408 MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW. JULY, 1990
* 3) Southern zone.
I! (4) bomw (tropical zone)
coast near the bqrder experiences a hot, dry wind similar to the foehn, which raises the temperature considerabl . In winter the. north differs somewhat from the soutk. Februarv is the coldest month. with 68" F. average
Average nion!hly temperature in C.
(2) c e n t d zone. (1) Northern zone.
During the winter a strong northeast monsoon blows steadily and this, combined with the mountains, causes
heavy rainfall in the north, which lasts for several months. Rashoryo on the hillside near the eastern coast is prob- ably the wettest place in the Fpr East, having an average rainfall of 7,338 mm. (289 in.). The west coast gets less
During the summer the southwestern monsoon prevails, and except during the occurrence of a typhoon the winds
Jan.. .....
%!:::I:: z;.::::: June -....
%::I:::: ET!::::::
:E---;?
rain because it is protected by the mountains. Nov ....__
thunderstorms give abundant ruin- vation..
monthli temperature in the south, and 57" F. in tge north.
WIND AND RAIN.
-5.1
1::;
i:: 9.8
:::: ii::
-'.' 4.3
33
1.5 1.2 4.5 10.4 15.0 19.3 23.5 25.5 21.3 15.1 9.4 4.1
-3.1 -2.6 0.7 6.4 10.4 14.2 18.5 21.3 17.4 11.4 5.3 -0.3
I an ....... 1 1 Feb.. . . -. Msr . .. . . .
Jan ..._... Feb _._.__ Mar _.___. Apr ___._. May ....__ June ..... July ....__ Aug ...._. sept .-...- Oct ....... Nov ._.._. Dec ...__. N o . of
6.0 4.4 9.2 14.4 17.0 21.6 25.5 26.6 23.4 18.8 12.8
7.9
Api ._.._. May .._... JW..... July ... . -. AUK ...... sept ...... Oct ....... Nov .._._. Dee _..... N o . of
12.6 16.5 m.4 23.8 25.4
21.8 15.8 10.3 5.3
Nemu- ro.
The earliest ty hoons that visit Formosa occur in May
ber to April there ake none. they generally occur. and their frequency may be judged from the fact that in the 17 years from 1S97 to 191.3
and the latest in % ovember, and sometimes from Decem- August is the nionth when
Jan...-..- 28.5 Feb ...... 21.1
deerage nunlthly rahfall in inin.
Hakw date.
55.8 57.7 Mar .__... 43.7 64.1
ay ..._.. m.7 80.1 June ..... 90.6 89.9
_..... 70.2 69.3
J U h ..... 1
85.9
1
138.0
~-
Jan ....... Feb ...... Mar ...... A r .__... 2 ay ._.... June ..... July ... . . . Aug ...... Sept ..__. . Oct ...... Nov _..... Dee. .....
I-
Total ...
Auk ...... 94.0 129.3 Sept ...... 134.5 188.4
Dee .._... 62.10 I 79.3
OCt Nov..-../ ...... 88.1 79 11 114.3 95.8
57.1 58.0 100.2 131.8 158.9 153.8 143.3 145.2 210.6 180.1 100.3 54.1
1,500.4 Total ...I, 825.7 i 1,142.0
88.3 125.2 104.6 108.0 8 .8 132.9 158.9 130.9 186.6 146.3 182.5 232.6
15.7 14.0
16.9
23. P 26.6 27.9 27.7 24. 2 23.3 19.6 16.7
m. 7
18
91.0 130.7 175.8 137.6 204.9
u1.4
m. 0 248.9 233.2 101.7 72.6 93.1
~~
' (3) Southern zone. Central zone. (4) Formosa (tropicalzone).
Jan .._._.. Feb .....- Yar .....- Apr _..._. May __..._ June ..... July .__... Aug ...... sept ... .. . Oct ..__.. Nov .....- Dee .._...
1 Tokio.
78.9 81.7 130.1 196.6 180.1 294.9
245.3 177.5 210.9 117.6 85.4 85.4
- I
HISTORICAL NOTE ON CHARTS OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE, 'AND WINDS OVER THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH.
The state of the atmosphere a t any given oint is com-
that-point of the six meteorologieai! ezements-temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, cloud, and precipitation (elec- trical state has no influence on the phenomena we are oonsidering). The day to day fluctuations of these ele- ments, caused by disturbances in the atmosphere, consti- tute weather, whereas the "normal" values, obtained by of observatisns in order to
pletely determined when we have gven t 1 e values at
gra hically by means of isometric charts. Por purposes of. theoretical and dynamical meteorolo y,
without, however, Boing into an minute climatological
utility for practical meteorology, other than descriptive climatolo y, as pointed out, e. g ., by J. Rouch, Pripara-
Yeteorologicaf phenomena are all due to the flood of energy received from the sun; hence the measurement of the amount of sohr radiation, and the distribution of
it is essential to have such charts for the entire glo % e,
details. "Normal' values have i ut little significance or
tiom Bit f orolop ues pour k s Voyages Airiens, Paris, 1920.
i,naoZution over the surface of the earth and throughout time, become of fundamental importance as subjects of investigation.' The primary meteorological phenomenon to which in- solation gives rise-temperature, and its diurnal and annual variations-must be assigned first plaqe in the! chain of cause and effect in meteorology: were the siin
blotted out of existence, a lifeless uniformity would take possession of the earth; WQIW the distribution of temperature over the earth alwa s the same and the temperature uniform, a calm e uiyibrium would ensue.? The temperature, pressure, an1 prevailing winds, be- cause of their intimate relations with one another, are bost dealt with tooether; taken in con'unction with the
remaining elements, and the climatological charac teris- tics of any region.
topography, etc., h e y determine the d istrihution of the
* C Dorno On Observatlons of Solar and Sky Radiations and Their Im ortance t O C h k h o ~ &d Blologp and RISO to Ge hys1W-d AstronOm MONTHLY ~)EATHEB
REVIEW 48 18-24 1920. J. B. IiIncer,%n hine in the Un&d States MONTHLY WEATH& d ~v r ~w ' 4 8 12-17 19XT H H I d f i l l Variationsin the totalaid luminous Solar Radiation a h heogrLphIcb pk&m in t h i United States, MONTHLY WEATEEB REVIEW 47 769-793, 1918; A m i & oJ fhs A&ophyakal ObsmWory o/ the Smlhsonfur InstWdn h s 1-3. 'Lap&, Mk. Ckl., Bk. 1, Art. 37: Bk. 3 chap. VU. Ferrel Rrpt. U. 8. h a t Sur- uey, 18i8, p. 402; W. 1. Humphreys, Phy8fc8 bftAc Air, chap. vi(.
JULY, 1080. MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW. 409
Meteorolo ical phenomena were undoub tedly amonu tlie first to t e noticed by primitive man. The genera7 distribution of temperature over the world has been known since an tiqiii t.v--Era tos thenes, Polybius , and Straho were ncquainted with the ca.iise of this distribn- tioii; long before comparable thermometers were known, or a recise idea of the mean temperature had been formurated, Halley, in 1693, lair1 the founrlntions of the theory of the heating power of the sun n t different lati- tudes; in the eighteenth centmy, Mairan ancl Lambert wrote on the same subject; Mayer’s empiric fomula for determining the mean temperature at any latitude, once the constants hac1 been foiincl by observations nt a few
stations, played an im ortant r61e for many years. Indian Ocean haye also been known since the ecirliest times, liming been described by
Aristotle and the early Arabs: the trades were cliscoveretl by Columbus, aiicl their distribution mn led out by the
century witnessed the discovery by Torricelli of the baro- metric pressure of the atmosphere, and its decrease with olevution. Before the esploring espeuitions led by Capt. Wilkes and by Sir James Iloss (both about 1810), it was pretty &merally thou lit t1ia.t the baro-
the stime a t till places--about 30 inches: these espedi- tions clearly clemonstrated that the barometer per-
The moiisoons of t i e r
navigators of the sis teen th centurv. !N le seven teen th
metric pressure a t sea level is norma 9 ly nearly or quite
sistently stood low in the Tropics, higher to. either side of the tropical zone, and lower again toward the poles.y Somewhat previous to the o ening of the.nineteenth century, there was inaugnratef eriod in the history of meteorology which wns marlcecr hg the attempt to give logical explanations for the various phenomena. In spite of the great mass of weather lore and ohservn- tional mcts accumulatod since the time of the ancients, there had been little or no attempt a t a rational theory of meteorological phenomena in general. But mean- while the sciences of mathematics, hysics, hydrody- namics, etc., had been developimg: anc Y at the beginning
of tlie nineteenth century, with the chemical nature of the atmosphere a t last known, the Gas Laws discovered, and the equations of analytical mechanic.s available, it became possihle to found the science of Dynamical Meteorology. The fiist theoretical investigation of the atmosphere from this standpoint was given by Laplace
(1. c.) in the MBcanique CBleste, which contains practi- citlly all the then esisting knowledge of the subjects treated. His nieteorolo icnl con tribu tions, however, re-
mospheric tides. Increasingly accura, te nnd ex tensire observation also marked this period. The first temperature chart (8.5
late only to an atmosp % ere in equilibrium, and to at-
__
~
3 More recent observations have estsbliahed that in the vicinity of the poles them- selves the barometer agaln stands high.
VON HUMROLDT’S Isothermal CharL.01 the Globe, 1817. Flrst uhllshed in the author’sre rints 01 Des ligna iaolhermn ddclcr dfstrihulion de la chaleur snr I t globe, M b O h S de Xhysiques et do chimie de la SocdtB d’Arcueil T 111 p 4&?-60P rgroduced In facsini~le in Hellmann’s Neudrucke No. 8, Berlin 1897; and Hildebrandsum and Te~SSerene t. i b. 2% 1Sb.r. See also W. Meinardus, D f r Eniwlekelung der kurten der Jahres-IaotAermm m Alemndtvm Humboldt bis auf Heinrich Iillhelm Dore, Humbofi-Centenar-Schnlt, derlin, 1889. e Bort’s “Lea BIMJ de la Jf&urologle D
I
.
MONTHLY WEA THER REVIEW. JULY, 1920
well as first meteorological is0 ram chart) published was that of von Humboldt, 1817, w 7l o gave the name isotherms
to the lines which he mapped; he employed records from 58 stations to give the distribu tion of annual mean tempera- tures over the globe. Kamtz improvtd upon this map in 1832, using 145 station^.^ The next important land- mark is tho publication, in 1852, of Dove’s “Die Tier- OherJach,Q der Erde,” in which of annual isotherms, first of the globe for each month,
employing records from 900 stations. The first chart of revailing winds was that published bp Halley in the hilosophical Transactions, 1688. This map remained classic throughout the eighteenth cen tur.y; and not until well into the nineteenth century, when the need for the shortest possible sailing routes across the ocean arose, were further advances made. Although theoretical isobars, in the form of strai h t lines arallel to the e uator, had been drawn by 13. K.%.
observational data was that of France and ad’acent region
Buchan ’s, 1868. The efforts of Maury finally succeeded in enlisting the cooperation of seafaring men, and led to the international congress at Brussels in 1553, at which a uniform plan for
the 11 tilization of marine observations, especially of
winds, for the making of charts was agreed upon. The well-known ‘‘ Track urd Pilot Charts ” resulted; while similar charts were ublished by France, Germany, and
stations was rapidly increasing in all regions of the world. World wide charts of isobars, isotherms, and prevailing winds were published by Alexander Buchan in 1871; Coffin’s (‘ l$inds o the ($lobe” a peared in 1875; and the
tions, e. g., by E’errel in his L*Meteorologica7 Researches for the Use of the Coast I’iZot,’’ 1877 and earlier. However, previous to the famous Challenger Expedi- tion, 1872-1876, discussions of the fundamental problems of meteorology were forced to depend almost exclusively upon land observations; furthermore, all the then exist-
ing charts, mentioned above and which now ossess only
and incomplete data. Hence, not only were arrange- ments made for frequent meteorological observations on the cruise, but also a subsequent rediscussion of all available information regardin the different atmos-
fenger observations, was carried out by Buchan, and embodied in the great “Report on Atmospheric Circula- tion” forming pt. v. vol. I1 of the Scientijic Results, 1889. Buchan’s annual and monthly cnarts of temperature, pressure, and prevailing winds, which are still in standard use, are based for the most part on land observations during the 15-year period 1870-1854, inclusive. In tropical and subtropical regions, where the mean pres- sure, etc., varies but little for the same month from year to year, i t is not so important for purposes of comparative climatology and the construction of world maps that the observations be rigidly confined to the same period of time; but elsewhere, owing to the more or less marked instability which prevails with regard to the meteorologi- cal elements, it is of the utmost importance to obtain senes
Berg hp aus in 1839, t x e first isobaric chart based upon
published by Renou in 1864;5 the first wor i d chart was
England. Meanwhi P e, the number of land meteorological
data had already i een employe dp for theoretical investiga-
historical value, were based on necessari P y defective
heric phenomena, with especia f reference to the Chal-
4 Kamtz confirmed the exstence of two “poles of cold ’’ the existence of which had been suspected in 1820 by Brewster who from a stud of Hhmboldt’s chart had come to the conclusion that the geographi&dpofes were not tge places of minimumiern erature.
5 Fuller historical information, with references to original literature, an$facsimiles of maps will be found in H. Hildebrandsson and L Teisserenc de Bort Les Bases de Zu ,WddmZogie Dynarnique, t. 1, 1907, p 185-228. See, in addition, C.’F. Talmm, List of Neteorological Isograms, MONTHLY EATH HER REVIEW, 43, 185-198, 1915.
JULY, 1920. MONTHLY WEATHER REVIEW. 41 1
o observations covering, or capable of bring redwcsd to,
stations for the ressure ma s, 1,620 for temperature, and
tion existing, every source being drawn upon. The first attempt at a systeniatic atlas of meteorology was the meteorological section of tho Berghaus Ph.ya.icril Atks, first published in 1887, and revised in 1895. In 1899 ap eared vol. 111, Neteoroirogy, of Bwt7iolomeu~’s PhyeiccafAtlas. The charts resented in the latter are chiefly those of Buchan. $0 attempt has ever been made to utilize the accumulated observations since tho publication of Buchan’s charta in anything like so com- prehensive a m‘anner as was done by him. New, and slight1 m d s e d , maps for January, July, and the ear
are found in his Le rbuch der Meteorologi.e, 2d and 8d editions. Detailed charts of various count.rias, h s e d on the greater part of the vast mass of data now available, have been issued by the several meteorologicd services; but these axe not usually strictly corn arable with one another. Indeed, vast as the esistinggody of obsenia- tional material is, it is in such form that in its entiret
by any single person even if i t were available to him;
a digest of all existing climatoloaical data is urgently needed, and the preparation of s u a a digest, if roperly managed, would be a perfectly feasible ttlsk. &any of the best regional maps are reproduced in Bartholompw’s Atlas (1. c.), and some issued later are readily ohtainable from the meteorolo cal services of the respective coun-
Atlas Climutolori e de 1’Empire de Rwsie, St. Peten- burg, 1900; Ekyolm, Svemges t e m p e r a t u ~o r ~,a .~~n ~~~~
jam orda med det ofhga Euro as, Ymer, I899 ; Teisserenc
1-13, Paris, 1883; and the publications of the recent olar expeditions, e. g., Mohn, Norwegian North Polar %xpedition, vol. VI, 1905 and Simpson, British Antarctic Expedition, Meteorology, vol. I, 1919; H. C. Dunwoody, Summary of the I.nternaCionu1 dieteorological Obsermations (1878-1887, incl.), U. S. Weather Bureau Bull. A, 1593. The best existing maps for Frttnce and adjacent regions are those of A. Angot in his l%udes sur la clinlat de 2a France (temperature, Ann. Bur. Cent., 1903; ressure,
1851-1900. The best available charts for Europe in general, and especially for Poland, are those in two notable publications, recently received from the latter country, by Gorczynski,’ also for the period 18.51-1900. New maps for the entire globe are also presented in these latter hooks, but the data used are not so reliable, par- ticularly as regards homogeneity. A very escellent series of small world charts is con- tained in the British Meteorological Office’s Harom.eter Manual for the Use of Seamen, 9th ed., 1919; they are based on most of the data a t present available. The ma ing of the ocean areas presents problems of its own. $%e lsograms of the North Atlantic on Buchan’s charts were based on the published ’international ob- servations; those for the other oceans depended mainly upon coastal and island observations; the collection of marine meteorological data has one steadily forward
meteorologuxl charts published by the governmciits of
t d e s a w period of observation.” Buchan used 1,366
746 for the win 8 s, the who Ip e embodying all the informa-
P have ?8 een drawn b Hann, and in their lstest orin
x
it is available to.no one, and would not be manageab 9 e
tries. In addition t f ere may be mentioned: Rykatchev,
de $ ort, Annules du Bur. d n t . Het., 1881, vol. IV, pp.
ibid., 1906; winds, &id., 1907), based on tYl e data
since the international con ess o 9 1853, and has been continuallx utilized for f, % e construction of marine
a Wad law Gorczvdskl. 0 Cljnl?nlu Powlctrza w P o l m 1 w Enrople Warsurwa, 1917; OnBSNowe Izoteimy P~ISL~, ~uropy i kuli ziemsliiej. w-wa, lglir.
9855--
the various maritime nations. In 1909 the U. S. Weather Bureau commenced the publicatidp of a series of monthl
data; after a few years their publication was continued, in a somewhat modified form, by the Hydro aphic Office, and the have been reprinted, unchanger each month since. series constitutes probably the best of all such charts.
charts of each ocean, based on practically all availab P e
for the North Atlantic are now in process of publication? S ecial mention should also be made of the unique
d an only) marine meteorological atlas, AUas de Mkt& ologie ikritimQ, publid Ci I’occaGon de Z’Ecpos&n Mat”& time Internationalr, Paris, 1887 ; which contains, besides the extensive test, Toissorenc’s de Bort’s ressure and
numerous special charts.-Edgar If Moohrd.
wind charts of the lobe, Brault’s wind c Yl arh of the North Atlantic, su 2 ace water hem erature maps, and
_-
7 See Kon Ned. Met. Inst. No. 110 Owanomphische en Metoodogkche Wear- ndngf-n in‘dm Al.lantlsrhenbcman fw$. bcr, Jonuari, Februari, lrTiR-191C; l,W,4M observallons were utilized for this publica I&. (Reviewed, p. 412, below.)
NEW ISOTHERMAL CHARTS OF POLAND, EUROPE, AND TilE GLOBE.
In a notable work by Wadysaw Gorczvtiski, recently received from Polsnd,’ and which must have been larmely prepared within sound of the guns durin the World *ar, the distrihiition of temperature over B olmd and over Europe is dealt with in great detail. After n harmonic analpis of the diurnal variation of temperature at a niimher of stations in Poland, and at
many localities widely scattercd over the world, the question of the determination of true means is discussed. Bnnual and monthly means, a+ departures from the means, are formed for the period 1851-1900 at numerous stations in Poland ani1 a t 26 stations in Europe and Asia. Tne day-to-day variation of temperature is also discussed. This interdiurnal variation shows two masima and two minima each year (in Poland these usual1 occur in Janua.ry and May and in April and Septem l er, respec- tively); and its 10-year means for long records show a 30-year and 5-year period, the latter robably identical with Schuster’s 4.8 year sun-spot perio8. Probable errors and mean deviations are treated, and correlat,ions made between the monthly means at one station and those a t a number of other stations. Such correlations are greater and extend to greater distances in winter than in summer. Detailed monthly and annual isothermal charts are then presented for Poland, fdr Europe, and for the entire globe, based on the data 1551-1900, with references to the literature used. Anomalies, extremes, amplitudes etc., are . charted and discussed. Findy, a detailed treatment of all the dizerent systems of c assification of climates which have been proposed is given, and ap lied to the climatology of Europe and the world. The vo r ume
Pokad, having for its ohje.rt the just,ification of the c a m that Po1;ind ig entitled to recogiiition m a separate and distinct it~dcpeiident coiintry.--E. 1V. 1.V.
closes with a sketch of the geography and climatolo ?.Of
1 W. Corcrvbkl NoweIzorcrmy l’olsl, Europy,I kuli Zlomskh (Nouvelblsothermer de la Yologni, de fil.:urope, eL du Globe terreske), Waranw, 1618 .