,
reforming employer-paid parking, and raising charges on
truckers, as well as long-term changes in zoning laws to
encourage greater residential population density, making
public transportation a more viable option.
15. Searching for Solutions, A Policy Discussion Series: Exploring
the Role of Pricing as a Congestion Management Tool, U.S.
Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration
(FHWA), Number 1, March 1992.
The report summarizes a July 23, 1991 FHWA seminar that
provided participants an opportunity to discuss a variety
of policy issues related to congestion pricing, i.e.
direct charges for roadway use varying by time, location,
occupancy, etc. in response to level of service,
environmental or cost recovery policy objectives.
Included are the views and comments of many participants,
and, while no overall consensus on congestion pricing
37
emerged, there was general agreement that revenues must
be well thought out and presented in advance,
compensation for those adversely affected must be
addressed early in the planning process, and reasonable
alternatives to priced roads must be available.
16. Financing High-Speed Rail and Maglev Systems in Europe, Japan,
and the United States:Implications for Systems Financing in
Florida, Dr. Thomas A. Lynch, Center for Economic Forecasting
and Analysis, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida,
for the Florida Department of Transportation, January 1992.
The study compares public transportation financing and
subsidies in Western Europe and North America and
develops a profile of significant public transportation
policies and other differences between the U.S. and
Canada and Western Europe that may influence prospects
for successful deployment of interurban high-speed rail
systems in Florida. The report includes a chapter on The
Need to Include Environmental Externalities in the
Development of Transportation Systems.
17. Environmental Research Needs In Transportation, Transportation
Research Circular, Transportation Research Board, National
Research Council, Number 389, March 1992.
This document is the product of many individuals and
organizations concerned with the identification and
development of operational solutions to environmental
issues in transportation. It provides guidance to
financial sponsors, such as governmental agencies,
research institutions, the industry and the academic
community, in allocating scarce resources for the
development of functional solutions to environmental
problems in all modes of transportation.
18. Edge City, Life on the New Frontier, Joel Gaffeau, Doubleday,
New York, NY, 1991.
In this book Mr. Garreau describes the growing phenomenon
of white collar office and shopping complexes on the
peripheries of large cities. He organizes his book
around nine geographical areas to illustrate broad
patterns of development. While he reports that edge
cities are popular because they are easily accessed by
car and avoid the problems of cities, he also suggests
that peripheral office markets and thriving downtowns can
be mutually beneficial.
19. The Federal Role in Urban Mass Transportation, George M.
Smerk, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1991.
The book surveys historical governmental policies for mass
transportation, discusses how the availability of mass
transportation facilities influenced urban areas, and suggests
how it can be used in the future to improve circulation in
urban and metropolitan areas, creating a more appealing urban
environment.
20. Steering a New Course: Transportation, Energy and The
Environment, Deborah Gordon, Union of Concerned Scientists,
Island Press, Washington, DC, 1991.
Worsening congestion will soon make transportation an
even more tedious, aggravating exercise than it already
often is; dependence on foreign oil will make supplies
increasingly unreliable and expensive. Without
innovative strategies to reduce the number of miles
driven, cars and trucks will continue to pollute air,
water, and land. The book surveys policy options and
provides a master list of policy recommendations for each
level of government.
38
21. The Renaissance of Rail Transit in America, A Report by the
Regional Planning Association, New York, NY, 1991.
The report assesses nine North American rail systems
developed since World War 11, as well as systems abroad,
and concludes that around the world, public transit
ridership is higher than in the U.S. because of: 1) land
use policies; 2) cost of driving; 3) national
infrastructure finance policies; and 4) local government
structure. The report suggests that the nation needs the
same long-term commitment to an efficient metropolitan
transportation system as was made to the Interstate
Highway System nearly forty years ago.
22. Special Report 233, In Pursuit of Speed: New Options for
Intercity Passenger Transport, Conducted by the Transportation
Research Board, National Research Council, sponsored by the
U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC, 1991.
This study of intercity passenger transport concludes
that high-speed (200 mph) trains are feasible and could
relieve airport and highway congestion. Environmental
benefits of highspeed trains may include a reduction in
air emissions. However, because of differences in the
characteristics of high-speed rail, highway and air
transportation noise, it is unclear whether high-speed
rail would reduce or increase ambient noise levels.
23. Transportation and Tax Policy, Deborah Gordon and Harriet
Parcells, The Campaign. for New Transportation Priorities,
CNTP Policy Series, No. 2, Washington, DC, 1991.
This paper argues that Federal tax laws fail to promote
energy efficiency in transportation. Low gasoline prices
and subsidized parking at work encourage solo driving,
and Federal policies subsidize big trucks to the
detriment of more energy-efficient railroads. Changes in
Federal tax laws are recommended.
24. Super-Trains, Solutions to America's Transportation Gridlock,
Joseph Vranich, St. Martin's Press, New York, NY, December
1991.
This book describes high-speed rail developments in
Europe, as well as efforts to introduce high-speed ground
transportation in the U.S. It discusses how high-speed
trains can reduce energy consumption and oil dependency,
pollution, global warming, land use consumption, airport
congestion, and noise.
25. Neglect of Rail and Intermodal Facilities, Intercity Passenger
Transportation, The Campaign for New Transportation
Priorities, CNTP Policy Series No. 5, Washington, DC, August
1991.
Increased Federal funding of intercity passenger rail
service and intermodal facilities is needed to alleviate
costly airport and highway congestion, rising dependence
on foreign oil, and environment pollution. Flexibility
to use gas tax revenues for rail service expansion and
intermodal terminals and earmarking a gas tax penny for
Amtrak are recommended.
26. Atlas of United States Environmental Issues, Robert J. Mason
and Mark T. Mattson, Macmillan Press, New York, NY, 1990.
The atlas contains state by state, city-by-city multi-
media environmental data, including land use, forestry,
coastal zone management, air quality, water quality,
noise and light pollution, solid wastes, and energy, with
issue overviews and selected specific area case study
data.
39
27. The Greening of Urban Transport: Planning for Walking and
Cycling in Western Cities, Edited by Rodney Tolley, Bellhaven
Press, London, England, 1990.
This is a collection of international essays focusing on
the need for urban planners to encourage "green modes"
(walking and cycling) of transportation within cities and
contains four sections that: address the principles and
issues of green transport- discuss the practice of green
transport planning; cite examples of successful traffic
restraint and exclusion; and review present conditions
and future possibilities.
28. National Transportation Strategic Planning Study, U.S.
Department of Transportation, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC, 1990.
This study, comprising 17 chapters and 6 appendixes,
provides an overview of the Nation's transportation
system and identifies future investments required to
maintain and develop our infrastructure. The contents of
the study were used to support the "National
Transportation Policy Statement," issued by the
Department in March 1990.
29. Transport Policy and the Environment, European Conference of
Ministers of Transportation, ECMT Ministerial Session, OECD,
1990.
Includes two papers pertaining to pricing of transportation:
"Urban Traffic Management," David Bayliss, United Kingdom.
A discussion of methods of restraining traffic, including
physical restraint of traffic, rationing and permitting
systems, road pricing, and parking restraint.
"Economic Aspects," Wemer Rothengatter, Germany.
Discussion of environmental policy measures to encourage
users to choose the transport mode with the minimal
impact on the environment. Policies include regulation,
pricing, investment, organization, and marketing and
advertising policies.
30. "Building New Rail Markets," William D. Middleton, Railway
Age, Vol. 19 1, No. I1, pp. 31-53, November 1990.
Washington, D.C. area commuters are increasingly using
commuter rail services as an alternative to traveling
over crowded highways in the sprawling metropolitan area.
Maryland's MARC system of three lines is the fastest
growing commuter rail operation in the U.S., and northern
Virginia will soon have its own commuter service
operating.
31. CONEG High-Speed Rail Regional Benefits Study, A Report on the
Benefits to the Region of Improved Passenger Rail Service
Between Boston and New York, prepared by Parsons Brinckerhoff
Quade & Douglas, Inc., Cambridge Systematics, Inc., and the
Regional Science Research Institute for the Coalition of
Northeast Governors, HighSpeed Rail Task Force, Washington,
DC, October 1990.
This study identified operational and passenger
transportation benefits, and environmental and economic
benefits that would accrue to the region as a result of
improved Amtrak service between Boston and New York City.
With three-hour travel times, diversion of trips from air
and highway travel will help reduce fuel consumption and
air pollution. The study estimates that 18,250 air
shuttle flights and 114 million passenger miles annually
would be diverted to rail.
40
32. Transit 2000 - Managing Mobility: A New Generation of National
Policies for the 21st Century, American Public Transit
Association, Transit 2000 Task Force, Washington, DC, 1989.
The report recommends that transportation policies and
programs at the Federal,level must be changed and service
delivery at the state and regional level redefined if we
are to preserve and enhance mobility. As a Nation, we
must make a commitment to reduce dependence on the
automobile and increase the share of travel demand on
convenient high-occupancy shared ride services of all
kinds.
33. Special Report 220, A Look Ahead - Year 2020 Proceedings of
the Conference on Long-Range Trends and Requirements for the
Nation's Highway and Public Transit Systems, conducted by the
Transportation Research Board, sponsored by the U.S.
Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, the Association of Regional Councils, and the
Transportation Alternatives Group, Transportation Research
Board, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1988.
This volume includes papers and responses presented in
conference sessions on: Economic Growth and Vitality;
Demographics and Life-Style; Energy and Environment;
Future Development Patterns; Commercial Freight
Transportation; Personal Mobility; New Technology and
Communications; and Resources and Institutional
Arrangements.
34. Urban Mass Transportation Research Information Service
Selections Pertaining To: The Cost of Traffic Congestion,
Washington, DC, May/June, 1988.
A compilation of abstracts of papers on such topics as:
Congestion Pricing of Public Transport; Peak - Period
Traffic Congestion: A State-of-the-Art Analysis and
Evaluation of Effective Solutions; Analysis of Peak
Period Traffic Congestion with Elastic Demand; Road
Pricing: Some Further Comments; Road Pricing - Some of
the More Neglected Theoretical and Policy Implications;
Behavioral Impacts of Flexible Working Hours; Technical
Methods for Road Pricing; Road Pricing: The Economic and
Technical Possibilities (The Smeed Report); Implementing
a City Congestion-Pricing Demonstration: Overcoming the
Hurdles; Effects of Parking Costs on Urban Transport
Modal Choice.
41
8. Energy Issues
The United States consumes about 25 % of the world's petroleum,
with transportation accounting for nearly two-thirds of U.S. use
each year. While oil use in other sectors of the economy has
decreased, transportation consumption continues to grow. Highway
vehicles consume 73% of all energy used in transportation. In
high-density corridors, commuter rail and intercity rail passenger
and freight service may be more energy efficient than motor
vehicles, while serving the same purposes.
The Internodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991
(ISTEA) calls for the development of an internodal transportation
system that is economically efficient and environmentally sound and
moves people and goods in an energy efficient manner. Many of the
programs that can be funded through the ISTEA's Congestion
Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement Program, as well as other
ISTEA programs, will also increase energy conservation and
efficiency. Also, alternative fuels being developed to reduce air
pollution may increase engine efficiency. Further research is
needed on engine performance, emissions, and maintenance, using
alternative fuels, as well as on the energy implications of various
transportation control measures.
1. Methodology for Freight Transportation Energy and Emission
Studies, A.M. Khan, for the Canadian Society for Mechanical
Engineering Forum, June 1-4, 1992, Montreal, Canada, June
1992.
This paper describes methodological advances in the
estimation of freight transportation energy and
emissions. The overall methodological framework is
covered and a comparative examination of a number of
recent studies is presented.
2. Transportation Energy Data Book: Edition 12, S.C. Davis, M.D.
Morris, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee,
prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy, Washington DC,
March 1992.
This publication is a statistical compendium prepared and
published by Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) under
contract with the Office of Transportation Technologies
in the Department of Energy (DOE). Designed for use as a
desk-top reference, the data book represents an assembly
and display of statistics and information that
characterize transportation activity, and presents data
on other factors that influence transportation energy
use.
3. "Report of the 24th Annual Joint Conference of the ENO
Transportation Foundation, Board of Directors and Board of
Advisors," D. Knight, Eno Foundation for Transportation,
Incorporated, Transportation Quarterly, Vol. 46, No. 1, pp. 3-
17, January 1992.
This day-long debate had as its theme: "Mobility,
Environment and Energy--Impossible?" The discussion
focused on two research programs undertaken in 1991
through the auspices of the Foundation, entitled
"Transportation and Energy" and "Transportation and the
Environment." Both studies will be published in 1992.
42
4. Energy Efficiency, Developing Nations, and Eastern Europe: A
Report to the U.S. Working Group on Global Energy Efficiency,
M.D. Levine, A. Gadgil, S. Meyers, J. Sathaye, J. Stafurik,
Bechtel National, Inc., Arlington, Virginia, sponsored by the
Agency for International Development, Office of Energy,
Washington, DC, 1991.
The report describes a number of insights gained from
efforts to promote energy efficiency that have been
pursued in developing countries in recent years, and
details some of the ways to move towards a more efficient
energy future.
5. Assessment of Costs and Benefits of Flexible and Alternative
Fuel Use in the U.S. Transportation Sector, Technical Report
Seven: Environmental, Health, and Safety Concerns, U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Policy, Planning and Analysis,
Washington, DC, 1991.
This report addresses questions of energy security and
fuel availability, but covers a wide range of issues,
examining environmental, health, and safety concerns
associated with a switch to alternative and flexible fuel
vehicles.
6. The Texas Transportation Energy Data Book, Southwest Region,
University Transportation Center, Texas Transportation
Institute, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 1991.
The Texas Transportation Energy Data Book is a
statistical data base which contains information
regarding the transportation energy characteristics of
Texas, comparing transportation statistics of Texas with
seven other comparable states. The report furnishes
information about alternative fuels and new energy saving
technology.
7. "Comparison of Emissions and Energy Use for Truck and Rail,"
W.G. Blevins, A.W. Gibson, Transportation Association of
Canada Conference, Vol. 4, Conference Proceedings, 1991.
This paper examines a variety of railway technologies and
truck configurations, representative of the range of
equipment in service, covering a representative route
across Canada. The conclusions are that railways can
move competitive traffic at a fuel saving typically in
the range of 65 to 70 percent compared with trucks, and
that this advantage will be largely maintained in the
future, even in the face of extreme truck configurations
such as turnpike doubles.
8. Trucks and Energy Use: A Review of the Literature and the Data
in Canada, F.P. Nix, Ontario Trucking Association, Rexdale,
Ontario, Canada, August 1991.
There are some who say that, because railways are more
energy efficient than trucks, government should do
something to encourage a shift of freight from trucks to
rails. This report argues that a recent study from
Transport Canada, which claims that large amounts of
energy could be saved in Canada if there were a major
shift of traffic from trucks to the railways (Kahn,
1991), is flawed, because it uses energy used per ton-
kilometer of freight as the basis for comparing.
According to the author, "Anybody can prove that a train
can move a ton of freight one kilometer under most
circumstances with less fuel than a truck, especially if
the train in question is a unit train of coal moving over
a long distance and the truck in question is picking up
or delivering consumer products in an urban area."
43
9. Are We Running Out of Oil?, C.J. DiBona, Highway Users
Federation for Safety and Mobility, Washington DC, July 1991.
Charles J. DiBona, President and Chief Executive Officer
of the American Petroleum Institute (APT), addressed more
than 260 delegates to the 1991 Highway Transportation
Congress, sponsored by the Highway Users Federation. In
this address, an overview on petroleum energy, Mr. DiBona
voices his opposition to fuel conservation, arguing that
oil reserves are infinite and opposing alternative fuels
on the grounds that they will be more expensive. Mr.
DiBona calls for development of oil resources in
locations other than the Middle East.
10. Energy and Environmental Factors in Freight Transportation,
A.M. Khan, A.K. SocioTechnical Consultants, Ottawa, Canada,
for Transport Canada, Economic Research Branch, Ottawa,
Ontario, July 1991.
This study produces energy efficiency and environmental
estimates for the freight transportation system in
Canada, with emphasis on intercity transportation. The
effects of likely future traffic growth and selected
scenarios are also assessed.The study found that at the
aggregate national level, rail freight is the most
efficient user of energy (in ton-km terms) and air
freight is the most inefficient. On a per ton-km basis,
truck service by Class 1 and Class 11 for-hire carriers
uses more than three times the fuel required by railway
freight and domestic marine.
11. Rail Vs.Truck Fuel Efficiency: The Relative Fuel Efficiency of
Truck Competitive Rail Freight and Truck Operations Compared
in A Range of Corridors, Abacus Technology Corp., Chevy Chase,
Maryland, for the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal
Railroad Administration, Office of Policy, Washington, DC,
April 1991.
The report evaluates the fuel efficiency of rail freight
operations relative to competing truckload service. The
findings are based on computer simulations of rail and
truck freight movements between the same origins and
destinations, based on actual rail and truck operations.
Data was provided by U.S. Class I and regional railroads
and by large truck fleet operators. Rail achieved from
1.4 to 9 times more ton-miles per gallon than competing
truckload service. The study included consideration of
rail circuity, fuel used in rail switching, terminal
operations, and truck drayage (for rail).
12. Forecast of Transportation Energy Demand Through the Year
2010, M.M. Mintz, A.D. Vyas, Argonne National Laboratory,
Argonne, Illinois, April 1991.
This report documents the process used to forecast
transportation activity and energy demand through the
year 2010. It was developed by the Center for
Transportation Research at Argonne National Laboratory
under contract to the Office of Transportation
Technologies under the Assistant Secretary for
Conservation and Renewable Energy of the U.S. Department
of Energy.
13. Transport Coordination, N. Krarup, Copenhagen, Denmark, March
1991.
An investigation, based on questionnaires, of the
potential for economic savings and energy conservation,
if firms coordinate transportation of their goods instead
of having their own individual transportation. The
calculated reduction of energy consumption was estimated
to be 50%, with a 27% reduction in transport.
14. Transport Energy Conservation Policies for Australian Cities:
Strategies for Red Automobile Dependence, P. Newman, J.
Kenworthy, T. Lyons, Murdoch University, Australia, 1990.
Discussion of transport energy conservation policies for
Australian cities has been expanded and developed, based on
the authors' previous book, Cities and Automobile Dependence:
An International Sourcebook. New evidence confirms that the
more automobile-dependent cities were in 1960, the more they
became by 1980. Toronto is an exception, not showing the
downward density and public transport trends evident in the
other cities and providing a model for Australian cities in
the next two decades. Other Canadian cities (Montreal,
Edmonton, Calgary and Vancouver) were also shown to be more
like European than US/Australian cities.
15. Energy Consumption and Conservation Potential: Supporting
Analysis for the National Energy Strategy, U.S. Department of
Energy, Washington, DC, December 1990.
This report presents a detailed assessment of the
conservation potential in the end-use energy sectors of
the U.S. economy. Increased conservation is achieved in
the transportation sector, by increasing the penetration
of more efficient alternatively fueled vehicles. The
principal finding of this study is that for the same
level of energy services (heating, cooling, etc.) that
are enjoyed today by residential, commercial, and
industrial users, and with modest reduction in vehicle
travel, if specific technologically based conservation
initiatives are successful, and can be placed into
service in every sector and end-use energy system, then
significant energy savings could be achieved over the
next 40 years. Further work is necessary to quantify the
costs and benefits of these savings in each sector.
16. National Transportation Statistics, Annual Report, 1990, J.
Kelley, Transportation Systems Center Research and Special
Programs Administration, Cambridge, Massachusetts, sponsored
by the U.S. Department of Transportation, Office of Budget and
Programs, Washington, DC, July 1990.
This report is a compendium of selected national
transportation, and transportation-related, energy data
from a wide variety of government and private sources.
The data illustrate transportation activity for the major
transportation modes - air, automobile, bus, truck, local
transit, rail, water, and pipeline. Basic descriptors
such as operating revenues and expenses, number of
vehicles and employees, vehicle and passenger-miles, and
passenger and freight operations, are included.
Transportation trends in performance, safety, and motor
vehicle sales, production, and costs are also presented.
Supplementary sections include Transportation and the
Economy and Energy in Transportation, which is divided
into Energy Consumption, Energy Intensiveness, Energy
Transport, and Energy Supply and Demand.
17. Energy Policy: Developing Strategies for Energy Policies in
the 1990s, U.S. General Accounting Office, Washington, DC,
June 1990.
The information contained in this report updates and
supplements the information in a previous 1988 General
Accounting Office report and discusses continuing
concerns about several energy issues, including energy
consumption, increased dependence on imported oil from
Persian Gulf sources that are more likely to be
interrupted, uncertainty over the adequacy of future
electric generating capacity, and concern for the
potentially adverse environmental effects of energy
consumption. In addition, the President's initiative to
develop a national energy strategy is discussed.
18. Annual Bulletin of Transport Statistics for Europe, 1990,
United Nations, Volume 40, New York, NY, April 1990.
The purpose of this annual bulletin is to provide basic
data on transport and related trends in European
countries, Canada and the United States. This
publication is purely statistical, and its scope
comprises the rail, road, and inland waterway sectors,
container transport, goods loaded and unloaded at sea
ports, transport by oil pipeline, and international goods
transport by various modes of transport and commodity
group. The data refer to length of networks, number,
capacity and power of vehicles and internal and
international traffic and transport. General information
on the consumption of energy in transport is included.
19. Iowa at the Crossroads: 1990 Iowa Comprehensive Energy Plan,
K.D. Sibold, P.S. Cale, K.M. Poulson, L. Dombrowski, R.
Martin, L. Smith, Iowa Department of Natural Resources, Des
Moines, Iowa, January 1990.
This publication examines lowa's consumption of energy
and the economic and environmental impacts of energy use.
The 1990 Comprehensive Energy Plan provides
recommendations for energy policies that will assist in
meeting the state's economic and environmental
objectives. In addition, to show the technical and
programmatic potential for carrying out the
recommendations, an appendix of current energy program
case studies is included.
20. Cities and Automobile Dependence: An International Sourcebook;
Peter Newman and Jeffrey Kenworthy, Gower Publishing Co.,
Aldershot, England, 1989.
A study of urban form, transport, and energy use in 32
cities in North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia.
21. Transportation Energy, Transportation Research Record No.
1155, Transportation Research Board, National Research Board,
Washington, DC, 1987.
This publication includes several articles concerning
energy and transportation.
46
9. International Issues
The European Community is seeking to achieve "sustainable
mobility," to allow transportation to fulfill its economic and
social role while containing its harmful effects on the
environment. Some countries are developing approaches to take
account of the external effects of transportation by imposing
externality charges through road pricing, gas taxes, kilometer
taxes, and landing charges. The EC framework will require a
coordinated examination of environmental standards and enforcement
and other guidelines to accomplish their goals. There is as yet no
common strategy.
1. Transport Policy Decision made by the German Government in
1992, Verkehrsnachrichten, published by the Federal Transport
ministry, Bonn, August/September 1992 (German only), obtained
from Dr. Andreas Kuechel, Transportation Counsellor, Embassy
of the Federal Republic of Germany.
"Priority for the railroad" is the basic principle of the
decisions made by the German Federal Cabinet on July 15,
1992, which is also reflected in the transport budget for
1993 and the masterplan for the transport infrastructure.
Goals of the German policy are to achieve a
comprehensive, environmentally-friendly transportation
system, to meet the increased demand for transportation
services caused by the unification of Germany, the single
European market, and the opening of the Central and
Eastern European countries. The centerpieces of this
policy are a quality-improved and capacity-enlarged rail
passenger and freight system, the development of freight
centers to interlink rail and road freight traffic,
improved intermodal service, and better usage of the
inland waterway system.
Emphasis is being placed on rapid improvement of the
linkage between East and West Germany, both with high-
speed rail and road improvements. Airport capacity will
be expanded to handle international flights, and the
long-term goal is to eliminate all flights under one hour
where high-speed ground transportation is available.
Motor vehicle emissions must be substantially reduced,
and airport noise is being addressed. Taxes and fees
will be used as incentives and disincentives for modal
shifts. To encourage modal shifts, rail is receiving
first priority for investment. In 1993, for the first
time, investments in the rail system will exceed the
investments in the federal highway network.
2. "The Environment-Mobility Dilemma," Rail International
Proceedings, Session C, Workshop 17, Brussels, June/July 1992.
This panel discussed the need to shift more traffic to
environmentally benign modes and ways to measure the
environmental and social impacts of transportation.
Several papers are described below:
"The Environment-Mobility Dilemma," a paper by the Chairman of
the above panel, Dr. Hans Lindenbaum (Austria).
This paper points out that to prevent mobility from
endangering health and the environment, railways need to
be attractive, for people, goods, and for the
environment. Dr. Lindenbaum notes that the advent of the
TGV in France and the ICE in Germany has drawn attention
from the remainder of the rail system. He urges greater
attention to improving the environment and service of the
rest of the rail network.
47
"A Solution Based on Market Principles," Lars Hansson
(Sweden).
This paper points out that in the 1980s, there was
increasing focus on the quality of mobility of different
transport modes and the environmental impact of
transportation. Externality charges, internalizing
environmental effects, will allow appropriate tradeoffs
to be considered.
"Environmental Problems in the Transport Sector and Concepts
Proposed for their Solution," Werner Rothengatter (Germany).
Dr. Rothengatter suggests a pricing policy for the
different transport modes, with the modes with the
highest intrinsic environmental costs having to pay the
highest extra charges-through road pricing, fuel taxes,
or by paying for environmental certificates.
"Mobility and the Environment," Antonio Tamburrino (Italy).
Dr. Tamburrino discusses the concept of "environmentally
sustainable mobility." He points out the need to obtain
exhaustive scientific data on environmental effects and
to develop a sound evaluation of economic, social, and
environmental costs and benefits, activating a public
decisional process to build consensus on these.
3. Transport and the Environment in Finland, Statistics Finland,
for the Ministry of Transport and Communications, Helsinki,
Finland, June 1992. (English edition, which is an abridged
version of the more comprehensive Finnish report.)
The goal of this report is to provide a comprehensive
picture of the relationship between transportation and
environmental issues in Finland. The. report contains
statistics, estimates, and projections, research results,
and information on aspects of transport policy and
legislation. One development objective for the next few
years concerns the pricing of environmental damage
attributable to traffic.
4. "Environmental Quality and Transport Policy in Europe," Veli
Himanen, Peter Nijkamp, and Juraj Padjen, Transportation
Research, Part A, Policy and Practice, V26A, pp. 147-57, March
1992.
The paper discusses the relationship of transport policy
and environmental quality/sustainability, suggests that
transport policy can improve environmental conditions if
it decreases VMT, auto production and ownership, and
increases the use of technological measures for cleaning
exhaust gases. Four scenarios (status quo, traffic
restraint, redistribution of demand, and reduction of
demand) are analyzed and compared.
5. Financing Public Transport: How Does Britain Compare?, Steer
Davies Geare, for Bow Group, Centre for Local Economic
Strategies, Eurotunnel, Railway Industry Association,
Transport 2000, London, March 1992.
Compared with other EC countries, in Britain there has
been a long period of under investment in public
transport, and by 1991, Britain spent less per capita on
rail infrastructure than any other EC country apart from
Greece and Ireland. Among other recommendations, the
report calls for a national framework for public
transport assessment, so plans can be formulated in an
equivalent manner to the national roads program.
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6. Green Paper on the impact of Transport on the Environment, A
Community Strategy for Sustainable Mobility, Commission of the
European Communities, Brussels. February 1992.
This paper provides an assessment of the overall impact
of transport on the environment and presents a common
strategy for "sustainable mobility," which should enable
transport to fulfill its economic and social role while
containing its harmful effects on the environment. The
report identifies critical issues relating to pollution
and noise standards, truck size and weight, speed limits,
energy consumption, land use, congestion, and the risks
inherent in transporting dangerous goods, and measures
that could take better account of the external costs of
transportation are cited. The goals are to encourage and
improve the more environmentally friendly modes
(especially rail freight, intermodal, barge, rail
passenger systems) and to make efficient use of existing
capacity.
7. Freight Transport and the Environment, European Conference of
Ministers of Transport (ECMT), ECMT May 1991 International
Seminar, prepared in Cooperation with OECD, Paris, France,
1991.
In the past 20, years growth in European freight
transport has occurred primarily on highways, with 75
percent of the growth attributed to increased length of
haul. At the seminar, three papers that presented the
European perspective emphasized the importance and effect
freight transport has on the environment, both today and
in the future. Additional papers were presented
detailing technical changes that may reduce future
adverse emission and noise impacts from all modes. The
inclusion of the appropriate environmental costs in
transport pricing was a theme widely discussed.
8. Energy and Environmental Issues 1991, Transportation Research
Record, No. 1312, Transportation Research Board, National
Research Council, Washington, DC, 1991.
Includes several articles. The most informative are:
"Transportation and Urban Air Pollution Policies for Developed
and Developing Countries", by Alan J. Krupnick.
Improvements in urban air quality remain elusive in large
cities throughout the world, including those in the U.S.,
where efforts have continued over 20 years to reduce
emissions from vehicles and other sources. Germany, the
Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden have until recently taxed
clean cars (those using catalytic converters) less than
others, or reduced their annual vehicle fees. EC-wide
vehicle emission standards, which will be somewhat less
strict than those in the U.S., will make such
differentiation unnecessary.
"Pricing of Air Pollution in the Swedish Transport Policy,"
Lars Hansson.
Swedish transportation policy has radically changed
during the last decade. In 1979, the principle of a
social marginal cost responsibility for road and rail
traffic was introduced, taking into account social costs
for traffic accidents. In 1988, an essential part of the
new Transport Policy Act was the principle of
internalizing some of the traffic emissions. These were
then explicitly considered in infrastructure charges for
road and rail traffic and for domestic aviation.
Negative external effects taken into account are traffic
accidents, air pollution, noise disturbance, and
congestion, through gas taxes, kilometer taxes, rail
charges, and landing charges. Some of these charges have
already been adopted by Parliament.
9. Transport in a Fast Changing Europe, Group Transport 2000
Plus, Brussels, Belgium, 1990.
This report was prepared by the working group, Transport
2000 Plus, formed in association with the Commission of
European Communities, to examine the medium and long-term
transportation and communication problems of the European
Community. It highlights the crisis facing the European
transportation system once the single market becomes a
reality. Unless the pending crisis is addressed by the
political sector, the transport system is likely to
become paralyzed, resulting in economic slowdown and
increased damage to the environment. The report included
discussion of transportation's negative environmental
effects, including land use, energy consumption, noise
and vibration, visual intrusions, and air pollution.
The report recognizes that a balance must be struck
between the environmental imperative and ramifications
for economic growth. Any policy introducing
environmental improvements more quickly than actually
necessary, with a severely reduced GNP as a result, would
be just as damaging as the too-little-too-late approach.
Recommendations for action include a Euro bonus system
that would tax petroleum products, a European
infrastructure fund, as well as other alternatives.
10. Transport Policy and the Environment, European Conference of
Ministers of Transport (ECMT), ECMT 1989 Ministerial Sessions,
prepared in Cooperation with OECD, Paris, France, 1990.
This report includes the following chapters: The
Interface Between Transport and the Environment;
Transport Trends of Environmental Significance; Noise;
Air Pollution; Regulations and Standards (exhaust
emissions and noise emissions) in OECD countries; and
Conclusions. The report considers how the comparative
environmental advantages of alternative modes to private
motorized transport can best be used and suggests that a
combination of direct and indirect measures, including
improvement of urban railways, along with charges or
restrictions as disincentives to car use might be most
effective. Any such actions will require political will
and a major information campaign. For interurban
traffic, the ECMT adopted a resolution that recommends
making railway, inland waterway, and combined transport
as efficient and commercially oriented as possible, with
improved cooperation at the international level. It also
recommends that any proposals to harmonize taxes and
charges in international road freight transport should
take into account the environmental damage caused by such
traffic.
11. Transport in Cities, Brian Richards, Architecture Design and
Technology Press, London, U.K., 1990.
British architect and transportation planner Brian
Richards describes practical and attractive
transportation alternatives that have worked in cities
around the world. Drawings, diagrams and photographs
illustrate ways to reduce auto trips through such
strategies as auto-free pedestrian zones, road pricing
and permit programs, busways, light rail, subways,
intermodal connections, parking restrictions and water
commuting.
12. Railways, Environment and Transport Quality, A collection of
Expert Papers prepared for the International Transport
Workers' Federation, London, U.K., February 1990.
Growing demand for mobility, especially in the
international movement of people and goods, poses the
question of whether this demand can be satisfied without
causing irreparable damage to local environments and the
global environment. Political decisions with respect to
transport are now closely scrutinized, and transport has
become more important on the political agenda. The
Railwaymen's Section introduction to the group of papers
suggests that
50
intervention and positive action are required in the
supply of basic infrastructure and to insure the
development of transport modes which cause the least
damage. "For too long the railways' ability to respond
to the increasing demand for transport has been
restricted by lack of investment in modern infrastructure
by comparison with other transport modes. Past failure
to attribute to the other modes their full external costs
led to the misconception that the other transport modes
were a "cheaper" option.
The seven papers included are entitled: The Energy
Consumption of Various Transport Systems; The
Environmental Impacts of Transport; Comparative Accident
Costs of Transport Modes; Railways and the Public; The
Transport Planner's View; The Railway Manager's View; and
the Transport Politicians View. Abstracts of several of
these are presented below:
"Railways and the Public," J. Sivardiere, General Secretary of
the National Federation of Transport Users, France, included
in Sub-Theme 2: Safety and Quality of Service.
Railways under government-imposed financial constraints
are frequently obligated to put financial profitability
before public service considerations. Improvements in
service speeds on non-high speed (non-TGV) lines are
needed as are improvements in: station facilities; maps;
information availability; passenger comfort; and
personnel attitudes. Efficient, convenient modal
transfers (including adequate station parking) are
essential, and the railways must make information on such
transfers readily available.
"The Transport Planner's View," A. Nilsson, Swedish State
Railways, included in Sub-Theme 3: Transport and the
Environment - A Balanced Policy.
In Sweden, the 1988 Transport Policy Decision established
that transport charges were to cover total (variable and
fixed) socioeconomic costs and that these costs were to
be the responsibility of the user. The Swedish National
Railways has developed an estimate of the total 1986
socioeconomic costs of motor transport indicating that
the heavy goods transport by road generates SEK 4.5 and
5.5 billions in costs while the charges and taxes paid by
this transport segment total only SEK 2 billions. Once
the public and decision-makers understand the railways'
advantages, the author believes railways will be the
transport mode of the future.
"The Railway Manager's View," J. Higgins, Republic of Ireland,
Railway Consultant, Ireland, included in Sub-Theme 3:
Transport and the Environment - A Balanced Policy.
The rapidly developing concern for environmental
standards and energy conservation has expanded the
opportunity for railroad transport, particularly in light
of the approaching European Economic Community (EEC)
single market. Railroads offer large advantages over
roadways in: safety, congestion, pollution, noise, land
use, and energy consumption. Policy makers should judge
all modes using the same assessment criteria and must be
encouraged to support railways, both in terms of revenues
and investment. However, in order to gain the support of
policy makers, the railroads must redouble their efforts
to improve their performance and recognize that
anachronistic transport systems supported by public
charity belong to the past.
"The Transport Politician's View," G. Whitlam, Prime Minister
of Australia 197-275, included in Sub-Theme 3: Transport and
the Environment - A Balanced Policy.
Increasingly, the relationship between transport and the
environment is being addressed by governments in an
integrated and comprehensive approach, matched by a
consistent determination to create environmentally and
financially sustainable solutions. This paper
51
considers the scope of a pro-environment transport policy
and considers the role that rail could play in
ameliorating transport induced environmental problems and
the role of government in facilitating this. While each
mode's unique advantages should be encouraged, while
conserving resources and ensuring that a mode is not
inefficiently under- or overutilized, the principle that
each mode be required to bear its environmental cost
should be applied. The article discusses rail's
environmental advantages in terms of energy efficiency,
pollution, safety and consumption of space.
13. Second Transport Structure Plan, Transport in a Sustainable
Society, Second Chamber of the States, General Session 1989-
1990, the Netherlands.
This paper, submitted to the Parliament as a Cabinet
Document, sets out the relationship between
transportation and the environment and the policy of the
sustainable environment. The Netherlands is working
within the European Community (EC) to achieve a situation
whereby a larger share of the real environmental cost is
passed on to the user. They will continue developing
effective transportation options and negative incentives,
raising the variable cost of motoring through congestion
pricing and higher gas taxes.
14. Transportation and the Environment, Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development, Paris, France, 1988.
This report includes sections on: An Overview on
Transport and the Environment; The Impacts of Road
Transport on the Environment; Assessment of Innovations
in Urban Transport Management; and An Assessment of
Technical Changes to Reduce Air Pollution and Noise
Emissions from Motor Vehicles.
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